The effect of in vitro digestion, food matrix, and hydrothermal treatment on the potential bioaccessibility of selected phenolic compounds

Insight into the interaction between starch and guest molecules for quality improvement of buckwheat wantuo through extrusion and blending

As a "clean labelled" food additive, extruded Tartary buckwheat flour (ETBF) was used to enhance the eating quality of functional coarse cereal foods. However, it is unclear whether it can enhance the quality of the traditional Chinese starchy food buckwheat wantuo (BWT). This study investigated how blending ETBF at different ratios (5 %, 10 %, and 15 %) affected the physicochemical properties of Tartary buckwheat flour (TBF) and BWT quality. The results revealed degradation of amylopectin and amylose during extrusion, along with changes in colour, hydration, and pasting properties of TBF due to blending. Blending also improved the total polyphenol content (TPC), antioxidant activity, texture, and anti-digestibility of BWT. The evolution of starch conformation and polyphenol state influenced texture and digestion, with the local concentration ratio between the host and the guest being a key factor. Sensory evaluation combined with digestion data indicated that a blending ratio of 10 % was optimal. These findings provide valuable insights into developing functional coarse cereal foods.

In Vitro Evaluation of Bioavailability of Mg from Daily Food Rations, Dietary Supplements and Medicinal Products from the Polish Market

BACKGROUND

Nutrients consumed with food undergo the digestion process, and only some of them are absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract (GI) and enter the bloodstream. Minerals, including Mg, are crucial for maintaining the body's homeostasis, but their beneficial effect depends on their bioavailability, i.e., the part that can be absorbed and used by the body. The bioavailability of nutrients taken in pharmaceutical form is usually higher than the same nutrients contained in food, because their absorption requires prior release from the food matrix.

OBJECTIVES

The main objective of the conducted research was to assess the bioavailability of Mg from dietary supplements and medicinal products, considering the influence of the type of diet and pharmaceutical form on bioavailability.

METHODS

The experiments were conducted using a previously developed and optimized two-stage in vitro digestion model using cellulose dialysis tubes and ICP-OES method. The influence of three types of diets-standard, basic and high-residue-on the bioavailability of Mg was evaluated.

RESULTS

The bioavailability of Mg from the studied diets was within the range of 48.74-52.51%.

CONCLUSIONS

In the models studied, it was observed that the factors influencing bioavailability were the nutritional composition of the diets and the chemical form of Mg.

The Bioaccessibility of Grape-Derived Phenolic Compounds: An Overview

Grape-derived phenolic compounds possess many health benefits, but their biological effectiveness and their effects on human health depend directly on bioaccessibility. Different physiological conditions, interactions with food compounds (proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates), and/or microbial transformations affect the solubilization and stability of phenolic compounds, thus altering their bioaccessibility and biological activity. Previously published review articles on grape-derived phenolic compounds have focused on characterization, transformation during winemaking, various applications, and health benefits, but the literature lacks a comprehensive overview of the bioaccessibility of these compounds during gastrointestinal digestion. In this context, models of gastrointestinal digestion and factors affecting the bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds were considered to understand the behavior of grape-derived phenolic compounds during digestion in the absence or presence of different food matrices. Finally, this review should enable the development of novel food products with targeted bioaccessibility of grape-derived phenolic compounds.

Spray-Drying Microencapsulation of Grape Pomace Extracts with Alginate-Based Coatings and Bioaccessibility of Phenolic Compounds

Spray-drying is a common technique for the microencapsulation of bioactive compounds, which is crucial for improving their stability and bioavailability. In this study, the encapsulation efficiency (EE), physicochemical properties and in vitro bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds from spray-dried encapsulated phenol-rich extracts of grape pomace, a winery waste, were evaluated. Sodium alginate alone (SA) or in a mixture with gum Arabic (SA-GA) or gelatin (SA-GEL) was used as a coating. SA-GEL achieved the highest EE (95.90-98.01%) and outperformed the intestinal release of phenolics by achieving a bioaccessibility index (BI) for total phenolic compounds of 37.8-96.2%. The release mechanism of phenolics from the microcapsules adhered to Fickian diffusion. Encapsulation significantly improved the BI of individual phenolics, with the highest BI values for gallocatechin gallate (2028.7%), epicatechin gallate (476.4%) and o-coumaric acid (464.2%) obtained from the SA-GEL microcapsules. Structural analysis confirmed amorphous matrices in all systems, which improved solubility and stability. These results suggest that encapsulation by spray-drying effectively protects phenolics during digestion and ensures efficient release in the intestine, which improves bioaccessibility. This study contributes to the understanding of biopolymer-based encapsulation systems, but also to the valorisation of grape pomace as a high-value functional ingredient in sustainable food processing.

The bioaccessibility and bioactivity of polyphenols from tsampa prepared from roasted highland barley flour solid-fermented by autochthonous lactic acid bacteria

Tsampa, which is abundant in polyphenols, demonstrates significant bioactivity and potential health benefit. However, the bioaccessibility and potential bioactivity of polyphenols derived from tsampa prepared from autochthonous lactic acid bacteria solid-fermented roasted highland barley flour (F-RHBF) have not been investigated. This study aimed to evaluate the bioaccessibility and bioactivity of polyphenols from tsampa prepared from F-RHBF through in vitro digestion model, and additionally, to explore the protective effects of digested tsampa extract against oxidative stress damage by establishing H2O2 -induced oxidative stress injury model of HepG2 cells. The results indicated that tsampa prepared from F-RHBF exhibited excellent bioaccessibility and bioactivity of polyphenols, including antioxidant and digestive enzymes inhibitory activity, compared to tsampa prepared from unfermented RHBF (UF-RHBF). Furthermore, the digested extract of tsampa prepared from F-RHBF was more effective in protecting HepG2 cells from oxidative damage by reducing the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA), while enhancing the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione (GSH), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC). These findings suggested that fermentation and in vitro digestion can improve the bioaccessibility and bioactivity of polyphenols from tsampa. Present findings pave the way toward applying fermented highland barley flour to design tsampa and novel functional foods.

