Factors influencing inhibition of eight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in heated meat model system

Effect of incorporation strategies of sesamol and chitosan nanoparticle-methylcellulose edible coating on the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon levels in deep-fried meatballs

This study investigated the impact of incorporation of sesamol and chitosan nanoparticle-methylcellulose (CSNP-MC) edible coating on the moisture loss, oil uptake, lipid and protein oxidation, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) levels in deep-fried meatballs. Sesamol was added to meatballs at either 0 mg/kg (control) or 30 mg/kg meat by three methods, i.e., (i) mixing sesamol into the meat mince without coating (SE), (ii) mixing sesamol into meat mince and followed by coating of the meatballs with 1 % CSNP-MC (SE-CT), and (iii) dissolving sesamol in CSNP-MC and the meatballs were coated with the mixture (SE-M-CT). Due to the barrier properties of the edible coating, meatballs from the SE-CT and SE-M-CT groups had lower levels of moisture loss, oil uptake and lipid oxidation compared to the control (no sesamol and no coating) and SE groups (P < 0.05). In addition, the SE-CT treatment resulted in lower protein oxidation and benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) level, leading to reduced PAH4 levels and toxic equivalent quotient (TEQBaP) in the meatballs compared to the SE-M-CT treatment. These findings suggested that the incorporation of antioxidant of sesamol within the meat mince combined with edible coatings is an effective strategy to enhance the quality and safety of deep-fried meatballs by reducing oil uptake, and decreasing lipid and protein oxidation, PAH levels and the carcinogenic risk of PAHs by meatball consumption.

L-cysteine modulates the Maillard reaction: Impacts on PhIP and pyrazine formation

L-Cysteine (L-Cys) serves as both an inhibitor of the carcinogen 1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) and an enhancer of food flavor, supporting efforts to improve food safety and quality. Using a glucose/phenylalanine/creatinine model system, this study assessed the effects of varying L-Cys concentrations on PhIP inhibition and pyrazine flavor enhancement through UPLC-MS/MS and GC-MS analyses. The optimal PhIP reduction (82.8 %-83.1 %) was achieved with 20 mg and 100 mg of L-Cys, whereas the pyrazine enhancement peaked with 200 mg and 100 mg of L-Cys (50.54 %-99.16 % and 37.83 %-98.82 %, respectively). A partial least squares regression (PLS) model demonstrated strong predictive accuracy (R2c and R2p > 0.73), providing a robust framework for regulating PhIP and pyrazine levels. This study offers a theoretical basis for advancing food safety and flavor quality, contributing to the development of safer and more enjoyable food products while addressing health and sustainability considerations.

Transformation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during frying stinky tofu

Reductions in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations have been observed during frying. However, transformation mechanisms of PAHs remain unclear. We hypothesize that PAHs may be oxidized into oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (OPAHs) and other derivatives during frying. First, the levels of 24 PAHs and 12 OPAHs during frying stinky tofu were evaluated. Among the OPAHs, 9,10-anthraquinone exhibited the greatest increase in frying oil, with an increase rate of 55 %. The transformation of anthracene into 9,10-anthraquinone was further confirmed through stable isotope tracing. Targeted and untargeted mass spectrometry analyses suggested that anthrone, heavy PAHs, and alkyl derivatives were also produced from anthracene. Theoretical calculations revealed that radical addition was kinetically and thermodynamically more favourable than hydrogen abstraction in the initial reaction of anthracene. This study systematically elucidates, for the first time, the transformation mechanisms of anthracene in frying oil, paving the way for reducing health risks associated with PAHs.

Occurrence, formation mechanism, and health risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in barbecued food

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) show negative impacts on human health. Dietary intake is the predominant way for PAH exposure, of which barbecued food is a crucial contributor. This review aims to provide a comprehensive insight into the formation mechanism, influencing factors, mitigation strategies, and health risks of PAHs in barbecued food. PAHs in barbecued food are formed by Hydrogen abstraction and acetylene addition (HACA) mechanism, Diels-Alder reaction and Maillard reaction, which was influenced by heat source, temperature, cooking time, and the meat type. There are significant differences in PAH concentrations in different barbecued foods, where chrysene dominates among the selected PAH species. To reduce PAHs formation, adding marinades and adopting alternative cooking methods are suggested, which effectively reduce PAH levels by 53 -89 %. In addition, it is estimated that people in countries such as Pakistan has an incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) over 10-5 via barbecued food consumption, indicating potential health risk. This work highlighted that regular monitoring of PAH levels in barbecued food and dynamic modification of relevant safety limits are recommended to ensure food safety.

Determination of 16 European Priority Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Doner Kebab Varieties Cooked Under Different Heating Sources

Doner kebab is a traditional Turkish meat product produced from lamb, beef or poultry meat seasoned with a blend of spices such as salt, black pepper, cumin, thyme and/or sauces. The aim of this study was to determine 16 EU priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in doner kebabs cooked under four different heating sources (electricity, open gas, wood and charcoal grilling). For this purpose, 200 meat doner and 200 chicken doner kebab samples were obtained randomly from various buffets and restaurants located in Istanbul and analyzed by means of GC-MS. According to the results, benzo[a]pyrene and PAH4 levels, which are important PAH compounds as biomarkers, were significantly higher in chicken doner than in meat doner (p < 0.05). The highest occurrence of benzo[a]pyrene and PAH4 in meat and chicken doner samples was in the charcoal heating source, whereas the lowest occurrence was detected in electric grilling. In terms of all PAH compounds, cooking with an electric heating source caused the formation of fewer PAH compounds in doner kebab samples. Consequently, the fat content of fatty meat products such as doner kebab should be reduced, the contact of fat with the heating source (especially flame) and dripping of fat to the source should be prevented and overcooking of meat should be avoided.

