Natural occurrence of mycotoxins in cereals and spices commercialized in Morocco

Mycotoxin contamination in the Arab world: Highlighting the main knowledge gaps and the current legislation

Since the discovery of aflatoxins in the 1960s, knowledge in the mycotoxin research field has increased dramatically. Hundreds of review articles have been published summarizing many different aspects, including mycotoxin contamination per country or region. However, mycotoxin contamination in the Arab world, which includes 22 countries in Africa and Asia, has not yet been specifically reviewed. To this end, the contamination of mycotoxins in the Arab world was reviewed not only to profile the pervasiveness of the problem in this region but also to identify the main knowledge gaps imperiling the safety of food and feed in the future. To the best of our knowledge, 306 (non-)indexed publications in English, Arabic, or French were published from 1977 to 2021, focusing on the natural occurrence of mycotoxins in matrices of 14 different categories. Characteristic factors (e.g., detected mycotoxins, concentrations, and detection methods) were extracted, processed, and visualized. The main results are summarized as follows: (i) research on mycotoxin contamination has increased over the years. However, the accumulated data on their occurrences are scarce to non-existent in some countries; (ii) the state-of-the-art technologies on mycotoxin detection are not broadly implemented neither are contemporary multi-mycotoxin detection strategies, thus showing a need for capacity-building initiatives; and (iii) mycotoxin profiles differ among food and feed categories, as well as between human biofluids. Furthermore, the present work highlights contemporary legislation in the Arab countries and provides future perspectives to mitigate mycotoxins, enhance food and feed safety, and protect the consumer public. Concluding, research initiatives to boost mycotoxin research among Arab countries are strongly recommended.

Probabilistic risk assessment of exposure to multiple mycotoxins in consumers of packaged and unpackaged spices in Iran

The current study assessed the risk posed to Iranian consumers by oral exposure to a mixture of ten mycotoxins in 138 packaged and unpackaged spices collected from the Iran market. Concentrations of mycotoxins in samples were quantified by liquid chromatography, tandem mass spectrometry with triple quadrupole, and ion trap. Probabilistic health risks of oral exposure to these mycotoxins for Iranians were assessed under percent tolerable daily intake (TDI) and cancer risk scenarios. Mean concentrations of mycotoxins in both packaged and unpackaged spice samples showed statistically significant variation among different spice samples. Based on a Monte Carlo simulation model, at the 50th, 80th, and 95th centiles, oral consumption of the analyzed samples poses no carcinogenic risk for exposure to aflatoxin. Moreover, in both packaged and unpackaged samples, while the percent TDIs for ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, patulin, fumonisin B1, and fumonisin B2 were below 1.0 at the 50th, 80th, and 95th centiles, the value was above 1.0 for aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin B2, aflatoxin G1, and aflatoxin G2 at each of these centiles.

Comparative Study of Ochratoxin A Exposure through the Intake of Cereal Products in Two Climatic Moroccan Regions

The present study aims to compare ochratoxin A (OTA) exposure through the intake of three cereal derivative products (bread, pasta and semolina) in two different Moroccan climatic regions (littoral and continental). OTA weekly intakes from cereal products were calculated using a deterministic approach for each region. Results showed a statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) of OTA exposure between the two regions. Indeed, the median OTA exposure was estimated at 48.97 ng/kg b.w./week in the littoral region, while it was estimated at 6.36 ng/kg b.w./week in the continental region. The probabilistic approach showed that, due to uncertainties, the 95th percentile of weekly OTA exposure associated with the three cereal products ranged from 66.18 to 137.79 (95% CI) with a median of 97.44 ng/kg body weight (b.w.)/week. Compared to the threshold of 100 ng/kg b.w./week, 95% of the cumulative distributions predicted an exceedance frequency between 0.42 and 17.30% (95% CI), with an exceedance frequency median of 4.43%. Results showed that cereal derivatives constitute an important vector of OTA exposure and cause a significant exceedance of toxicological reference value among large consumers in the littoral region, which suggests the urgency of reconsidering the maximum regulatory limit (MRL) set for OTA (3 µg/kg) in cereal derivatives by Moroccan authorities.