Oral-gastric digestion effect of emulsion-type ingredient of avocado seed and cytotoxic potential in gastric cancer cell

The incorporation of plant-derived bioactive compounds into the food matrix is growing due to their benefits in improving human health. Agro-industrial avocado by-products are usually inexperienced waste and represent a 22-30% total fruit weight; however, they stand out for being high in bioactive and functional components such as lipid compounds, phenolic compounds, oxalates, and fiber, among others; Bioactive compound to be characteristic to preventive chronic disease proprieties. Besides, gastric cancer has anintermediate prevalence of 10-20 in 100,000 people, and isthe fifth most common cancer worldwide; health institutions recommend consuming fruits and vegetables as an effective strategy because their bioactive compounds exert chemopreventive activity. However, there is a knowledge gap regarding the bioaccessibility and chemical changes of phenolic compounds in ingredients and their implications in gastric cancer during the digestive process, mainly the gastric phase at different times. This study determined the bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds and evaluated the cytotoxicity in a transformed gastric cell line (CRL-1739) during oral-gastric digestion of ingredients from avocado seed. Principal phenolic compounds in the ingredient show high concentrations of catechin, rutin, ellagic, and chlorogenic acid; The phenolic compounds are more bioaccessible in gastric phases of 10 and 25 min, attributed to acid hydrolysis. The ingredient exhibited a maximum cytotoxicity potential in the gastric cancer cell line with the gastric phase at 10 min. Hence the ingredient from avocado seed has possible functional potential in gastric digestion.

Changes of polyphenols and their antioxidant activities in non-pigmented, red and black rice during in vitro digestion

Polyphenols, a major bioactive constituent in rice grain, require processing and digestion before being absorbed by human body. Free and bound phenolics, flavonoids and their antioxidant activities in non-pigmented, red and black rice after cooking and INFOGEST digestions of oral, gastric and intestinal phases were investigated. It showed that cooking caused great losses of polyphenols and antioxidant activity. Free ferulic, isoferulic and p-coumaric acid in most rice were highest at intestinal phase (p < 0.05). Bound ferulic acid in three colored rice, bound p-coumaric acid in black rice and catechin in red rice were higher at oral and/or gastric phase. After cooking, total flavonoids of non-pigmented and pigmented rice were highest at intestinal and gastric phase, respectively. Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, peonidin-3-O-glucoside and quercetin peaked at intestinal phase in black rice. It suggested that black rice has a greater potential to be used in meal balance and functional product development.

Enhanced accumulation of biologically active compounds in lichens with potential functional food applications

Lichens have great potential as food, functional food additives or flavourings. The presence of specific substances with multiple biological activities is one of the characteristics of lichens. However, research on lichens as a food source or functional food additive is limited. The present study simulated, for the first time, the potential bioaccessibility of active compounds from 6 lichen species in simulated gastric and intestinal conditions. An in vitro digestion showed that the lichen substances had different bioaccessibility and stability during digestion. It was found that the application of some metabolic modulators significantly altered the accumulation of metabolites in most species. In addition, the study demonstrated the antimicrobial activity of the tested extracts as well as of 14 isolated lichen metabolites. These multi-directional studies demonstrate the potential of lichens in terms of their use as antimicrobial functional food additives.

Long non-coding RNA (LncRNA) and epigenetic factors: their role in regulating the adipocytes in bovine

Investigating the involvement of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and epigenetic processes in bovine adipocytes can provide valuable new insights into controlling adipogenesis in livestock. Long non-coding RNAs have been associated with forming chromatin loops that facilitate enhancer-promoter interactions during adipogenesis, as well as regulating important adipogenic transcription factors like C/EBPα and PPARγ. They significantly influence gene expression regulation at the post-transcriptional level and are extensively researched for their diverse roles in cellular functions. Epigenetic modifications such as chromatin reorganization, histone alterations, and DNA methylation subsequently affect the activation of genes related to adipogenesis and the progression of adipocyte differentiation. By investigating how fat deposition is epigenetically regulated in beef cattle, scientists aim to unravel molecular mechanisms, identify key regulatory genes and pathways, and develop targeted strategies for modifying fat deposition to enhance desirable traits such as marbling and meat tenderness. This review paper delves into lncRNAs and epigenetic factors and their role in regulating bovine adipocytes while focusing on their potential as targets for genetic improvement to increase production efficiency. Recent genomics advancements, including molecular markers and genetic variations, can boost animal productivity, meeting global demands for high-quality meat products. This review establishes a foundation for future research on understanding regulatory networks linked to lncRNAs and epigenetic changes, contributing to both scholarly knowledge advancement and practical applications within animal agriculture.

Interactions of White Mugwort (Artemisia lactiflora Wall.) Extract with Food Ingredients during In Vitro Gastrointestinal Digestion and Their Impact on Bioaccessibility of Polyphenols in Various Model Systems

The bioaccessibility of phytochemicals is an important factor for new functional food design. The interaction of white mugwort extract (FE) and food ingredients (coconut oil, egg white albumen, brown rice powder, inulin, and mixtures thereof) was determined after in vitro digestion to inform the development of a functional soup for an aging population. Coconut oil exerted a protective effect on polyphenols, showing the highest bioaccessibility (62.9%) and antioxidant activity after intestinal digestion (DPPH 12.38 mg GAE/g DW, FRAP 0.88 mol Fe(ll)/g DW). In contrast, egg white albumen had the most significant negative effect on the polyphenol stability, resulting in the lowest bioaccessibility (12.49%). Moreover, FE promoted the emulsion stability and delayed starch digestion by inhibiting amylase activity via non-specific polyphenol-protein interactions, resulting in a decrease in the total reducing sugars (TRS) released during digestion. It also limited the protein digestion, probably due to the complex formation of polyphenols and proteins, consequently reducing the bioaccessibility of both amino acids and polyphenols. These findings provide useful information for designing functional food products that could promote the bioaccessibility and bioactivity of natural extracts.