Effects of Different Marinades and Types of Grills on Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Content in Grilled Chicken Breast Tenderloins

Grilling has become a widespread method of thermal food processing. However, food prepared in this way may be a source of carcinogenic organic compounds, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The present study aimed to evaluate the impact of different marinades and grilling tools on PAH contamination of chicken breast tenderloins. Together with the determination of PAHs carried out using the QuEChERS-HPLC-FLD/DAD method, the meat's weight loss after the thermal process and the color of raw and grilled samples were analyzed. Statistically, the highest levels of PAH contamination were found in samples prepared on a charcoal grill without a tray, whereas the lowest were seen using the ceramic contact grill. Meat marination showed that universal and chicken marinades can be barriers against PAHs. Following requirements set in Commission Regulation (EU) No. 915/2023, none of the analyzed samples exceeded the maximum allowable level for B[a]P (5.0 µg/kg) and the sum of four marker-heavy PAHs (30.0 µg/kg). Thus, preparing meat before the thermal process, including marinades rich in phenolic compounds, and selecting a grilling method with appropriate grilling tools can ensure food safety and effectively reduce PAH contamination in grilled poultry meat.

A review of hazards in meat products: Multiple pathways, hazards and mitigation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are stable carcinogens that are widely distributed in the environment and food, and humans are exposed to PAHs primarily through the respiratory tracts, dermal contact, and dietary intake. Meat products are an essential part of the human diet, and the formation of PAHs during meat processing is unavoidable. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of PAHs in meat products can be a contribution to the minimization of human exposure dose. The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive description of the toxicological analysis of PAHs intake and the various production pathways. The distribution of different PAHs in various meat products, including poultry and aquatic products, is analyzed. The discussion focuses on controlling PAHs through the use of endogenous marinades and antioxidants as well as reducing exogenous particulate matter-PAHs attachment. In addition, potential strategies for PAHs reduction and possible directions for future research are proposed.

The Concentration of Benzo[a]pyrene in Food Cooked by Air Fryer and Oven: A Comparison Study

The air fryer utilizes heated air rather than hot oil to achieve frying, eliminating the need for cooking oil, rendering it a healthier cooking method than traditional frying and baking. However, there is limited evidence supporting that the air fryer could effectively reduce the level of food-derived carcinogen. In this study, we compared the concentration of Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), a typical carcinogen, in beef patties cooked using an air fryer and an oven, under different cooking conditions, including temperatures (140 °C, 160 °C, 180 °C, and 200 °C), times (9, 14, and 19 min), and oil added or not. The adjusted linear regression analysis revealed that the BaP concentration in beef cooked in the air fryer was 22.667 (95% CI: 15.984, 29.349) ng/kg lower than that in beef cooked in the oven. Regarding the air fryer, the BaP concentration in beef cooked without oil brushing was below the detection limit, and it was significantly lower than in beef cooked with oil brushing (p < 0.001). Therefore, cooking beef in the air fryer can effectively reduce BaP concentration, particularly due to the advantage of oil-free cooking, suggesting that the air fryer represents a superior option for individuals preparing meat at high temperatures.

Relationship between Flavonoid Chemical Structures and Their Antioxidant Capacity in Preventing Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Formation in Heated Meat Model System

The relationship between the chemical structures of six flavonoids and their abilities to inhibit the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in a heated meat model system was investigated. The PAH8 forming in samples was analyzed by using QuEChERS coupled GC-MS. Inhibitory effects of PAHs were myricetin (72.1%) > morin (55.7%) > quercetin (57.3%) > kaempferol (49.9%) > rutin (32.7%) > taxifolin (30.2%). The antioxidant activities of these flavonoids, assessed through (1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) free radical scavenging activity assay (DPPH), [2,2'-azinobis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid)] free radical scavenging activity assay (ABTS) and ferric ion reducing antioxidant power assay (FRAP) assays, exhibited a significant negative correlation with PAH reduction. Notably, myricetin that contained three hydroxyl groups on the B-ring, along with a 2,3-double bond in conjugation with a 4-keto moiety on the C-ring, demonstrated strong antioxidant properties and free radical scavenging abilities, which significantly contributed to their ability to inhibit PAH formation. However, rutin and taxifolin, substituted at the C-3 position of the C-ring, decreased the PAH inhibitory activity. The ABTS assay proved the most effective in demonstrating the correlation between flavonoid antioxidant properties and their capacity to inhibit PAH formation in heated meat model systems. Thus, the inhibition of PAHs can be achieved by dietary flavonoids according to their chemical structures.

Relationship between PAH4 formation and thermal reaction products in model lipids and possible pathways of PAHs formation

Lipids are closely related to the generation of PAHs during food thermal processing. During heating, lipids mainly triglycerides undergo hydrolysis, oxidation and decomposition. The relationship between the various products and the formation of PAHs is still unclear. This paper investigated the effect of different lipid standards on PAH4 production, and explored their thermal stability and reaction products to delve into nature of the differences in PAH4 production. Fatty acids were more prone to generate PAH4 than glycerides. The higher the degree of esterification of glycerides, the higher its thermal stability and the lower the content of PAH4 generated, implying that hydrolysis of glycerides promoted the generation of PAH4. In addition, there was a positive correlation between unsaturation in lipids and the PAH4 production. After heat treatment, hydroperoxides, unsaturated fatty alcohols and aldehydes, alkenes and aromatic substances were abundant in oleic acid and linoleic acid which produced the most PAH4. Thermal decomposition of lipid hydroperoxides was the pathway for the generation of conjugated hydrocarbon radicals, alcohols, aldehydes, and alkenes. The intramolecular cyclization and Diels-Alder reaction acted as ring-forming reactions, with consequent dehydrogenation, decarboxylation, side-chain breaks and radical reorganization, ultimately facilitating the amplification of the aromatic rings and the formation of PAHs.

