Improved bioavailability of vitamin D3 using a β-lactoglobulin-based coagulum

Enhancing the stability of tocotrienol nanoemulsion developed using ultrasonic treatment with amphiphilic starch nanoparticles serving as the matrix

BACKGROUND

Octenylsuccinic anhydride (OSA) is one of the efficient compounds used in food industries as an emulsifier. The current study describes the augmentation of tocotrienol (T3) bioavailability by combining it with OSA and then converting it into a nanoemulsion. The creation of the nanoemulsions ASG-T3U10, ASG-T3U20 and ASG-T3U30 involved ultrasonication power at 300 W for 10, 20 and 30 cycles, respectively.

RESULT

The nanoemulsion particle sizes of ASG-T3U30, ASG-T3U20 and ASG-T3U10 ranged from 100 to 200, 200 to 300 and >300 nm (P < 0.05), respectively. ASG-T3U30 exhibited enhanced encapsulation efficiency and potential stability in a simulated gastrointestinal environment. A range of models such as zero order, Higuchi, Korsmeyer-Peppas, Peppas-Sahlin and Gompertz were utilized for the study of release kinetics. The models were found to be a good fit (R2 > 0.90) for the release of T3 in the gastrointestinal environment from an amphiphilic starch matrix. Storage stability tests showed that the emulsions were stable for 21 days of storage at 4 °C, but after 14 days, samples with particle diameters greater than 200 nm displayed the onset of Ostwald ripening.

CONCLUSION

The study showed that the stability of the nanoemulsion was effectively enhanced through increased ultrasonication cycles. © 2025 Society of Chemical Industry.

Challenges and Advances in the Encapsulation of Bioactive Ingredients Using Whey Proteins

Functional foods represent an emerging trend in the food industry. Fortifying foods with bioactive ingredients results in health benefits and reduces the risk of disease. Encapsulation techniques protect sensitive ingredients from degradation due to heat, light, moisture and other factors. Among encapsulating materials, milk whey proteins are particularly attractive due to their availability, GRAS status and remarkable ligand-binding ability. Whey protein was once considered a by-product in the dairy industry but is now seen as a promising resource given its natural role as a nutrient carrier. This work reviews the encapsulation systems that employ whey proteins in the food industry. The structural features of β-lactoglobulin (β-LG), the main protein constituent of milk whey, are presented in the context of its ligand-binding properties. Different types of encapsulation systems using whey proteins are discussed, focusing on the recent advances in stable formulations of bioactives using whey protein, alone or in hybrid systems. Whey proteins are a valuable asset capable of binding sensitive bioactive compounds such as vitamins, polyphenols and antioxidants and forming stable complexes that can be formulated as nanoparticles, nanofibrils, emulsions and other micro- and nanostructures. Developing scalable, solid and stable encapsulation systems is identified as a main challenge in the field.

Critical Review of Food Colloidal Delivery System for Bioactive Compounds: Physical Characterization and Application

Bioactive compounds (BACs) have attracted much attention due to their potential health benefits. However, such substances have problems such as difficulty dissolving in water, poor stability, and low intestinal absorption, leading to serious limitations in practical applications. Nowadays, food colloidal delivery carriers have become a highly promising solution due to their safety, controllability, and efficiency. The use of natural macromolecules to construct delivery carriers can not only regulate the solubility, stability, and intestinal absorption of BACs but also effectively enhance the nutritional added value of functional foods, improve sensory properties, and extend shelf life. Moreover, smart-responsive colloidal delivery carriers can control the release characteristics of BACs, thus improving their absorption rate in the human body. This review describes the characteristics of several typical food colloid delivery carriers, focuses on their physical properties from static structure to dynamic release, summarizes their applications in delivery systems, and provides an outlook on the future development of food colloid delivery carriers. The different compositions and structures of food colloids tend to affect their stability and release behaviors, and the different surface properties and rheological characteristics of the carriers predestine their different application scenarios. The control of in vivo release properties and the effect on food media should be emphasized in the future exploration of safer and more controllable carrier systems.