Bioaccessibility of bioactive compounds present in Persea americana Mill. seed ingredient during oral-gastric digestion with antibacterial capacity against Helicobacter pylori

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In ancient Mexican cultures, the Persea americana Mill seed has been used against gastrointestinal diseases, due to high concentrations of bioactive compounds. According to Traditional Mexican Medicine, P. americana seed aqueous infusion is used against roundworms, intestinal worms, parasites, and gastrointestinal problems, in a dose taken over three or four days. In addition, Mexican Society of Natural History indicates the traditional use of P. americana seed powder as an antiparasitic, and antibacterial. On the other hand, Helicobacter pylori infection is a factor associated with the development of gastric disease, peptic ulcers as well as some types of gastric lymphomas and gastric cancer in humans; in this way is necessary scientific evidence about P. americana seed effect in gastrointestinal disease.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The work aimed to evaluate bioactive compounds bioaccessibility and antimicrobial potential against Helicobacter pylori during oral-gastric digestion in vitro of food ingredient from Persea americana Mill. seed and elucidate the possible action mechanism using in silico tools.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Initially, P. americana seed oil and aqueous extract of P. americana seed were obtained using ultrasound and maceration respectively, and the food ingredient from P. americana seed was obtained. The samples underwent oral-gastric digestions by the INFOGEST method, to continue identifying and quantifying the bioactive compounds by HPLC-DAD and GC-MS. The anti-Helicobacter pylori activity determination were used fourteen Helicobacter pylori clinical strains and reference strains by Susceptibility testing by Minimal Inhibition Concentration, Kinetics of Growth Inhibition of H. pylori, Urease Inhibitory Kinetic. Finally, to elucidate a possible action mechanism used in silico tools (Software AutoDock 4.2.6 and BioVia Discovery v.19.1.0.1.18287).

RESULTS

The lipophilic fraction of P. americana seed detected oleic acid, linoleic acid, and avocadenofuran compounds, and the phenolic fraction showed the presence of catechin, rutin, ellagic, and chlorogenic acid, among others. Phenolic compounds conformational changes during oral-gastric digestion due to mechanical and acid hydrolysis, while lipophilic compounds showed a 20% increase in the gastric phase. Persea americana Mill. seed ingredient (3.08 μg/mL) showed total in vitro inhibition of clinical and reference strains of H. pylori, likewise, the lipophilic fraction had a lower inhibition concentration (2.59 μg/mL) regardless of the strains. Among the mechanisms found in silico, inhibition of target proteins such as CagA, BabA, and MUC5 were observed, as virulence factors involving adherence and bacterial pathogenicity.

CONCLUSIONS

This research provides evidence that food ingredient from P. americana seed has antimicrobial in vitro potential against H. pylori clinical strains, through phenolic and mainly lipophilic compounds, opening new scientific evidence that supports the P. americana seed's traditional use.

Effects of the dose of administration, co-antioxidants, food matrix, and digestion-related factors on the in vitro bioaccessibility of rosmarinic acid - A model study

This study aimed to determine the effect of the administration dose, combinations with co-antioxidants (vitamin C, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, catechin, rutin), and different food matrices (cooked and lyophilized hen eggs, chicken breast, soybean seeds, potatoes) on the potential bioaccessibility of rosmarinic acid (RA) in simulated digestion conditions, depending on the digestion stage (gastric and intestinal) and the contribution of physicochemical and biochemical digestion factors. The in vitro bioaccessibility of RA depended on the digestion stage and conditions. The physicochemical factors were mainly responsible for the bioaccessibility of RA applied alone. The higher RA doses improved its bioaccessibility, especially at the intestinal stage of digestion. Furthermore, the addition of vitamin C and protein-rich food matrices resulted in enhanced intestinal bioaccessibility of RA. In the future, the knowledge of factors influencing the bioaccessibility of RA can help enhance its favorable biological effects and therapeutic potential.

Interactions between proteins and phenolics: effects of food processing on the content and digestibility of phenolic compounds

Phenolic compounds have recently become one of the most interesting topics in different research areas, especially in food science and nutrition due to their health-promoting effects. Phenolic compounds are found together with macronutrients and micronutrients in foods and within several food systems. The coexistence of phenolics and other food components can lead to their interaction resulting in complex formation. This review article aims to cover the effects of thermal and non-thermal processing techniques on the protein-phenolic interaction especially focusing on the content and digestibility of phenolics by discussing recently published research articles. It is clear that the processing conditions and individual properties of phenolics and proteins are the most effective factors in the final content and intestinal fates of phenolic compounds. Besides, thermal and non-thermal treatments, such as high-pressure processing, pulsed electric field, cold plasma, ultrasonication, and fermentation may induce alterations  in those interactions. Still, new investigations are required for different food processing treatments by using a wide range of food products to enlighten new functional and healthier food product design, to provide the optimized processing conditions of foods for obtaining better quality, higher nutritional properties, and health benefits. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Phenolic Characterization of a Purple Maize (Zea mays cv. "Moragro") by HPLC-QTOF-MS and Study of Its Bioaccessibility Using a Simulated In Vitro Digestion/Caco-2 Culture Model

The present work aimed to characterize the phenolic and antioxidant content of the Argentinian purple maize "Moragro" cultivar. Additionally, the INFOGEST simulated in vitro digestion model was used to establish the effect of digestion on bioactive compounds. Finally, digestion samples were used to treat Caco-2 cells in the transwell model to better understand their bioavailability. Twenty-six phenolic compounds were found in purple maize cv. "Moragro", 15 nonanthocyanins and 11 anthocyanins. Several compounds were identified in maize for the first time, such as pyrogallol, citric acid, gallic acid, kaempferol 3-(6″-ferulylglucoside), and kaempferol 3-glucuronide. Anthocyanins accounted for 24.9% of total polyphenols, with the predominant anthocyanin being cyanidin-3-(6″ malonylglucoside). Catechin-(4,8)-cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside and catechin-(4,8)-cyanidin-3-malonylglucoside-5-glucoside were detected as characteristics of this American maize variety. Total polyphenol content (TPC; by the Folin-Ciocalteu method), HPLC-DAD/MSMS, and antioxidant activity [by DPPH and ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP)] were evaluated throughout in vitro digestion. TPC, DPPH, and FRAP results were 2.71 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/g, 24 μmol Trolox equiv/g, and 22 μmol Trolox eq/g, respectively. The in vitro digestion process did not cause significant differences in TPC. However, the antioxidant activity was significantly decreased. Moreover, the bioavailability of anthocyanins was studied, showing that a small fraction of polyphenols in their intact form was conserved at the end of digestion. Finally, a protective effect of digested maize polyphenols was observed in the Caco-2 cell viability. The results suggest that "Moragro" purple maize is a good source of bioavailable anthocyanins in the diet and an interesting source of this group of compounds for the food industry.