Effect of lignin on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in smoked and grilled meat products

In order to explore the influence of wood types on formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in traditional smoked and grilled meat products, the effect of lignin in woods on formation of PAHs was investigated in meat model systems. The results showed that PAHs formation was much dependent on the heating conditions. The addition of lignin led to significantly increased PAHs, which being connected with lignin structure. In comparison, the formation of PAHs was more facilitated by lignin with G structure than that with G/S structure. However, further study of adding lignin precursors demonstrated that lignin precursors with S structure were more favorable to the formation of PAHs than those with G structure. It was proposed that the relative content and activity of G/S structure of lignin in wood played a significant role in the formation of PAHs, which might provide theoretical reference for inhibition of PAHs fundamentally.

Inhibitory effects of longan seed extract on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons formation and muscle oxidation in baked mutton kebabs

Longan seeds, rich in phenolic compounds with antioxidant properties, are an underestimated by-product of longan processing. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are carcinogenic and mutagenic, are produced during the cooking of meat products at high temperatures. The effects of different concentrations of longan seed extract (LSE, 0.2, 0.6, 1.0 mg/mL) on the formation of PAHs and muscle oxidation in mutton kebabs were investigated. Mutton kebabs were baked at 150, 200, 250 °C for 20 min, respectively, and the contents of PAHs, the degree of lipid and protein oxidation were evaluated. The results showed that LSE exhibited positive effects in inhibiting total PAHs formation (range from 14.9 to 48.8 %), decreasing the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) values (range from 17.1 to 39.1 %), reducing carbonyl content (range from 22.0 to 51.2 %) and increasing sulfhydryl content (range from 18.6 to 51.8 %). This study provided a guidance and potential solution for reducing the content of PAHs and muscle oxidation levels in baked meat.

Decoding the biological toxicity of phenanthrene on intestinal cells of Eisenia fetida: Effects, toxicity pathways and corresponding mechanisms

Phenanthrene is frequently detected and exists extensively in the soil environment, and its residues inevitably impose a significant threat to soil organisms. Exposure to and toxicity of phenanthrene on earthworms has been extensively studied before, however, the possible mechanisms and related pathways associated with phenanthrene-triggered toxicity at the intestinal cell level remain unclear. Herein, primary intestinal cells isolated from Eisenia fetida (Annelida, Oligochaeta) intestine were used as targeted receptors to probe the molecular mechanisms involved in ROS-mediated damaging effects and the potential pathways of phenanthrene-induced toxicity at cellular and sub-cellular levels. Results indicated that phenanthrene exposure induced oxidative stress by activating intracellular ROS (elevated O2-, H2O2, and OH- content) bursts in E. fetida intestinal cells, causing various oxidative damage effects, including lipid peroxidation (increased MDA content), protein oxidation (enhanced PCO levels), and DNA damage (enhanced 8-OHdG levels). The enzymatic and non-enzymatic strategies in earthworm cells were activated to mitigate these detrimental effects by regulating ROS-mediated pathways involving defense regulation. Also, phenanthrene stress destroyed the cell membrane of E. fetida intestinal cells, resulting in cellular calcium homeostasis disruption and cellular energetic alteration, ultimately causing cytotoxicity and cell apoptosis/death. More importantly, the mitochondrial dysfunction in E. fetida cells was induced by phenanthrene-caused mitochondrial membrane depolarization, which in turn caused un-controlled ROS burst and induced apoptosis through mitochondria-mediated caspase-3 activation and ROS-mediated mitochondrial-dependent pathway. Furthermore, exposure to phenanthrene activated an abnormal mRNA expression profile associated with defense regulation (e.g., Hsp70, MT, CRT, SOD, CAT, and GST genes) in E. fetida intestinal cells, resulting in various cellular dysfunctions and pathological conditions, eventually, apoptotic cell death. Taken together, this study offers valuable insights for probing the toxic effects and underlying mechanisms posed by phenanthrene at the intestinal cell level, and is of great significance to estimate the detrimental side effects of phenanthrene on soil ecological health.

Effects of Oil and Processing Conditions on Formation of Heterocyclic Amines and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Pork Fiber