Vitamin-D as a multifunctional molecule for overall well-being: An integrative review

Vitamin D is amongst the most important biomolecules to regularize and help in sustainable health, however, based on the studies, deficiency of this multifunctional vitamin is common. Vitamin D, besides playing a role in the form of vitamins, also acts as a multifunctional hormone (steroid). Vitamin D is synthesized inside the body through various steps starting from ultraviolet radiation exposure and comes from limited food sources, however, vitamin D-fortified food products are still among the major sources of vitamin D. Current review, focused on how vitamin D acts as a multifunctional molecule by effecting different functions in the body in normal or specific conditions and how it is important in fortification and how it can be managed from the available literature till date. During the Covid pandemic, people were aware of vitamin D and took supplementation, fortified foods, and sat under sunlight. As COVID prevalence decreases, people start forgetting about vitamin D. Vitamin D is very crucial for overall well-being as it has protective effects against a broad range of diseases as it can reduce inflammation, cancer cell growth and helps in controlling infection, increase metabolism, muscle, and bone strength, neurotransmitter expression, etc. Therefore, the present review is to provoke the population, and fulfillment of the vitamin D recommended dietary allowance daily must be confirmed.

pH-driven-assembled soy peptide nanoparticles as particulate emulsifier for oil-in-water Pickering emulsion and their potential for encapsulation of vitamin D3

Pickering emulsions prepared by food-grade particles have gained growing attention due to their promising application in functional food and pharmaceutical industries. In this study, we successfully fabricated soy peptide-based nanoparticles (SPN) through pH-driven process. Obtained particles with small particle size were surface active and shared intermediate wettability, and they could be well applied as an efficient particulate emulsifier for stabilizing oil-in-water Pickering emulsions at SPN concentration above 0.25 wt%. Furthermore, formed emulsions stabilized with SPN exhibited good protection towards Vitamin D₃ against UV irradiation and oxidative deterioration, where controlled release of Vitamin D₃in vitro could also be well achieved by modulating particle concentration. The whole process can contribute to a sustainable development of low-value peptide byproducts as functional food ingredients.

Gastro-Resistant Microparticles Produced by Spray-Drying as Controlled Release Systems for Liposoluble Vitamins

In the present study, gastro-resistant microparticles (MPs) were produced using the spray-drying technique as controlled-release systems for some model liposoluble vitamins, including retinyl-palmitate, retinyl-acetate, β-carotene, cholecalciferol and α-tocopherol. The gastroprotective action of three different gastro-resistant excipients, the anionic methacrylic copolymer (Eudraguard^®® Biotic, E1207), the cellulose acetate phthalate (CAP) and whey proteins (WPs), was compared. The latter was used to produce a novel delivery system manufactured with only food-derived components, such as milk, and showed several improvements over the two synthetic gastro-resistant agents. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images showed a quite homogeneous spherical shape of all microparticle batches, with an average diameter between 7 and 15 μm. FTIR analysis was used to evaluate the effective incorporation of vitamins within the microparticles and the absence of any degradation to the components of the formulation. The comparison graphs of differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) confirmed that the spray drying technique generates a solid in which the physical interactions between the excipients and the vitamins are very strong. Release studies showed a prominent pH-controlled release and partially a delayed-release profile. Ex vivo permeation studies of retinyl palmitate, retinyl acetate and α-tocopherol revealed greater transmucosal permeation capacity for microparticles produced with the WPs and milk.

Facile formation of injectable quaternized chitosan/tannic acid hydrogels with antibacterial and ROS scavenging capabilities for diabetic wound healing

The wound healing process of the diabetic wound is often hindered by excessive oxygen free radicals and infection. An ideal wound dressing should possess great reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging property and considerable antibacterial ability. In this study, we facilely constructed a novel hydrogel dressing with excellent ROS scavenging property and outstanding antibacterial performance by introducing tannic acid (TA) into quaternized chitosan (QCS) matrix. Attributing to the suitable physical crosslinking between TA and QCS, this QCS/TA hydrogel was endowed with injectable and self-healing properties, which could avoid the various external squeezing on the irregular shape by wound dressing. The results showed that it could promote coagulation, suppress inflammation and expedite collagen deposition in the skin defect model of diabetic rats. This study provides a facile and convenient method for constructing injectable hydrogel dressing, which has application potentials in the clinical management of diabetic wounds.