Bioaccessibility of Rosmarinic Acid and Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) Co-Compounds in a Simulated Digestion Model-The Influence of the Endogenous Plant Matrix, Dose of Administration and Physicochemical and Biochemical Digestion Environment

The objective of this study is to determine the effect of endogenous plant matrix components, dose and digestion-related factors on the bioaccessibility of rosmarinic acid and basil co-compounds in in vitro digestion conditions. Different forms of administration, i.e., basil raw plant material, dry extract, and isolated rosmarinic acid at various doses, were applied for the digestion experiment. To evaluate the contribution of biochemical and physicochemical digestion factors, samples were subjected to a full digestion process or treated only with a digestion fluid electrolyte composition without using biochemical components (i.e., digestion enzymes and bile salts), and bioaccessibility was monitored at the gastric and intestinal steps of digestion. The results showed that the components of the endogenous raw plant matrix significantly limited the bioaccessibility of rosmarinic acid and basil co-compounds, especially at the gastric stage of digestion. Physicochemical digestion factors were mainly responsible for the bioaccessibility of basil phytochemicals. Higher doses allowed maintenance of bioaccessibility at a relatively similar level, whereas the most negative changes in bioaccessibility were induced by the lowest doses. In conclusion, the determination of the bioaccessibility of bioactive phytochemicals from basil and factors influencing bioaccessibility may help in better prediction of the pro-health potential of this plant.

Whole Flour of Purple Maize as a Functional Ingredient of Gluten-Free Bread: Effect of In Vitro Digestion on Starch and Bioaccessibility of Bioactive Compounds

The growing demand for gluten-free products requires the study of alternatives to produce nutritionally and technologically favorable foods. The aim was to evaluate the content and antioxidant capacity of gluten-free bread enriched with whole flour of purple maize (PM) and how starch and bioaccessibility of antioxidant compounds were modified during in vitro digestion. Gluten-free bread was prepared with the addition of 34%, 50%, and 70% PM, and white maize bread served as control. The content of total polyphenols, anthocyanins, and antioxidant capacity through FRAP and TEAC was measured. Specific volume, crumb texture, and starch digestibility were determined in the breads. Simultaneously, in vitro digestion and dialysis by membrane were performed to evaluate the bioaccessible and potentially bioavailable fraction. Bread with 34% PM had a similar specific volume and crumb texture to the control, but higher content of polyphenols (52.91 mg AG/100 g), anthocyanins (23.13 mg c3-GE/100 g), and antioxidant capacity (3.55 and 5.12 µmol tr/g for FRAP and TEAC, respectively). The PM breads had a higher antioxidant content and capacity and higher slowly digestible and resistant starch than the control. These parameters increased as the PM proportion rose. After digestion, anthocyanins were degraded, polyphenols and antioxidant capacity decreased, but they remained potentially bioavailable, although to a lesser extent. Bread with 34% shows acceptable technological parameters, lower starch digestibility, and contribution of bioactive compounds with antioxidant capacity. This indicates that purple maize flour represents a potential ingredient to produce gluten-free bread with an improved nutritional profile.

Influence of Diet on the Bioavailability of Active Components from Zingiber officinale Using an In Vitro Digestion Model

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) is a plant known all over the world that is used as a spice and as an ingredient in drinks, dietary supplements, and cosmetics. The growing availability of its fresh rhizomes makes it even more likely to be used in the diet, mainly due to its beneficial health properties and high content of polyphenols (gingerols and shogaols). The main goal and motivation of the authors was to assess the bioavailability of active substances contained in the extract from ginger rhizomes in the presence of various types of diets using the in vitro digestion method, enabling simulation of the processes occurring during the digestion and absorption of metabolites in the small intestine. For the qualitative and quantitative analyses, the HPLC-MS (High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry) and HPLC (High Performance Liquid Chromatography) techniques were used, respectively. Based on the obtained results, it was found that the best bioavailability of the selected ginger polyphenols (6-gingerol, 8-gingerdione, 8-shogaol, and 10-gingerdione) was estimated for a high-fiber diet, while the weakest results were obtained for standard and basic diets. In the case of the high-fiber diet, the bioavailability of the mentioned compounds was estimated as 33.3, 21.4, 6.73, and 21.0%, while for the basic diet, it was only 21.3, 5.3, 2.0, and 1.0%, respectively.

Effects of Processing Conditions and Simulated Digestion In Vitro on the Antioxidant Activity, Inhibition of Xanthine Oxidase and Bioaccessibility of Epicatechin Gallate

The bioactivity and gastrointestinal stability of epicatechin gallate (ECG) may be affected by processing conditions. Results showed that the antioxidant ability and inhibitory activity on xanthine oxidase (XO) of ECG were higher at low pH values. Appropriate microwave and heating treatments improved the antioxidant (the scavenging rate increased from 71.75% to 92.71% and 80.88% under the microwave and heating treatments) and XO inhibitory activity (the inhibitory rate increased from 47.11% to 56.89% and 51.85% at the microwave and heating treatments) of ECG. The treated ECG led to a more compact structure of XO. Moreover, there may be synergistic antioxidant and inhibitory effects between ECG and its degradation products. The bioaccessibility of ECG after simulated digestion was untreated > microwave > heating, and the microwave-treated ECG still had good XO inhibitory activity after digestion. These findings may provide some significant information for the development of functional foods enriched in catechins.

Changes in polyphenolic compounds and antioxidant activities of seed-used pumpkin during hydrothermal treatment

An environmentally friendly physical processing method, hydrothermal treatment (HT), was used to increase the content of specific compounds and antioxidant activities of seed-used pumpkin byproducts. The influence of hydrothermal temperature (80 °C-160 °C) and time (30-150 min) on changes in polyphenols and antioxidation was evaluated. The results revealed that the maximum free polyphenol content (140 °C for 120 min) was 3.96-fold higher than the untreated samples. Elevated temperature and long duration changed phenolic acid contents. For example, p-coumaric acid, rutin and chlorogenic acid exhibited a decreasing trend, and p-hydroxybenzoic acid, quercetin and cinnamic acid showed an increasing trend. Compared to controls, HT was significantly associated with increased antioxidant activities. To comprehensively reveal the influence of hydrothermal temperature and time on changes in polyphenolic content, back propagation artificial neural network (BP-ANN) models with accurate prediction ability were developed, and the results exhibited well-fitted and strong approximation ability (R² > 0.95 and RMSE < 2 %) and stability.