Toxic compounds such as heterocyclic amines (HAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) can be produced during food processing, especially meat products. This study aims to monitor the formation of HAs and PAHs in fried pork fiber, a common meat product in Taiwan, at different processing conditions. A total of six experimental groups, including raw pork tenderloin, dried pork filaments, sesame oil-stir-fried pork at 160 °C for 15 min, sesame oil-stir-fried pork at 200 °C for 6 min, lard-stir-fried pork at 160 °C for 15 min, and lard-stir-fried pork at 200 °C for 6 min, were prepared and analyzed for formation of HAs via UPLC-MS/MS and PAHs via GC-MS/MS in triplicate. Frying in sesame oil or lard showed a greater content of total HAs in fried pork fiber processed at 160 °C for 15 min than at 200 °C for 6 min. However, in the same heating conditions, pork fiber fried in sesame oil produced a higher level of total HAs than that fried in lard. Of the various HAs in fried pork fiber, both Harman and Norharman were generated in the highest amount. The precursors, including reducing sugar, amino acid, and creatine/creatinine, played a vital role in HAs formation in fried pork fiber. For total PAHs, the highest level was shown for pork fiber fried in lard at 200 °C/6 min, followed by frying in sesame oil at 200 °C/6 min and 160 °C/15 min, and in lard at 160 °C/15 min. Like HAs, at the same heating condition, a greater content of total PAHs was produced in pork fiber fried in sesame oil than in lard. Notably, the highly toxic benzo[a]pyrene was undetected in fried pork fiber. The PAH precursor benzaldehyde was shown to generate at a much higher level than 2-cyclohexene-1-one and trans,trans-2,4-decadienal in fried pork fiber, and it should play a more important role in PAH formation. Principal component analysis (PCA) also revealed that the formation mechanism of HAs and PAHs in fried pork fiber was different.

Condiment Recipes Lead to Reduced Generation of Carcinogenic Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Duck Variety Meat During Charcoal Grilling

The current study aimed to evaluate the impact of charcoal grilling in the generation of various polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the tissues of 5 different organs (leg, chest, wings, liver, and heart) of falcated ducks (Mareca falcata) before and after pasting them with different condiment recipes (R1, R2, R3, and R4). All condiment-pasted and control samples before/after charcoal grilling were pursued in RP-HPLC for quantification of unknown PAHs. Tissues from grilled raw leg meat of the control sample showed significantly higher (P ≤ .05) concentration (42.40 ng/g) of overall PAHs as compared to all other grilled samples. However, overall PAHs concentration (9.99 ng/g) in charcoal grilled tissues of leg meat pasted with R4 condiment recipe was decreased 76.43% significantly (P ≤ .05) as compared to all other recipes of pasted charcoal grilled samples. All PAHs, particularly naphthalene, fluorene, phenanthrene, and acenaphthalene were decreased significantly (P ≤ .05) to none detectable level in all tissue samples when grilled after treating with R4 condiment recipe. All condiment recipes reduced total PAHs level below MRL's set by the international guidelines. Recipe R4, a rich source of antioxidants, significantly neutralized and reduced the generation of PAHs in duck leg meat tissue sample during wood charcoal grilling.

Inhibition of benzo[a]pyrene formation in charcoal-grilled pork sausages by ginger and its key compounds

BACKGROUND

Ginger and its extracts have been frequently used in food processing and pharmaceuticals. However, the influence of ginger and its key compounds on benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) production in meat processing has not been investigated. The purpose of this study was to explore the effect of application of ginger and its important active ingredients on BaP formation and the mechanism of inhibiting BaP formation in charcoal-grilled pork sausages.

RESULTS

The DPPH scavenging (23.59-59.67%) activity and the inhibition rate of BaP (42.1-68.9%) were significantly increased (P < 0.05) with increasing ginger addition. The active components extracted by supercritical carbon dioxide from ginger were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and 14 representative compounds (four terpenes, two alcohols, two aldehydes, four phenols and two other compounds, totaling 77.57% of the detected compounds) were selected. The phenolic compounds (eugenol, 6-gingerol, 6-paradol and 6-shogaol, accounting for 29.73% of the total composition) in ginger played a key role and had the strongest inhibitory effect on BaP (61.2-68.2%), whereas four other kinds of compound showed obviously feeble inhibitory activity (6.47-17.9%). Charcoal-grilled sausages with phenolic substances had lower values of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances, carbonyl and diene (three classic indicators of lipid oxidation) (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Ginger and its key compounds could effectively inhibit the formation of BaP in charcoal-grilled pork sausages. Phenolic compounds make the strongest contribution to the inhibition of Bap formation, and the inhibitory mechanism was related to the inhibition of lipid oxidation. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

The Effect of Direct and Indirect Barbecue Cooking on Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Formation and Beef Quality

Herein, the effect of direct and indirect barbecue cooking processes, including different cooking degrees (medium and well done), on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and on certain quality parameters (water content, cooking loss, pH, lipid oxidation) of beef meat was examined. While no significant effect (p > 0.05) of the cooking method was detected on the water content, cooking loss, ∑PAH4 [the sum of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), benzo[a]anthracene (BaA), chrysen (Chry), and benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbF)], and ∑PAH8 [the sum of BaP, BaA, Chry, benzo[k]fluoranthene (BkF), dibenzo[a,h]anthracene (DahA), benzo[g,h,i]perylene (Bghip), and indeno [1,2,3-cd]pyrene (IncdP)] content, it was determined that it had a significant effect on pH (p < 0.05) and lipid oxidation (TBARS, p < 0.01). While the cooking degree did not have a significant effect (p > 0.05) on the TBARS value, it had a significant effect (p < 0.05) on the water content and pH value, and a very significant effect (p < 0.01) on the cooking loss. While BaA and BaP compounds were detected in all barbecued samples, the DahA compound could not be detected in any of the samples. Varying levels of BaA (up to 5.62 ng/g), Chry (up to 0.43 ng/g), BbF (LOD-..-LOQ), BkF (LOD-..-LOQ), BaP (up to 0.49 ng/g), BghiP (up to 0.82 ng/g), and IncdP (up to 4.99 ng/g) compounds were determined in the samples. While the ∑PAH4 contents varied between 0.71 and 6.35 ng/g, the ∑PAH8 contents varied between 1.12 and 11.34 ng/g. While the increase in cooking level did not affect the ∑PAH4 content, it caused a significant increase in the ∑PAH8 content. The highest BaP (0.49 ng/g), ∑PAH4 (6.35 ng/g), and ∑PAH8 (11.34 ng/g) contents were detected in the meat samples that were well cooked on the barbecue by the direct method. The results have proven that PAHs are formed at varying levels in both meat samples cooked on the barbecue by the direct method and the indirect method. On the other hand, it has been determined that even if 100 g of the meat with the highest BaP and ∑PAH4 content is eaten, the exposure amount remains far below the limit values specified for PAHs. However, paying close attention to the barbecue cooking process is still recommended.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Roasted Pork Meat and the Effect of Dried Fruits on PAH Content