Modified-QuEChERS-LC/MS method for the analysis of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in coriander seeds

Coriander seeds consumption, like other spices, has increased due to its culinary use, medicinal benefits, and its essential oil. However, there are few reports in the scientific literature on the prevalence of mycotoxins in this spice. In this report, an easy and simple method was proposed for the determination of the aflatoxin group (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in coriander seeds. The recoveries of analytes ranged from 72 to 102% in spiked samples (0.5-5 µg/kg), with RSD below 11%. The limits of quantification (LOQ) are between 0.12 and 0.5 µg/kg. The proposed method represents an improvement compared to previous studies. It was tested for the determination of 13 samples, proving that it is fast, efficient, and sensitive. Only OTA was identified in four samples, all at levels lower than the European limits defined for some spices (0.88 and 5.4 µg/kg). Such methods are needed for monitoring these toxins in this spice to ensure consumer safety and provide insight into their occurrence.

Public health risk associated with the co-occurrence of aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A in spices, herbs, and nuts in Lebanon

Background

Aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A are mycotoxins produced by filamentous fungi that attack crops on field and storage. Both mycotoxins present a risk on public health since aflatoxin B1 is a hepatotoxic and hepatocarcinogenic agent while ochratoxin A can be nephrotoxic. Those mycotoxins can be found in several food items including spices, herbs, and nuts.

Objectives

In Lebanon, few studies address aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A contamination in spices, herbs, and nuts. So, the aim of this study is to investigate the concentrations of those two mycotoxins particularly in spices and herbs and the concentration of aflatoxin B1 in nuts, and to determine the dietary exposure of the Lebanese population and their possible attribution to liver cancer and renal damage.

Methods

In this work, a total of 198 samples of spices, herbs, and nuts were collected from different sites. Aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A were quantified using immune-affinity columns. A food frequency questionnaire was used to quantify the consumption of spices, herbs, and nuts in Lebanon. Exposure to aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A was calculated accordingly and liver and kidney cancer risks were evaluated.

Results

Aflatoxin B1 was respectively found in 100, 20.4, and 98.6% of the spices, herbs, and nuts samples, while ochratoxin A was found in 100 and 44.4% of spices and herbs, respectively. Aflatoxin B1 was found at mean concentration of 0.97, 0.27, and 0.40 μg/kg in spices, herbs, and nuts, respectively while ochratoxin A was found at mean concentrations of 38.8 and 1.81 μg/kg in spices and herbs, respectively. Aflatoxin B1 occurrence was shown to be associated in this study with 0.017 additional cancer cases per 100,000 persons per year, and ochratoxin A weekly exposure was shown to be 5.04 ng/kg bw less than the Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake of 100 ng/kg bw which indicates low risk of renal damage from spices and herbs consumption.

Conclusion

The consumption of spices, herbs, and nuts in Lebanon could lead to an increase in health risks associated with aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A, specifically spices. The reported occurrence may be directly related to poor storage conditions.

Aflatoxins contents determination in some foodstuffs in Burkina Faso and human health risk assessment