Food matrix-flavonoid interactions and their effect on bioavailability

Flavonoid compounds exhibit a wide range of health benefits as plant-derived dietary components. Typically, co-consumed with the food matrix,they must be released from the matrix and converted into an absorbable form (bioaccessibility) before reaching the small intestine, where they are eventually absorbed and transferred into the bloodstream (bioavailability) to exert their biological activity. However, a large number of studies have revealed the biological functions of individual flavonoid compounds in different experimental models, ignoring the more complex but common relationships established in the diet. Besides, it has been appreciated that the gut microbiome plays a crucial role in the metabolism of flavonoids and food substrates, thereby having a significant impact on their interactions, but much progress still needs to be made in this area. Therefore, this review intends to comprehensively investigate the interactions between flavonoids and food matrices, including lipids, proteins, carbohydrates and minerals, and their effects on the nutritional properties of food matrices and the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of flavonoid compounds. Furthermore, the health effects of the interaction of flavonoid compounds with the gut microbiome have also been discussed.HIGHLIGHTSFlavonoids are able to bind to nutrients in the food matrix through covalent or non-covalent bonds.Flavonoids affect the digestion and absorption of lipids, proteins, carbohydrates and minerals in the food matrix (bioaccessibility).Lipids, proteins and carbohydrates may favorably affect the bioavailability of flavonoids.Improved intestinal flora may improve flavonoid bioavailability.

The Effect of Flake Production and In Vitro Digestion on Releasing Minerals and Trace Elements from Wheat Flakes: The Extended Study of Dietary Intakes for Individual Life Stage Groups

This thorough study analyses the amounts of 43 minerals and trace elements in non-traditional wheat grains, flakes, and undigested flake portions using ICP-MS and establishes declines in their respective contents after the flake production. It also identifies appropriate dietary intakes, in vitro digestibility values, retention factors, and metal pollution indexes. The element contents in wheat flakes are lower than in wheat grains after the hydrothermal treatment process, and their declines are: Na (48-72%), Ce (47-72%), Sr (43-55%), Tl (33-43%), Ti (32-41%), U (31-44%), Ho (29-69%), Cr (26-64%), Zr (26-58%), Ag (25-52%), and Ca (25-46%). The flakes significantly contributed to the recommended dietary intake or adequate intake of particular elements for men of all categories as follows: Mn (143%) > Mo > Cu > Mg ≥ Cr > Fe (16%); for women: Mn (up to 183%) > Mo > Cu > Cr ≥ Mg > Fe (7-16%); for pregnant women aged 19-30: Mn (165%) > Mo > Cu > Mg > Cr (25%); and finally, for lactating women: Mn (127%) > Mo > Cu > Mg > Cr (17%). The contributions to the provisional tolerable weekly or monthly intakes of all toxic elements were established as being within the official limits. The daily intakes for non-essential elements were also calculated. The retention factors were calculated to assess the element concentrations in the undigested part using the digestibility values (87.4-90.5%). The highest retention factors were obtained for V (63-92%), Y (57-96%), Ce (43-76%), Pb (34-58%), Tl (32-70%), Ta (31-66%), and Ge (30-49%). K, Mg, P, Zn, Ba, Bi, Ga, Sb, Cu, Ni, and As appear to be released easily from flake matrices during digestion. The metal pollution index has been confirmed as being lower for non-traditional wheat flakes when compared with grains. Importantly, 15-25% of the metal pollution index assessed for native flakes remains in the undigested flake portion after in vitro digestion.

The bioaccessibility, bioavailability, bioactivity, and prebiotic effects of phenolic compounds from raw and solid-fermented mulberry leaves during in vitro digestion and colonic fermentation

The bioaccessibility and bioactivity of phenolic compounds in mulberry leaves (MLs) relate to the digestion process. This study was aimed at investigating the release of phenolic compounds, as well as the potential bioactivities of raw MLs (UF-MLs) and solid-fermented MLs (F-MLs) during in vitro digestion and colonic fermentation. Antioxidant activities and phenolic compounds released in the digested extracts are shown in decreasing order of location: intestinal > oral > gastric. The bioavailability of total phenolics and flavonoids in F-MLs were 10.14 ± 1.81 % and 6.66 ± 0.55 %, respectively. There was no significant difference in the inhibitory activity of α-glucosidase during gastrointestinal digestion. For colonic fermentation, the highest free radical-scavenging ability of DPPH and ABTS was found at 24 h and 48 h, respectively. The release of phenolic compounds was not significantly different after 48 h of colonic fermentation. LC-MS/MS showed that liquiritigenin, apigenin, chlorogenic acid, and ferulic acid were the major compounds released in the small intestine digestion, and valerenic acid was the primary colonic metabolite. 16S rDNA showed that UF-MLs promoted the growth of Bifidobacterium and F-MLs lowered the Firmicutes-to-Bacteroidetes ratio. Furthermore, F-MLs increased the concentration of acetic acids (25.75 ± 0.86 mM) after 24 h of colonic fermentation. The results of this study indicated that F-MLs exhibit relatively higher phenolic bioaccessibility, antioxidant activities, and SCFA production and are a promising candidate as a health food supplement.

Changes in the Bioaccessibility of Antioxidants after Simulated In Vitro Digestion of Bioprocessed Spelt-Enhanced Wheat Bread

The aim of the study was to determine whether the partial replacement of wheat flour with bioprocessed spelt flour contributes to a higher bioaccessibility of the antioxidants in bread. The results showed that the type and amount of bioprocessed spelt flour in a bread recipe has a major impact on the extractable and bound TPC, the content of individual phenolics, their antioxidant activity, and their bioaccessibility as determined by in vitro digestion. Extractable p-coumaric and trans-ferulic acids in breads decreased after digestion, while extractable cis-ferulic and p-hydroxybenzoic acids increased. The bioaccessibility of TPC in the control bread (100% wheat flour), and in bread enriched with 5% "germinated + fermented" spelt flour (GFB5), did not differ. However, the digested GFB5 bread contained 5.2-times more extractable, and 1.3-times more bound, trans-ferulic acid than the digested control bread. trans-Ferulic acid showed the lowest bioaccessibility, up to 2.8%. In GFB2.5 and GFB5 breads, the bioaccessibility of p-coumaric, trans-ferulic, and cis-ferulic acids was higher than in other digested breads. PCA visualized the difference between the undigested and digested breads. The incorporation of germinated and fermented, or germinated and enzymatic, treated spelt flour in a white bread recipe could be an attractive way of providing consumers with nutritionally interesting foods.