Diet is one of the main factors affecting human health. The frequent consumption of heat-treated meat has been classified as both directly carcinogenic to humans and as a risk factor, especially in the case of cancers of the gastrointestinal tract. Thermally processed meat may contain harmful muta- and carcinogenic compounds, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). However, there are natural ways to reduce the risk of diet-related cancers by reducing the formation of PAHs in meat. The purpose of this study was to determine changes in PAH levels in pork loin dishes prepared by stuffing the meat with dried fruits (prunes, apricots and cranberries) and baking it in a roasting bag. High-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD) was used to conduct a quantitative analysis of seven PAHs. Recovery results ranged from 61 to 96%. The limit of detection (LOD) was 0.003 to 0.006 ng/g, and the limit of quantification (LOQ) was 0.01 to 0.02 ng/g. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) was used to confirm the presence of PAHs in food. The total PAH content of the roasted pork loin was 7.4 ng/g. This concentration decreased by 35%, 48% and 58% when the meat was roasted with apricots, prunes and cranberries, respectively. The cranberries also inhibited the formation of benzo(a)pyrene to the greatest extent. Thermally treating meat stuffed with dry fruits may be a simple and effective way to prepare foods with reduced levels of mutagens and carcinogens belonging to PAHs, and thus reduce the risk of cancer.

Effect of Catechin on the Formation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Camellia oleifera Oil during Thermal Processing

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in oil are affected by many factors, including temperature, time, and PAHs precursors. Phenolic compounds, as beneficial endogenous components of oil, are often associated with the inhibition of PAHs. However, studies have found that the presence of phenols may lead to increased levels of PAHs. Therefore, this study took Camellia oleifera (C. oleifera) oil as the research object, in order to study the effect of catechin in the formation of PAHs under different heating conditions. The results showed that PAH4 were generated rapidly during the lipid oxidation induction period. When the addition of catechin was >0.02%, more free radicals were quenched than generated, thus inhibiting the generation of PAH4. ESR, FT-IR, and other technologies were employed to prove that when the catechin addition was <0.02%, more free radicals were produced than quenched, causing lipid damage and increasing PAHs intermediates. Moreover, the catechin itself would break and polymerize to form aromatic ring compounds, ultimately leading to the conclusion that phenolic compounds in oil may be involved in the formation of PAHs. This provides suggestions for the flexible processing of phenol-rich oil to balance the retention of beneficial substances, and for the safe control of hazardous substances in real-life applications.

Effect of Extract of Perilla Leaves on the Quality Characteristics and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons of Charcoal Barbecued Pork Patty

This study aimed to investigate the effect of ethanolic extracts from perilla leaves (PLE) on the quality attributes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in charcoal-barbecued pork patties. The PLE addition and doneness had no significant effect on the pH of pork patties (p>0.05). Regardless of the concentration, the PLE significantly lower malondialdehyde concentrations and reduced the CIE L*, CIE a*, and CIE b* when compared to control. The addition of 0.2% of PLE did not adversely affect the organoleptic properties of doneness of medium and well-done pork patties. Addition of PLE at 0.4% to medium-cooked pork patties had stronger suppressing effect on the formation of light PAHs compare to control (p<0.05), also adding it to well-done pork patties had the lowest concentration of 4 PAHs and 8 PAHs, and a total of 16 PAHs (p<0.05). Therefore, PLE at 0.4% can be used for suppressing the formation of PAHs and lipid oxidation in well-cooked pork patty.

Simultaneous Prediction, Determination, and Extraction of Four Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the Environment Using a UCON-NaH2PO4 Aqueous Two-Phase Extraction System Combined with High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Ultraviolet Detection

In this paper, a new aqueous two-phase extraction system(ATPES) consisting of UCON (poly(ethylene glycol-ran-propylene glycol) monobutyl ether)-NaH₂PO₄ was established, and four trace polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs: fluorene, anthracene, pyrene and phenanthrene) in water and soil were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-ultraviolet detection. In the multi-factor experiment, the central composite design (CCD) was used to determine the optimum technological conditions. The final optimal conditions were as follows: the concentration of UCON was 0.45 g·mL^-1, the concentration of NaH₂PO₄ was 3.5 mol·L^-1, and the temperature was 30 °C. The recovery of the four targets was 98.91-99.84% with a relative standard deviation of 0.3-2.1%. Then UCON recycling and cyclic tests were designed in the experiment, and the results showed that the recovery of PAHs gradually increased in the three extractions because of the remaining PAHs in the salt phase of last extraction. The recovery of PAHs in the UCON recycling test was less than that in the extraction test due to the wastage of UCON. In addition, a two-phase aqueous extraction model was established based on the random forest (RF) model. The results obtained were compared with the experimental data, and the root mean square error (RMSE) was 0.0371-0.0514 and the correlation coefficient R² was 96.20-98.53%, proving that the model is robust and reliable.