Aflatoxins are produced by fungi of the genus Aspergillus that colonize many foodstuffs during agricultural production, harvesting, transportation, storage, and food processing. In view of these aflatoxins toxicity to humans, their presence in foods such as cereals and oilseeds constitutes a major challenge for global food security, health and nutrition. This study was therefore initiated to assess the level of aflatoxin contamination of various foodstuffs sold in urban and semi-urban markets in Burkina Faso, and to evaluate the carcinogenic risk which the consuming population is exposed to. Two hundred and twelve foodstuff samples were collected in two large cities (Ouagadougou and Bobo Dioulasso) and three semi urban localities (Cinkansé, Dakola and Niangoloko). Aflatoxins contents in foodstuffs were determined by immunoaffinity chromatography and human health risk assessment was performed by using the Monte Carlo algorithm. The aflatoxins contents determination showed that 41.50% of studied samples were contaminated with concentrations up to 182.28 μg/kg for AFB1 in peanuts. Chronic Daily Intake, calculated based on the consumption patterns assumed in this study, was estimated to be higher in large cities (CDI = 33.68 μg/kg bw in Ouagadougou and 10.18 μg/kg bw in Bobo Dioulasso) than in semi urban localities (CDI = 4.29 μg/kg bw in Cinkansé, CDI = 0.39 μg/kg bw in Dakola and CDI = 0.18 μg/kg bw in Niangoloko). The MOE determination showed that the sorghum meal and whole grain maize consumption was associated to the carcinogenic risk for public health in large cities (the percentile 95 of MOE = 3316 for rice, 4511 for peanuts, 3334 for sorghum meal and 4530 for whole grain maize). In semi urban localities, no carcinogenic risk was observed to public health. These results should inspire the country's sanitary and agricultural authorities to undertake actions to fight against the agricultural food products contamination by aflatoxins in order to safeguard the population's health.

•

Almost half of the 212 samples analyzed (cereals and legumes) were contaminated with aflatoxins.

•

Population exposure rates to aflatoxins, are higher in the large cities of Burkina Faso.

•

Cereals consumption is associated to a carcinogenic risk for public health in large cities.

Evaluation of Zearalenones and Their Metabolites in Chicken, Pig and Lamb Liver Samples

Zearalenone (ZON), zearalanone (ZAN) and their phase I metabolites: α-zearalenol (α-ZOL), β-zearalenol (β-ZOL), α-zearalalanol (α-ZAL) and β-zearalalanol (β-ZAL) are compounds with estrogenic activity that are metabolized and distributed by the circulatory system in animals and can access the food chain through meat products from livestock. Furthermore, biomonitoring of zearalenones in biological matrices can provide useful information to directly assess mycotoxin exposure; therefore, their metabolites may be suitable biomarkers. The aim of this study was to determine the presence of ZON, ZAN and their metabolites in alternative biological matrices, such as liver, from three different animals: chicken, pig and lamb, in order to evaluate their exposure. A solid-liquid extraction procedure coupled to a GC-MS/MS analysis was performed. The results showed that 69% of the samples were contaminated with at least one mycotoxin or metabolite at varying levels. The highest value (max. 152.62 ng/g of β-ZOL) observed, and the most contaminated livers (42%), were the chicken liver samples. However, pig liver samples presented a high incidence of ZAN (33%) and lamb liver samples presented a high incidence of α-ZOL (40%). The values indicate that there is exposure to these mycotoxins and, although the values are low (ranged to 0.11-152.6 ng/g for α-ZOL and β-ZOL, respectively), analysis and continuous monitoring are necessary to avoid exceeding the regulatory limits and to control the presence of these mycotoxins in order to protect animal and human health.

Mycotoxins occurrence in milk and cereals in North African countries - a review

North African countries; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia suffer from mycotoxin contamination. Various studies have indicated the presence of mycotoxins in raw milk and cereals (i.e. wheat, barley, maize and cereal-based products). Aflatoxins (AFs), Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), Ochratoxin A (OTA), Fumonisin (FB1) and Zearalenone (ZEN)-mycotoxin are the most detected due to climatic change in the region. In this review, we will present the kind of foods and feeds cereals and milk based products contaminated and the level of their contaminated mycotoxin. On the other hand, researchers try to find biologic methods to remove/mitigate mycotoxins in food and feed using bio-products. But the research works concerning legislations and mycotoxin risk assessment still rare. Therefore, it appears necessary to make review on the current status of mycotoxins in North African countries in order to explore data related to contamination of basic food in this region and to highlight the problem to the policy-makers to establish a serious legislation on this matter. On the other hand, to give more information to the worldwide readers about the impact of climate change on the food and feed pollution on mycotoxins in the Mediterranean Sea region.