Gallic acid-fortified buckwheat Wantuo: characteristics of in vitro starch digestibility, antioxidant and eating quality

Gallic acid (GA), presented in various plant sources, is increasingly used as a nutritional food ingredient due to its prominent bioactive. In this work, common buckwheat Wantuo (BWT, a Chinese traditional starch gel food) was fortified with 1,3,5% (w/w) GA and assessed for physicochemical properties of flour as well as in vitro starch digestibility, antioxidant and eating quality of BWT. The results clearly showed that the hydration, pasting properties as well as gel microstructure and texture of gel were influenced with addition of GA, while the color of flours showed no significantly change. Hydrogen bonds interaction between GA and starch, more hydrophilic groups exposure and more acid hydrolysis of the starch were thought to be main reasons. Furthermore, combined with structural analysis of starch, the significantly decreased rapidly digested starch (8.62%)/slowly digested starch (12.90%) and increased resistant starch (78.48%) in BWT with 5% addition amount can be mainly due to digestive enzymes inhibition, formation of V-type conformation and alteration in the local structure of starch-phenol-enzyme complex. Meanwhile, the antioxidant activity of BWT-GA improved, where as its texture properties softened due to suppressed starch retrogradation. This study demonstrated the potential use of polyphenol as food ingredient to improve the nutritional properties and eating qualities of starch gel food.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-022-05614-x.

Novel cookie formulation with defatted sesame flour: Evaluation of its technological and sensory properties. Changes in phenolic profile, antioxidant activity, and gut microbiota after simulated gastrointestinal digestion

Defatted sesame flour (DSF), a coproduct of the sesame oil extraction process, is often discarded despite having high polyphenol content. The aim of this study was to improve the antioxidant properties of cookies with increasing amounts of DSF (5, 10, and 20%) and study its impact on processing and gastrointestinal digestion. Besides, we evaluated the effect of this incorporation on the technological and sensory properties of cookies. The formulation with 10% (SFC10) showed technological quality similar to control, and was the most accepted by consumers. After baking, 13 out of 25 polyphenols from DSF were observed, and only 19% of the initial SFC10 polyphenols would be potentially absorbed after digestion. Besides, the addition of DSF benefits the microbiota composition after colonic fermentation. In conclusion, supplementation with 10% of DSF in cookies improves sensorial acceptance and antioxidant properties, without affecting the technological ones.

Simulated Gastrointestinal Digestion of Bioprocessed Spelt Seeds: Bioaccessibility and Bioactivity of Phenolics

The goal of this research was to evaluate the impact of different bioprocessing techniques on improved bioaccessibility of phenolics from spelt seeds. Despite the negative influence of gastrointestinal digestion, fermentation of germinated seeds significantly increased the bioaccessibility of total phenolics and their antioxidant activity compared to digested raw seeds. Enzymatic treated fermented seeds showed the highest relative bioaccessibility of p-coumaric and trans-ferulic acids, while their absolute contents were significantly higher in “germinated + fermented” seeds. Our research suggests that pretreatment of spelt seeds with hydrolytic enzymes improves access of fermenting microorganisms to structural elements, resulting in an increased content of extractable and bound trans-ferulic acid. Significantly higher biostability of phenolics was observed in raw seeds. Some major quality changes in the composition of extracts were observed under simulated in vitro digestion, since antioxidants of the same extract showed a different relative decrease in DPPH• and ABTS•+ scavenging activities compared to the raw seeds or their corresponding undigested counterparts. It is therefore important to increase the content of extractable antioxidants in seeds by bioprocessing, since they are strongly diminished during digestion.

Nano-Microemulsions of CaCO3-Encapsulated Curcumin Ester Derivatives With High Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activities and pH Sensitivity

In this study, we synthesized nano-microemulsions of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)-encapsulated curcumin (Cur)-Ferulic acid (FA) ester derivatives of diverse mass ratios by using the solution casting approach. The structures, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, physical properties, and potential of hydrogen (pH) sensitivity of these products were examined. Compared with microparticles of CaCO3, those of CaCO3@Cur-FA exhibited excellent antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. Response to pH was indicated through the release of Cur-FA from CaCO3@Cur-FA in solutions having different pH values. The results demonstrated that Cur-FA was released more quickly from CaCO3@Cur-FA at pH 5.5 than at pH 7.4. CaCO3@Cur-FA demonstrated good antioxidant capacities through its ability to scavenge 2,2′-amino-di(2-ethyl-benzothiazoline sulphonic acid-6)ammonium salt (ABTS+) and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH). These activities were three-fold more than those observed in CaCO3 microparticle control groups; additionally, the antimicrobial activity against Aspergillus niger and Escherichia coli increased by 40.5 and 54.6%, respectively. Overall, the microparticles of CaCO3@Cur-FA outperformed Cur-FA in terms of antimicrobial properties by inhibiting the growth of certain zoonotic pathogens.

In vitro bioaccessibility and activity of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) phytochemicals as affected by cultivar and postharvest preservation method - Convection drying, freezing, and freeze-drying

The effects of convection drying, freezing, and freeze-drying, on phytochemicals content, in vitro activity and bioaccessibility of sweet basil, cinnamon basil, red rubin basil, and lemon basil were investigated. For evaluation of bioaccessibility, rosmarinic acid content, phenolic content, and antioxidant potential of samples before and after gastric and intestinal steps of digestion were determined. Results showed that the content, activity and bioaccessibility of basil phytochemicals varied depending on the cultivar as well as the applied postharvest preservation. It was found that the frozen and freeze-dried plant materials were characterized by a higher phenolic level and antioxidant activity compared to the convection dried. However, in general, convection drying allows obtaining samples with higher bioaccessibility of phytochemicals compared to the low-temperature processed samples. These findings highlight the need for evaluation of basil cultivars and postharvest preservation methods regarding phytochemicals bioaccessibility, which might help in the classification in terms of pro-health quality.