Vitamin D Incorporation in Foods: Formulation Strategies, Stability, and Bioaccessibility as Affected by the Food Matrix

Inadequate intake of vitamin D is a global health issue related to severe diseases, mainly involving subjects with dark skin pigmentation, patients affected by malnutrition, malabsorption syndromes, or obesity, and elderly people. Some foods fortified with vitamin D have been tested in vivo, but fortification strategies with a global outreach are still lacking. This review is focused on food fortification with vitamin D, with the aim to collect information on (a) formulation strategies; (b) stability during processing and storage; and (c) in vitro bioaccessibility. Approaches to add vitamin D to various foods were analyzed, including the use of free vitamin D, vitamin D loaded in simple and double nanoemulsions, liposomes, casein micelles, and protein nanocapsules. Numerous studies were reviewed to elucidate the impact of food technologies on vitamin D’s stability, and mechanisms that lead to degradation were identified—namely, acid-catalyzed isomerization, radical-induced oxidation, and photo-oxidation. There is, however, a lack of kinetic data that allow for the prediction of vitamin D’s stability under industrial processing conditions. The roles that lipids, proteins, fibers, and antioxidants play in vitamin bioaccessibility have been clarified in various studies, while future needs include the design of specific food matrices that simultaneously achieve a balance between the long-term stability, bioaccessibility and, ultimately, in vivo functionality of vitamin D.

Improving vitamin D3 stability to environmental and processing stresses using mixed micelles

Deficiency of vitamin-D is prevalent globally and can lead to negative health consequences. The fat-soluble nature of vitamin-D, coupled with its sensitivity to heat, light and oxygen limits its incorporation into foods. Mixed micelles (MM) have potential to enhance bioavailability of vitamin-D. This study explores the stability of MM to food processing regimes and their ability to protect vitamin-D. Subjecting MM to a range of shearing speeds (8,000-20,500 rpm) and to high pressure processing (600 MPa, 120sec) resulted in no change in MM size (4.1-4.5 nm). MM improved the retention of vitamin-D following exposure to UV-C light, near UV/visible light, and heat treatment. MM suspensions protected vitamin-D over a four week storage period at refrigeration or freezer conditions. Overall MM show potential to protect vitamin-D from degradation encountered in food processing and storage and may be beneficial as a mechanism to fortify foods with vitamin-D.

Characterization, techno-functional properties, and encapsulation efficiency of self-assembled β-lactoglobulin nanostructures

Whey is a cheese co-product with high protein content used in the food industry due to its techno-functional properties and nutritive value. This study aims to optimize the production of β-lactoglobulin (β-lg) nanostructures, to characterize their techno-functional properties and stability, and to apply them as a carrier of bioactive molecules. Box-Behnken planning was applied to determine the best conditions to obtain the β-lg nanostructure, which consists in treatment at 100 °C in NaCl 50 mmol·L^-1 for 60 min. TEM analysis showed a fibril structure in the observed nanostructures. The nanostructured systems formed foam and emulsion with higher stability than the systems composed of the native protein. The results for encapsulation efficiency of bioactive compounds were 96.50%, 89.04%, 67.78%, and 36.39% for quercetin, rutin, naringin, and vitamin B_2, respectively. Thus, β-lg nanostructure's great capacity to encapsulate hydrophobic molecules was verified.

Vitamin D3 cress seed mucilage -β-lactoglobulin nanocomplexes: Synthesis, characterization, encapsulation and simulated intestinal fluid in vitro release