Natural Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Maize in North China

Mycotoxins seriously threaten the quality of maize seriously around the world. A total of 426 samples of maize kernel from northeast and northwest China were analyzed in this study. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC–MS/MS) was performed to analyze the mycotoxin contamination of maize samples. The results showed that it was contaminated by mycotoxins in maize. The average contamination levels of fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, aflatoxins, zearalenone, ochratoxin A, T-2 and HT-2 were 937, 431, 22, 27, 2 and 12 μg/kg, respectively. Concentration of mycotoxins in some samples exceeded their limit, but most were still at safe levels. The contamination level of FBs and DON were most significative. The proportion of mycotoxins exceeding the maximum limit standard was in the following order: 8.0%, 8.0%, 7.0%, 1.6%, 1.4% and 0.0%. The contamination of mycotoxins in maize varies from region to region.

Fumonisins in African Countries

Maize and other cereals are the commodities most contaminated with fumonisins. The maize acreage is increasing in Africa, and the maize harvest provides important foods for humans and feeds for domestic animals throughout the continent. In North Africa, high levels of fumonisins have been reported from Algeria and Morocco, while low levels have been detected in the rather few fumonisin analyses reported from Tunisia and Egypt. The West African countries Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ghana, and Nigeria all report high levels of fumonisin contamination of maize, while the few maize samples analysed in Togo contain low levels. In Eastern Africa, high levels of fumonisin contamination have been reported from the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. The samples analysed from Rwanda contained low levels of fumonisins. Analysis of maize from the Southern African countries Malawi, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe revealed high fumonisin levels, while low levels of fumonisins were detected in the few analyses of maize from Botswana and Mozambique.

Fungal contamination, aflatoxigenic fungi and levels of aflatoxin B1 in spices marketed in the West Bank of Palestine

Ninety-seven spices of seven different types were collected from different retailers in the West Bank of Palestine and were analysed for fungal contamination, specifically aflatoxigenic Aspergillus spp. and Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) levels. Aspergillus was found in 89% samples analysed. Ground red chilli had the highest average number of fungal colonies. In decreasing order, mixed spices (57%), cardamom (53%), red chilli (52%), chicken spices (50%), sumac (47%) and pepper (38%), were contaminated with Aspergillus species. Aspergillus niger and A. flavus were dominating Aspergillus species in 37% and 23% of food samples analysed, respectively. Of the 11 tested isolates, 82% were identified as aflatoxin-producers. AFB1 was detected in 40.2% of the samples analysed with a mean value of 2.09 ± 3.20 μg/kg. Red chilli powder followed by chicken spices and cardamom recorded the highest levels (6.98, 3.55 and 1.48 μg/kg, respectively). Twenty-two of the spices (23%), were above the European Union's maximum limit of 5 μg/kg.

Varied reduction of ochratoxin A in brown and white rice during roasting

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a possible human carcinogen commonly found in various agricultural commodities worldwide. While this potent nephrotoxin tends to survive common food processes and contaminate food products, certain process with higher temperature treatments may reduce OTA contents. Roasting has been suggested as a possible method to reduce OTA in coffee beans with up to 90% reduction, which may be applied to other food commodities. In this study, the possible influence of fibres on the reduction of OTA was investigated with brown and white rice with 2.2 and 6.7% of total dietary fibre content, respectively, roasting at two different temperatures (160 and 200 °C) for up to 30 min. The results showed that the rate and extent of OTA reduction were dependent on time, temperature, and rice type; greater than 60% of OTA reduction were achieved at 200 °C for 30 min for white rice and 37% for brown rice at the same conditions. No significant differences in reduction were observed between the samples roasted at 160 °C for 30 min and 200 °C for 15 min for both the white and brown rice, while white rice roasted at 160 °C for 15 min during roasting may be affected by the presence of fibre and/or fat in the cereal grains.