Amelioration of radiation-induced liver damage by p-coumaric acid in mice

Radiation-induced liver damage (RILD) is a spiny problem in radiotherapy or other circumstances that exposure to radiation. The need for radioprotective agent is increasing to protect liver tissue. This study aimed to explore the hepatoprotective effect of p-coumaric acid (CA) against RILD. C57BL/6 male mice were exposed to 4 Gy irradiation and administrated with CA for 4 days starting on the same day of irradiation. Mice were sacrificed to obtain blood and liver tissues on day 3.5 or 14 post irradiation, respectively. The blood and liver tissues were collected. As compared with the only irradiated group, CA supplementation improved liver morphology, decreased serum alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase, inhibited BCL2-associated X (BAX) protein expression, and improved the mice hematopoietic function. CA at the dose of 100 mg/kg body weight showed better effect compared to the other doses. Thus, CA might possess potential to protect against RILD.

The Effect of In Vitro Digestion on Matcha Tea (Camellia sinensis) Active Components and Antioxidant Activity

This study investigates the effects of in vitro digestion on the antioxidant activity and release of phenolics, xanthine alkaloids, and L-theanine contents of matcha. It establishes digestibility values between 61.2–65.8%. Considering native matcha, the rutin content (303–479 µg/g) reached higher values than catechin (10.2–23.1 µg/g). Chlorogenic acid (2090–2460 µg/g) was determined as predominant. Rutin, quercetin, ferulic, ellagic, and caffeic acid were the least-released phenolics, and their remaining residues reached 76–84%. Protocatechuic, hydroxybenzoic acid, epigallocatechin, and epigallocatechin-3-gallate were the best-released phenolics, with the remaining residues under 1%. Caffeine, L-theanine, and theobromine contents in native matcha reached 16.1, 9.85, and 0.27 mg/g, respectively. Only caffeine (3.66–5.26 mg/g) and L-theanine (0.09–0.15 mg/g) were monitored in the undigested residue, representing 13 and 0.1% of the remaining part, respectively. A chemiluminescence assay showed that water-soluble antioxidants showed significant antioxidant activity in native matcha, while lipid-soluble compounds showed higher antioxidant activity in the undigested samples. Cinnamic and neochlorogenic acids were determined as the main contributors to the ACW values in the undigested matcha, epicatechin, and quercetin in the ACL fraction. The application of the digestion process reduced the antioxidant activity by more than 94%. SEM has proved specific digestion patterns of in vitro digestibility of matcha.

Wheat rolls fortified with Greek oregano (Origanum vulgare ssp. hirtum (Link) Ietswaart) leaves – phytochemical changes during processing and simulated digestion, nutrient digestibility, and functional properties

Fortification with Greek oregano affects in vitro bioaccessibility of phytochemicals, protein and starch digestibility, and functional properties of wheat rolls.

In Vitro Evidence on Bioaccessibility of Flavonols and Cinnamoyl Derivatives of Cruciferous Sprouts

Cruciferous sprouts are rising in popularity as a hallmark of healthy diets, partially because of their phytochemical composition, characterized by the presence of flavonols and cinnamates. However, to shed light on their biological activity, the ability to assimilate (poly)phenols from sprouts (bioaccessible fraction) during gastrointestinal digestion needs to be studied. In this frame, the present work studies the effect of the physicochemical and enzymatic characteristics of gastrointestinal digestion on flavonols and cinnamoyl derivatives, by a simulated static in vitro model, on different cruciferous (red radish, red cabbage, broccoli, and white mustard) sprouts. The results indicate that, although the initial concentrations of phenolic acids in red radish (64.25 mg/g fresh weight (fw)) are lower than in the other sprouts studied, their bioaccessibility after digestion is higher (90.40 mg/g fw), followed by red cabbage (72.52 mg/g fw), white mustard (58.72 mg/g fw), and broccoli (35.59 mg/g fw). These results indicate that the bioaccessibility of (poly)phenols is not exclusively associated with the initial concentration in the raw material, but that the physico-chemical properties of the food matrix, the presence of other additional molecules, and the specific characteristics of digestion are relevant factors in their assimilation.

Influence of Phenolic-Food Matrix Interactions on In Vitro Bioaccessibility of Selected Phenolic Compounds and Nutrients Digestibility in Fortified White Bean Paste

This model study aimed to evaluate the effect of phenolic–food matrix interactions on the in vitro bioaccessibility and antioxidant activity of selected phenolic compounds (gallic acid, ferulic acid, chlorogenic acid, quercetin, apigenin, and catechin) as well as protein and starch digestibility in fortified white bean paste. The magnitude of food matrix effects on phenolics bioaccessibility and antioxidant activity was estimated based on “predicted values” and “combination indexes”. Furthermore, the protein–phenolics interactions were investigated using electrophoretic and chromatographic techniques. The results demonstrated phenolic–food matrix interactions, in most cases, negatively affected the in vitro bioaccessibility and antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds as well as nutrient digestibility. The lowest in vitro bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds in fortified paste was found for quercetin (45.4%). The most negative impact on the total starch digestibility and relative digestibility of proteins was observed for catechin–digestibility lower by 14.8%, and 21.3% (compared with control), respectively. The observed phenolic–food matrix interactions were strictly dependent on the applied phenolic compound, which indicates the complex nature of interactions and individual affinity of phenolic compounds to food matrix components. In conclusion, phenolic–food matrix interactions are an important factor affecting the nutraceutical and nutritional potential of fortified products.