Consumption of Thermally Processed Meat Containing Carcinogenic Compounds (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines) versus a Risk of Some Cancers in Humans and the Possibility of Reducing Their Formation by Natural Food Additives-A Literature Review

(1) Background: Thermal treatment of high-protein food may lead to the formation of mutagenic and carcinogenic compounds, e.g., polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heterocyclic aromatic amines. Frequent consumption of processed meat was classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer as directly carcinogenic for humans. (2) Methods: A literature review was carried out based on a search of online databases for articles on consuming thermally processed meat containing carcinogenic compounds versus a risk of cancers in humans published between 2001 and 2021. (3) Results: A review of the current literature on the participation of PAHs and HAA in the formation of certain neoplasms indicates a positive relationship between diet and the incidences of many cancers, especially colon cancer. A simple way to obtain dishes with reduced contents of harmful compounds is the use of spices and vegetables as meat additives. These seasonings are usually rich in antioxidants that influence the mechanism of HAA and PAH synthesis in food. (4) Conclusions: As there is a growing risk of a cancer tendency because of exposing humans to PAHs and HAAs, it is extremely vital to find a simple way to limit carcinogenic compound synthesis in a processed proteinaceous food. Disseminating the knowledge about the conditions for preparing dishes with a reduced content of carcinogenic compounds could become a vital element of cancer prevention programs.

Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons using different extraction methods and HPLC-FLD detection in smoked and grilled meat products

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in meat products are formed, among others, as a by-product of thermal processing such as smoking or grilling. Due their highly toxic effects on the human organism, it is necessary to monitor PAH content in food products and develop appropriate analytical methods for their determination. The aim of this study was to compare PAH content in meat products subjected to smoking or grilling process. PAH content was determined using three different analytical methods, verified for efficiency using the external standard method. The results showed that smoking led to higher PAH contamination compared to grilling. Extraction by saponification and SPE method was the most effective for the detection and quantification of PAHs. The samples analyzed using this method showed the highest PAH content and recoveries. The results of the study showed a significant effect of the extraction method on the recovery levels and PAH content in meat.

Inhibitory Effect of Tamarix ramosissima Extract on the Formation of Heterocyclic Amines in Roast Lamb Patties by Retarding the Consumption of Precursors and Preventing Free Radicals

Tamarix ramosissima has been widely used as barbecue skewers for the good taste and unique flavor it gives to the meat, but the effects of T. ramosissima on heterocyclic amine (HA) formation in roast lamb are unknown. The influence of T. ramosissima extract (TRE) on HA formation, precursors’ consumption, and free radicals’ generation in roast lamb patties were elucidated by UPLC-MS, HPLC, and electron spin resonance (ESR) analysis, respectively. Six HAs were identified and compared with the control group; the total and polar HAs decreased by 30.51% and 56.92% with TRE addition at 0.30 g/kg. The highest inhibitory effect was found against 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-f]pyridine (PhIP) formation (70.83%) at 0.45 g/kg. The addition of TRE retarded the consumption of HA precursors, resulting in fewer HAs formed. The typical signal intensity of free radicals in roast lamb patties significantly decreased with TRE addition versus the control group (p < 0.05), and the higher the levels of the TRE, the greater the decrease in signal intensity. We propose that the inhibitory effects of TRE on HA formation, especially on polar HAs, were probably achieved by retarding the consumption of precursors and preventing free radicals from being generated in roast lamb patties. These findings provide valuable information concerning TRE’s effectiveness in preventing HA formation through both the precursor consumption and free radical scavenging mechanisms.

Proteomic Analysis of the Protective Effect of Eriodictyol on Benzo(a)pyrene-Induced Caco-2 Cytotoxicity

We evaluated the possible protective effects of six polyphenols on benzo(a)pyrene (BaP)-induced cytotoxicity in Caco-2 cells. We show that treatment with quinic acid, ferulic acid, homovanillic acid, trolox and BaP decreased cell viability, whereas naringenin and eriodictyol affected viability in a bi-phasic manner with low concentrations decreasing viability whereas higher concentrations increase viability. Co-treatment with 20 μM eriodictyol or naringenin reduced BaP-induced cytotoxicity, including cell apoptosis, cell cycle progression, and oxidative stress. Our results show that the protective effect of eriodictyol was superior to that of naringenin. The potential protective mechanisms of eriodictyol on BaP-induced toxicity were investigated by proteomics. We identified 80 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) with proteins associated with genetic information processing pathway representing the highest proportion and number of proteins responding to eriodictyol treatment, including key proteins such as RPA2, SNRPA, RAD23B, NUP155 and AARS. Our results provide new knowledge on how polyphenols may prevent BaP-induced carcinogenesis.

A new perspective on the benzo(a)pyrene generated in tea seeds during roasting

The detection of benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), a strong carcinogen, in edible oil has been widely reported. This work studied the concentration of BaP in different parts of tea seeds generated during roasting from a new perspective. A novel method was established and used to calculate the actual generated concentration of BaP, which is different from the previous direct determination of BaP concentration and also takes into account the concentration of the lost BaP. The results showed that the loss rate of BaP in husks was the highest (92.7%), while that in the peeled tea seeds was the lowest (66.9%). Conversely, the generated concentration of BaP in peeled seeds was the highest (6.7 μg·kg^-1), while that in husks was the lowest (2.8 μg·kg^-1). The change in concentration of BaP during roasting was mainly related to the components of different parts of tea seeds. Finally, the lost BaP-d12 in tea seeds was detected in other parts of the semi-closed simplified model, which confirmed that BaP will migrate during roasting. This work emphasised that it was necessary to modify the calculation method for the generated concentration of BaP in food during thermal processing, which will be helpful to explore the generation mechanism of BaP.