Vitamin D₃ (VD₃) as an essential lipid-soluble active ingredient with numerous applications in food and pharmaceutical sectors; however, poor water solubility reduces its bioavailability significantly. Application of protein-polysaccharide complexes as a promising way to protect and trigger programmed release of bioactive molecules has established an optimal window in nutraceutical delivery systems. In this study, complexes of β-lactoglobulin (Blg) and cress seed mucilage (CSM) were used to retain VD₃ at undesirable circumstances, such as acidic pH values. The interaction of CSM-Blg was studied by rheological tests and the best formulation was chosen for encapsulation of VD₃ via crosslinking with calcium ions (2-10 mM). The results demonstrated that complexation protect VD₃ at low pH values with the maximum encapsulation efficiency of 84.2 %. The in vitro study indicated that Blg-CSM-VD₃ was more stable in simulated gastric fluid, and in turn VD₃ was released in simulated intestinal fluid; the complexes treated with calcium ions had a slower release rate than normal complexes. The release trend of VD₃ followed the diffusion-Fickian law and the principal interactions included hydrophobic, electrostatic and hydrogen bonding. The results indicated that Blg-CSM complexes can retain VD₃ at acidic environment and induce sustained release, which brings about practical advantages for vitamin delivery in the food and pharmaceutical sectors.

Bioavailability, rheology, and sensory evaluation of mayonnaise fortified with vitamin D encapsulated in protein-based carriers

Vitamin D lost its functionality during processing and storage, thus, encapsulation with proteins is desirable to preserve bioactivity. The aim of the current study was to develop encapsulated vitamin D fortified mayonnaise (VDFM) using whey protein isolates (WPI) and soy protein isolates (SPI) as encapsulating materials in three different formulations, that is, 10% WPI, 10% SPI, and 5/5% WPI/SPI. Increased shear stress decreased the apparent viscosity along with significant effects on the loss modulus of VDFM. WPI encapsulates showed better results as compared to SPI. WPI based VDFM (M₁ ) depicted the best results in terms of size and dispersion uniformity of oil droplets. Hue angle and total change differed significantly among treatments. The highest value for overall acceptability was acquired by M₃ (5:5%WPI:SPI-encapsulates) thus proceed for in vivo trials. Serum vitamin D level was significantly higher in the encapsulated VDFM rat group (58.14 ± 6.29 nmol/L) than the control (37.80 ± 4.98 nmol/L). Conclusively, WPI and SPI encapsulates have the potential to improve the stability and bioavailability of vitamin D.

Encapsulation of vitamin D3 in gum arabic to enhance bioavailability and stability for beverage applications

Delivery of vitamin D3 (VD3 ) in foods should exhibit desirable physicochemical characteristics and improves absorption. In this study, gum arabic (GA) was investigated as a VD3 carrier to encapsulate VD3 . VD3 dissolved in 5 mL ethanol corresponding to 0.3 to 6.0% mass of GA, was blended in 5.0% w/v GA solution, followed by freeze drying. The encapsulation efficiency decreased while loading capacity increased with an increased amount of VD3 . At the highest VD3 level, the loading capacity (3.47%) was the highest, and the encapsulation efficiency (61.24%) was satisfactory, and the treatment was further studied. The magnitude of negative zeta-potential increased from 3.1 to 31.0 mV at pH 2.0 to 7.4. During the 100-day storage at 3 °C of capsules reconstituted at pH 2.0 to 7.4, the hydrodynamic diameter decreased at all pH conditions, most evident for reduction to 81.3 nm at pH 7.4, and no precipitation was observed, indicating the significance of steric repulsion on capsule stability. Bioaccessibility of VD3 in capsules (95.76%) was significantly higher than the nonencapsulated VD3 (68.98%). The in vivo pharmacokinetic study in Sprague-Dawley rats after a single-dose of 300 µg VD3 showed the area-under-curve of serum 25(OHD) level in 48 hr of the encapsulation treatment was 4.32-fold of the nonencapsulated VD3 and more than twice higher than the VD3 -GA physical mixture. During 2-week supplementation of 60 µg VD3 /d, rats receiving capsules or physical mixture had 25(OH)D levels of at least 81 ng/mL higher than that of the nonencapsulated VD3 group. The studied encapsulation system holds great potential as a value-added ingredient to supplement VD3 in beverages with a wide pH range. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The findings of this study demonstrated the improved dispersion stability and absorption of vitamin D3 after encapsulation in gum arabic. The capsules exhibited good dispersion stability across a pH range between 2.0 and 7.4, showing potential application in beverages. Furthermore, the enhanced absorption of VD3 after encapsulation highlights the nutritional benefits of the studied encapsulation system.