Construction and characterization of Juglans regia L. polyphenols nanoparticles based on bovine serum albumin and Hohenbuehelia serotina polysaccharides, and their gastrointestinal digestion and colonic fermentation in vitro

Herein, we report the construction and characterization of nanoparticles based on bovine serum albumin and Hohenbuehelia serotina polysaccharides for the delivery of polyphenols isolated from the shells of Juglans regia L. (BSA-JRP-HSP NPs). We also systematically investigated their gastrointestinal digestion and colonic fermentation characteristics in vitro. BSA-JRP-HSP NPs, with amorphous properties and regular spherical morphological features, have a high encapsulation efficiency of 88.47 ± 0.04%, average particle size of 285.7 ± 3.1 nm, and zeta potential of -12.20 ± 0.61 mV, and they exhibit excellent photothermal stabilities and strong mucin adhesion capacity. Through measurements of gastrointestinal digestion and colonic fermentation in vitro, the results suggest that BSA-JRP-HSP NPs presented well-sustained release characteristics for preventing the biodegradation of JRP during gastrointestinal digestion. After gastrointestinal digestion, BSA-JRP-HSP NPs could modulate the composition and structure of gut microbiota, promoting the growth of beneficial bacterial (e.g. Prevotella, Dialister, Akkermansia, etc.) and inhibiting the growth of pathogenic bacteria (e.g. Bacteroides, Phascolarctobacterium, Lachnospiracea incertae sedis, etc.). The production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) including acetic acid, propionic acid, and butyric acid was remarkably enhanced by treatment with BSA-JRP-HSP NPs. This study has proved that BSA-JRP-HSP NPs can serve as a novel candidate for improving the bioavailability of JRP.

Influence of In Vitro Human Digestion Simulation on the Phenolics Contents and Biological Activities of the Aqueous Extracts from Turkish Cistus Species

Oxidative stress is one of the significant precursors of various metabolic diseases such as diabetes, Parkinson's disease, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, etc. Various scientific reports have indicated that secondary plant metabolites play an important role in preventing oxidative stress and its harmful effects. In this respect, this study was planned to investigate the phenolic profile and antioxidant and antidiabetic potentials of the aqueous extracts from Turkish Cistus species by employing in vitro methods. In vitro digestion simulation procedure was applied to all extracts to estimate the bioavailability of their phenolic contents. Total phenolic, flavonoid, phenolic acid and proanthocyanidin contents were determined for all phases of digestion. In addition, changes in the quantity of the assigned marker flavonoids (tiliroside, hyperoside and quercitrin) were monitored by High-Performance Thin Layer Chromatography (HPTLC) analysis. The antioxidant activity potentials of the extracts were studied by various methods to reveal their detailed activity profiles. On the other hand, in vitro α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymes and advanced-glycation end product (AGE) inhibitory activities of the extracts were determined to evaluate the antidiabetic potentials of extracts. The results showed that aqueous extracts obtained from the aerial parts of Turkish Cistus species have rich phenolic contents and potential antioxidant and antidiabetic activities; however, their bioactivity profiles and marker flavonoid concentrations might significantly be affected by human digestion. The results exhibited that total phenolic contents, antioxidant activities and diabetes-related enzyme inhibitions of the bioavailable samples were lower than non-digested samples in all extracts.

Dietary rational targeting of redox-regulated genes

Nutrigenomics is the study of how food and associated nutrients affect gene expression. This field sits at the intersection of diet, the genome and health with the ultimate goal of exploiting its understanding to design a precision nutrition strategy for humans. We have studied diet and nutrigenomics in the context of something we call "dietary rational gene targeting." Here, healthy diet is used to alter disease-causing gene expression back toward the normal to treat various diseases and conditions while lowering treatment cost and toxicity. In this paper, we discuss the use of this strategy to modulate the expression of redox-associated genes to improve human health. Most human disorders are associated, at least to some extent, with oxidative stress and so treatments (including diet) that target redox-related genes have major potential clinical significance. Healthy dietary options here are wide-ranging and include whole foods and botanical-based beverages. In some cases, botanical supplements may also be useful gene modulators although their health benefits are less clear. Key redox gene targets for these dietary agents include antioxidant genes, related transcription factors, detoxification genes, and DNA repair genes. Other important considerations include bioavailability, the contribution of the microbiome, and advancing technologies. In this review, specific examples of redox associated genes and pathologies and their potential treatment with healthy diet are presented to illustrate our approach. This will also serve as a foundation for the design of future clinical studies to improve diet-related health.

Bioprocessed Wheat Ingredients: Characterization, Bioaccessibility of Phenolic Compounds, and Bioactivity During in vitro Digestion

To enlarge the applications of whole wheat grain (WWG) and wheat bran (WB) as functional ingredients in foodstuffs that can promote human health, researchers have explored bioprocessing approaches to improve the bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds from these food matrices and, subsequently, their biological effects. The objective of this study was to compare the composition in nutrients, anti-nutrients, and bioactive compounds of WWG and WB, and their respective bioprocessed products: sprouted wheat (GERM) and WB hydrolysate (stabilized by spray-drying [SPD] and microencapsulated [MEC]). In addition, to evaluate the functional properties of these ingredients, the bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds and their potential antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities were monitored in different digestion steps. GERM had increased amounts of insoluble dietary fiber, higher diversity of oligosaccharides, and higher concentration of monosaccharides, free phosphorous, and phenolic compounds than WWG. SPD had improved content of soluble dietary fiber, oligosaccharides, monosaccharides, free phosphorous, and phenolic compounds (vs. WB), whereas MEC was mainly composed of protein and had nearly 2-fold lower content of SPD components. All the ingredients showed lower amounts of phytic acid as compared with raw materials. In all samples, hydroxycinnamic acids were the most representative polyphenols followed by minor amounts of hydroxybenzoic acids and flavonoids. Gastrointestinal digestion of GERM, SPD, and MEC revealed high stability of total phenolic compounds in both gastric and intestinal phases. Hydroxycinnamic acids were the most bioaccessible compounds during digestion among the three bioprocessed wheat ingredients studied, although their bioaccessibility varied across ingredients. In this sense, the bioaccessibility of ferulic acid (FA) derivatives increased in GERM with progression of the digestion, while it was reduced in SPD and MEC up to the end of the intestinal phase. Microencapsulation of SPD with pea protein led to generally to lower bioaccessible amounts of phenolic acids. Comparison analysis of biological effects highlighted SPD for its most potent antioxidant effects in the gastrointestinal tract (3 out 4 antioxidant parameters with highest values), while no clear differences were observed with regard to in vitro anti-inflammatory activity. Overall, these results support the potential application of GERM, SPD, and MEC as functional and nutraceutical ingredients.