The effect of in-package cold plasma on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in charcoal-grilled beef steak with different oils or fats

In-package cold plasma (ICP) pretreatment is an emerging non-thermal food processing methods. In the current study, ICP on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in grilled beef steaks with different oils and fats was evaluated, the influence of prolonged storage periods (1 d, 2 d) of raw meat after ICP pretreatment on the PAH inhibitory effect was investigated. The results showed that sunflower seed oil had an inhibitory effect on PAH formation; the groups with ICP pretreatment showed a significant decrease in PAH content (p < 0.05) according to the UHPLC results, inhibitory rates were dependent on the original contents in each group without ICP pretreatment, ranging from 35% to 96%. The optimal condition was grilling immediately after ICP pretreatment, and the results indicated that the nonpolar radical scavenging activity (RSA) of ungrilled meat was negatively correlated with PAH8 contents according the DPPH assay, while ICP pretreatment enhanced the RSA_oil of raw meat.

Nitrosamines and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Smoke-Cured Bacon (Larou) of Artisanal and Industrial Origin

The aim of this study was to compare the nitrosamines (NAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) of Chinese smoke-cured bacon (Larou) of artisanal and industrial origin. The results showed that the average pH and Aw values of family-made Larou products were lower than those of industrial Larou, which was opposite to the TBARS level. The contents of residual nitrite and PAH4 in two artisanal Larou were significantly higher than those of the other groups (p < 0.05). The highest NA content (10.78 μg/kg) was found in family-made Larou. A correlation analysis indicated that the relationships between residual nitrite contents and total PAH8 contents (τ = 0.692, p < 0.01) and total NAs contents (τ = 0.805, p < 0.01) were characterized with a positive correlation. A principal component analysis indicated that the Larou from the industrial sources had similar safety attributes, and was more stable than the Larou processed in an artisanal manner. Our data suggest that Larou produced in industrial conditions is suitable for consumption.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Foods: Biological Effects, Legislation, Occurrence, Analytical Methods, and Strategies to Reduce Their Formation

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are chemical compounds comprised of carbon and hydrogen molecules in a cyclic arrangement. PAHs are associated with risks to human health, especially carcinogenesis. One form of exposure to these compounds is through ingestion of contaminated food, which can occur during preparation and processing involving high temperatures (e.g., grilling, smoking, toasting, roasting, and frying) as well as through PAHs present in the soil, air, and water (i.e., environmental pollution). Differently from changes caused by microbiological characteristics and lipid oxidation, consumers cannot sensorially perceive PAH contamination in food products, thereby hindering their ability to reject these foods. Herein, the occurrence and biological effects of PAHs were comprehensively explored, as well as analytical methods to monitor their levels, legislations, and strategies to reduce their generation in food products. This review updates the current knowledge and addresses recent regulation changes concerning the widespread PAHs contamination in several types of food, often surpassing the concentration limits deemed acceptable by current legislations. Therefore, effective measures involving different food processing strategies are needed to prevent and reduce PAHs contamination, thereby decreasing human exposure and detrimental health effects. Furthermore, gaps in literature have been addressed to provide a basis for future studies.

Significant inhibition of garlic essential oilon benzo[a]pyrene formation in charcoal-grilled pork sausagesrelates to sulfide compounds

To addgarlic more conveniently, the substitute-garlic essential oil(GEO)is wildly applied in meat product for flavor improvement. However, the effects of GEOon chemical hazard formation, such as benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), in meat processing have not been studied. This study focused on the inhibitory effect of garlic (0.05-0.15%, w/w), GEO (0.002-0.006%, w/w) and the active sulfide compounds (0.006%, w/w) on the formation of BaP in charcoal-grilled pork sausages. The 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging activity of the garlic, GEO and sulfide compounds was also determined. The results showed that the garlic was efficient in the decrease of DPPH free radicals (14.91-23.39%) and BaP content (37.2-62.3%). GEO was also efficient in scavenging DPPH free radicals (14.17-26.20%) and reducing BaP formation (29.1-57.1%). Gas chromatography-mass spectrometer (GC-MS) analysis identified a total of 41 compounds, of which six major sulfide compounds (allyl methyl sulfide, diallyl sulfide, allyl methyl disulfide, diallyl disulfide, allyl methyl trisulfide and diallyl trisulfide) were screened to assess their inhibition of BaP generation. The BaP inhibition of these sulfide compounds were dependent on the number of sulfur (-S-) and thioallyl group (-S-CH₂-CH═CH₂); and allyl methyl trisulfide (AMTS) showed the highest BaP inhibition (63.3%). A significant correlation was found between their BaP inhibition and DPPH scavenging activity (Spearman correlation = 0.91, P < 0.001), which indicates that the mechanism of sulfides influencing BaP formation in grilling sausage is related to free radical reaction. Our research gives an insight into the theoretical basis about application of GEO to inhibit BaP during food processing and supports use of GEO as a natural additive in meat products.