Nutraceutical nanodelivery; an insight into the bioaccessibility/bioavailability of different bioactive compounds loaded within nanocarriers

Nanofoods is a current concept that is based on the application of nanotechnologies in the preparation of safe foods, with superior nutritional and sensory characteristics, and capable of providing multiple health benefits. In line with the principles of this concept, food scientists have focused on developing new types of nano biosystems that can contribute to increasing the bioavailability of bioactive compounds used in food fortification. Numerous research teams have investigated the main factors limiting oral bioavailability including: bioaccessibility, absorption and transformation of bioactive compounds and bioactive-loaded nanocarriers. The physicochemical processes involved in the factors limiting oral bioavailability have been extensively studied, such asthe release, solubility and interaction of bioactive compounds and nanocarriers during food digestion, transport mechanisms of bioactive compounds and nanoparticles through intestinal epithelial cells as well as the chemical and biochemical transformations in phase I and phase II reactions. In this comprehensive review, the physicochemical processes involved in the bioaccessibility/bioavailability of different encapsulated bioactive compounds, that play an important role in human health, will be explained including polyphenols, phytosterols, carotenoids, vitamins and minerals. In particular, the mechanisms involved in the cellular uptake of bioactive-loaded nanocarriers including transcellular transport (diffusion, endocytosis, pinocytosis, transcytosis, phagocytosis), paracellular transport (through the "tight junctions" between epithelial cells), and the active transport of bioactive compounds under the action of membrane transporters are highlighted.

Towards new nanoporous biomaterials: self-assembly of sulfopillar[5]arenes with vitamin D3 into supramolecular polymers

Novel water-soluble, deca-substituted pillar[5]arenes containing thiasulfate and thiacarboxylate fragments were synthesized and characterized. UV-vis, 2D 1H-1H NOESY and DOSY NMR spectroscopy revealed the ability of pillar[5]arenes containing thiasulfate fragments to form an inclusion complex with cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) in a 1 : 2 ratio (lg Kass = 2.2). Using DLS and SEM it was found that upon concentration and/or evaporation of the solvent, the supramolecular polymer (pillar[5]arene/vitamin D3 (1 : 2)) forms a porous material with an average wall diameter of 53 nm. It was shown that the supramolecular polymer is stable during photolysis by UV radiation (k1 = 1.7 × 10-5 s-1).

Bioavailability of nanotechnology-based bioactives and nutraceuticals

Bioaccessibility and bioavailability of some hydrophobic bioactives (e.g., carotenoids, polyphenols, fat-soluble vitamins, phytosterols and fatty acids) are limited due to their low water solubility, and in some instances low chemical stability. Nanotechnology involving nanometric (r<500nm) delivery systems, can be used to improve the solubility and thus enhance the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of hydrophobic compounds. Nanometric delivery systems, derived from food grade phospholipids and biopolymers adopt many forms, including liposomes, micelles, micro/nanoemulsions, particles, polyelectrolyte complexes, and hydrogels. The small particle sizes and customized materials used to create delivery systems confer their unique properties such as higher stability and/or resistance to enzymatic activity in the gastrointestinal tract. This chapter provides an overview of bioaccessibility and bioavailability of different classes of hydrophobic bioactive compounds, focusing on nanometric delivery systems and methods of evaluation.

Stabilization of Vitamin D in Pea Protein Isolate Nanoemulsions Increases Its Bioefficacy in Rats

Micronutrient delivery formulations based on nanoemulsions can enhance the absorption of nutrients and bioactives, and thus, are of great potential for food fortification and supplementation strategies. The aim was to evaluate the bioefficacy of vitamin D (VitD) encapsulated in nanoemulsions developed by sonication and pH-shifting of pea protein isolate (PPI) in restoring VitD status in VitD-deficient rats. Weaned male albino rats (n = 35) were fed either normal diet AIN-93G (VitD 1000 IU/kg) (control group; n = 7) or a VitD-deficient diet (<50 IU/kg) for six weeks (VitD-deficient group; n = 28). VitD-deficient rats were divided into four subgroups (n = 7/group). Nano-VitD and Oil-VitD groups received a dose of VitD (81 µg) dispersed in either PPI-nanoemulsions or in canola oil, respectively, every other day for one week. Their control groups, Nano-control and Oil-control, received the respective delivery vehicles without VitD. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)VitD], parathyroid hormone (PTH), Ca, P, and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity were measured. After one week of treatment, the VitD-deficient rats consuming Nano-VitD recovered from Vitamin D deficiency (VDD) as compared against baseline and had serum 25(OH)VitD higher than the Nano-control. Enhancement in VitD status was followed with expected changes in serum PTH, Ca, P, and ALP levels, as compared against the controls. Stabilization of VitD within PPI-based nanoemulsions enhances its absorption and restores its status and biomarkers of bone resorption in VitD-deficient rats.

β-Lactoglobulin: An efficient nanocarrier for advanced delivery systems

Thanks to the progress of nanotechnology there are several agent-delivery systems that can be selected to achieve rapid and specific delivery of a wide variety of biologically active agents. Consequently, the manipulation and engineering of biopolymers has become one of the most exciting subjects for those who study delivery systems on the nanoscale. In this regard, both nanoparticle formation and a carrier role have been observed in the case of the globular milk whey protein, β-lactoglobulin (β-LG), setting it apart from many other proteins. To date, many efforts adopting different approaches have created β-LG nanoparticles useful in forming delivery systems for various agents with specific targets. In this review, the potential of β-LG to play the role of an efficient and diverse carrier protein, as well as its ability to form a well-targeted nano-scale delivery system is discussed.

Oral intake of 7-dehydrocholesterol increases vitamin D3 concentrations in the liver and kidney

INTRODUCTION

Due to the high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency, strategies are needed to improve vitamin D status. Food components can affect vitamin D metabolism and have to be considered when estimating the efficacy of vitamin D supplements. 7-dehydrocholesterol (7-DHC) occurs naturally in food, but its impact on vitamin D metabolism has not yet been examined.

METHODS

Three groups of male C57BL/6 mice (n=12 per group) were placed on a diet that contained 0, 2.5 or 5mg 7-DHC per kg diet over a period of 6 weeks. Vitamin D and other sterols in the serum, skin, liver and kidney were quantified by LC-MS/MS. The relative mRNA abundance of hepatic genes encoding vitamin D hydroxylation enzymes and transporters was analyzed by real-time RT-PCR.

RESULTS

We found a substantial dose-dependent increase of non-hydroxylated vitamin D₃ in the liver and kidney of mice fed a diet containing 7-DHC. The vitamin D₃ content in the liver was 2.80±0.61pmol/g, 7.34±4.28pmol/g and 12.9±3.58pmol/g in groups that received 0, 2.5 and 5mg/kg 7-DHC, respectively. In the kidney, the vitamin D₃ content of these groups was 1.78±1.17pmol/g, 3.55±1.06 and 6.36±2.29pmol/g, respectively. The serum and tissue concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D₃ (25(OH)D₃) remained unaffected by 7-DHC. The relative mRNA data provided no plausible mechanism for the observed effects of 7-DHC on vitamin D₃. All groups of mice had similar concentrations of cholesterol, desmosterol and 7-DHC in their serum and tissues.

CONCLUSION

The current findings provide the first evidence that dietary 7-DHC seems to affect vitamin D metabolism. The underlying mechanism remains elusive and needs further investigation.

25-hydroxyvitamin D circulates in different fractions of calf plasma if the parent compound is vitamin D2or vitamin D3, respectively

Vitamin D has become one of the most discussed nutrients in human nutrition, which has led to an increased interest in milk as a vitamin D source. Problems related to fortifying milk with synthetic vitamin D can be avoided by securing a high content of natural vitamin D in the milk by supplying dairy cows with sufficient vitamin D. However, choosing the most efficient route and form of supplementation requires insight into how different vitamin D metabolites are transported in the body of cattle. There are two forms of vitamin D: vitamin D2(D2) and vitamin D3(D3). Vitamin D2originates from fungi on roughage. Vitamin D3originates either from endogenous synthesis in the skin or from feed supplements. Vitamin D2is chemically different from, and less physiologically active than, D3. Endogenous and dietary D3is chemically similar but dietary D3is toxic, whereas endogenous D3appears well regulated in the body.