Formation and mitigation of PAHs in barbecued meat - a review

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) are chemicals, which can occur in barbecued or grilled foods, and particularly in meats. They originate from incomplete combustion of the heat source, pyrolysis of organic compounds, or fat-induced flame formation. This review therefore summarizes relevant parameters for mitigation of especially carcinogenic PAHs in barbecued meat. Consumption of PAHs increases the risk of cancer, and thus the relevance for the mitigation of PAHs formation is very high for barbecued meat products. Parameters such as heat source, barbecue geometry, and meat type as well as marinating, adding spices, and other antioxidants reduce the final benzo[a]pyrene and PAHs concentrations and minimize the exposure. Overall, mitigation of carcinogenic PAHs from barbecuing includes removal of visual charring, reducing fat pyrolysis by minimizing dripping from the meat onto the heat source, the use of acidic marinades or choosing leaner cuts of meat. Estimation of human exposure to barbecued meat, includes several challenges such as substantial differences in barbecuing frequencies and practices, heat sources and meat types used for grilling.

Effects of seasoning on the formation of heterocyclic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in meats: A meta-analysis

Cooking improves digestibility, palatability, and microbiological profile of meats, but can produce compounds with carcinogenic potential, such as heterocyclic amines (HAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). It has been shown that the formation of these compounds in meats can be inhibited by spiced marinades, but there is a complexity to check and compare the results of isolated studies with so many variables involved. Thus, this work aimed to review studies that evaluated the effects of spices on the formation of HAs and PAHs in meats according to cooking techniques and spice type. A meta-analysis with a random effect model was conducted using response ratios (R) to identify and summarize previous results and answer the research question. The use of spices before frying (R* = 0.52), grilling (R* = 0.63), or roasting (R* = 0.74) meat, and spicing with garlic and onion (R* = 0.57), pepper (R* = 0.63), and other spices with phenolic compounds (R* = 0.63), decrease the formation of HAs and PAHs, due to the antioxidant and electron transfer capacity. In this article, we discuss how the improvement of culinary techniques with the dissemination of knowledge about meat preparation conditions is an effective strategy for reducing the formation and ingestion of HAs and PAHs; this is important due to the growing evidence about the association between meat consumption and chronic diseases. This is the first systematic review with meta-analysis about this topic and can guide industry, food services, and population to improve the safety associated with meat consumption.

Coupling of Water Activity and Colour Development of Roast Duck Skin under Forced Convection Drying

Roasting meat involves simultaneous heat and mass transfer, colour and flavour development and the formation of hazardous chemicals. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effects of temperature and time on colour, 3,4-benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) and heterocyclic aromatic amines (HCAs) in roast duck skin during forced hot-air drying at less than 130 °C. The results showed that surface and internal temperatures of duck carcasses increased with drying time, rising to 111.9 and 83.7 °C, respectively. The curves of water activity (aw) and red index (a*) intersected at 50 min because of the decrease in aw and the increase in a* on the skin with drying time. The drastic decline in aw promoted colour development on the duck surface. BaP and carcinogenic HCAs were not detected in hot-air drying ducks, convincing us that the mild cooking method under forced hot-air drying could effectively reduce or eliminate the risk of certain human cancers.

Effects of Smoking Temperature, Smoking Time, and Type of Wood Sawdust on Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Accumulation Levels in Directly Smoked Pork Sausages

Smoking is an excellent food preservation method but also a source of contamination of foodstuffs with carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Herein we investigated the influence of smoking temperature, smoking time, and type of wood sawdust used as smoke source on PAH levels attained through controlled smoking of pork sausages. Four PAHs (benz[a]anthracene, chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[a]pyrene) were monitored, as required by European Commission Regulation 835/2011. PAH concentrations increased continuously both with higher temperatures (55-95 °C) and with longer smoking periods (2-9 h), although the level of benzo[a]pyrene exhibited a tendency to plateau after 6 h. Among seven types of hardwoods tested, plum, alder, and birch yielded PAH concentrations considerably higher than that of commonly used beech, and oak showed similar levels to beech while apple and, to a lesser extent, walnut caused lower levels of sausage contamination. These findings could guide the establishment of good practices in the smoked meat industry.

Formation and Inhibition of Lipid Alkyl Radicals in Roasted Meat

Free radicals are ubiquitous in roasted foods. In this work, lipid-derived carbon-centered alkyl radical formation was first studied in roasted meat by electron spin resonance (ESR). The influence of antioxidants on the inhibition of free radicals was investigated. The results showed that the high temperature, high heat transfer rate, and high polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content resulted in high radical content in roasted meat, while the high water content in meat retarded radical formation. The 0.03% addition of tea polyphenols (TPP) significantly reduced radical formation during roasting (p < 0.05), whereas the 0.03% rosemary extract (RE) had no significant inhibitory effect (p > 0.05). These results suggested that water retention and the addition of TPP would decrease radical generation during the roasting of meat.

Effects of Thawing and Frying Methods on the Formation of Acrylamide and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Chicken Meat

Air frying is commonly used as a substitute for deep-fat frying. However, few studies have examined the effect of air frying on the formation of potential carcinogens in foodstuffs. This study aimed to investigate the formation of acrylamide and four types of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in air-fried and deep-fat-fried chicken breasts, thighs, and wings thawed using different methods, i.e., by using a microwave or a refrigerator, or by water immersion. The acrylamide and PAHs were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), respectively. Deep-fat-fried chicken meat had higher acrylamide (n.d.-6.19 μg/kg) and total PAH (2.64-3.17 μg/kg) air-fried chicken meat (n.d.-3.49 μg/kg and 1.96-2.71 μg/kg). However, the thawing method did not significantly affect the formation of either acrylamide or PAHs. No significant differences in the acrylamide contents were observed among the chicken meat parts, however, the highest PAH contents were found in chicken wings. Thus, the results demonstrated that air frying could reduce the formation of acrylamide and PAHs in chicken meat in comparison with deep-fat frying.