Quality control and mycotoxin levels in food in the Palestinian market

A total of 51 food samples (18 rice, 17 wheat flour, and 16 nuts) were randomly collected from different shops and analysed for the presence of total aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and fumonisins, using a lateral flow competitive immunochromatographic assay method. Mycological contamination (total aerobic and fungi count), colour index (L*a*b*) and moisture content were also evaluated. Sensory characteristics for mycotoxins contaminated and uncontaminated samples of rice and wheat flour were evaluated by 40 panellists. Forty-five per cent of all samples were positive for aflatoxins as the most occurred mycotoxins, with a range of 2-8.1 μg/kg. Fungal counts were not significantly different between contaminated and uncontaminated rice and wheat flour samples. In addition, panellists were able to discriminate between contaminated and uncontaminated rice samples by detection of mouldy flavour, spoilage symptoms, earthy flavour, and the degree of freshness.

Aflatoxin B1 in imported cinnamon consumed in the Yazd province of Iran

Aflatoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced mainly by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, which are fungal contaminants found in several foodstuffs, including spices. In this study 40 cinnamon samples were collected in November and December 2020 in the Iranian province of Yazd and analysed for the presence of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) by high performance liquid chromatography. Seven out of 40 (17.5%) samples were contaminated with AFB₁ at levels ranging from 0.59 to 5.8 μg/kg. In addition, 2.5% of cinnamon samples contained AFB₁ concentrations above the maximum level of 5 μg/kg, as established by the Iranian national standard. Due to the harmful effects of aflatoxins, even at low amounts, these can cause serious chronic health problems. Therefore, continuous control to avoid AFB₁ contamination in foodstuffs is required.

Simultaneous determination of trichothecene mycotoxins in cereals by LC-MS/MS

This study was designed to determine the residual trichothecene mycotoxins in cereal samples. The optimal solvent for extraction was 84% (v/v) aqueous acetonitrile with 1% (v/v) formic acid. The best performing clean-up method was dispersive-solid phase with a mixture octadecyl silica and primary-secondary amine. The recoveries for the studied mycotoxins ranged from 83.3 to 92.8%. The methodology was successfully applied for monitoring 100 cereal samples obtained from a Korean market. The bean sample were found to be co-contamination with deoxynivalenol and HT-2 toxin. Deoxynivalenol possessed the highest detection freauency (4/100) and amount (727.38 µg/kg) among the trichothecene mycotoxins. The hazard index was less than 1.0 for all the observed mycotoxins in all cereal samples except one white rice sample (1.2681). This results indicated that periodic risk assessments of trichothecene mycotoxin through cereal intake are necessary for the health and safety.

Survey of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A contamination in spices by HPLC-based method in Shiraz, Southern of Iran

Among food and agricultural products, spices play important roles in the diets of millions of people worldwide. These products may be colonized by fungi genus and subsequently mycotoxin production. Due to the large demand and supply of spice for cooking, preservative effects, or medicine purpose, it is essential that further investigation is designed to examine mycotoxins in spice. In the present study, the possible contamination of spices by aflatoxins (AFTs) and ochratoxin A (OTA) were analyzed. A total of 80 spice samples (curry, sumac, ginger, and saffron) were purchased and cultured on appropriate medium. Simultaneously mycotoxins from spices were extracted with immunoaffinity columns (IAC), and the occurrence of AFTs (B1 + B2 + G1 + G2) and OTA was then determined using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a fluorescence detector (FD). The results depicted that 62 (77.5%) and 58 (72.5%) spice samples were contaminated with AFTs and OTA, respectively. Out of the 80 analyzed spices samples, the mean concentration of AFTs and OTA was higher in the curry samples. Among spices that contaminated with mycotoxins, 5 (6.25%) and 2 (10%) of the samples were above the acceptable limit of AFTs (≥ 10 μg/kg) and OTA (≥ 15 μg/kg), respectively. Aspergillus species were the predominant species isolated, followed by Penicillium, and finally Mucor species.Among the examined samples, only few curry samples were contaminated with mycotoxins above acceptable limit. Despite this low level of contamination, this spice is used daily in the cuisine of this region of the world, and consequently, even the small amount of these heat stable toxins for a long time may cause many adverse effects. Hence, it is recommended to monitor the toxicogenous fungi contamination and level of mycotoxins in the spices.

Aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A in imported and Lebanese wheat and -products

AFB₁ and OTA are produced in food products due to climatic conditions like temperature and humidity. In Lebanon, few studies address AFB₁ and OTA contamination in wheat and wheat products. In this study, a total of 312 samples of wheat and wheat products were collected from different sites, including port, silos, mills, and supermarkets were analysed. Wheat and wheat products consumption in Lebanon was quantified using a food frequency questionnaire. Exposure to AFB₁ and OTA was calculated and liver and kidney cancer risk were evaluated. Results showed that AFB₁ and OTA were, respectively, found in 65.7% and 100% of the samples, with 0.6% and 17.6% exceeding the maximum limit set by the European Commission. AFB₁ was shown to be associated with 0.076 additional cancer cases per 100,000 persons per year and OTA weekly exposure was shown to be 53.2 ng/kg bw, which is less than the Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake of 100 ng/kg bw.

Does the treatment of dried herbs with ozone as a fungal decontaminating agent affect the active constituents?

Herbs and spices are food crops susceptible to contamination by toxigenic fungi. Ozone, as a decontamination approach in the industry, has attractive benefits over traditional food preservation practices. A contribution to the studying of ozone as an antifungal and anti-mycotoxigenic agent in herbs and spices storage processes is achieved in this research. Nine powdered sun-dried herbs and spices were analyzed for their fungal contamination. The results indicate that licorice root and peppermint leaves were found to have the highest population of fungi while black cumin and fennel record the lowest population. The most dominant fungal genera are Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Rhizopus. Ozone treatment was performed at a concentration of 3 ppm applied for exposure times of 0, 30, 90, 150, 210, and 280 min. After 280 min of exposure to ozone, the reduction of fungal count ranged from 96.39 to 98.26%. The maximum reduction in spore production was achieved in the case of A. humicola and Trichderma viride exposed for 210 min ozone gas. There was a remarkable reduction in the production of the total mycotoxin, reaching 24.15% in aflatoxins for the 150 min-treated inoculum in the case of A. flavus. The total volume of essential oil of chamomile and peppermint was reduced by 57.14 and 26.67%, respectively, when exposed to 3 ppm. For 280 min. In conclusion, fumigation with ozone gas can be used as a suitable method for achieving sanitation and decreasing microbial load in herbs and spices. Still, it is crucial to provide precautions on ozone's effect on major active constituents before recommending this method for industrial application.

QuEChERS LC-MS/MS Screening Method for Mycotoxin Detection in Cereal Products and Spices

We developed and validated a screening method for mycotoxin analysis in cereal products and spices. Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) was used for the analysis. Dispersive solid-phase extractions (d-SPEs) were used for the extraction of samples. Ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEA), aflatoxins (AFLA; AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin (FUMO; FB1, FB2, FB3), T2, and HT2 were validated in maize. AFLA and DON were validated in black pepper. The method satisfies the requirements of Commission Regulation (EC) no. 401/2006 and (EC) no. 1881/2006. The screening target concentration (STC) was under maximum permitted levels (MLs) for all mycotoxins validated. The method's performance was assessed by two different proficiencies and tested with 100 real samples.

Occurrence of Free and Conjugated Mycotoxins in Aromatic and Medicinal Plants and Dietary Exposure Assessment in the Moroccan Population

Aromatic and medicinal plants (AMPs), as herbal material, are subjected to contamination by various mycotoxin-producing fungi, either free and conjugated. Such a problem is associated with poor storage practices, and lack of adopting good agricultural practices and good harvesting practices. Nevertheless, AMPs are poorly investigated. The purpose of this study was to investigate the co-occurrence of 15 mycotoxins (four aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2), ochratoxin A (OTA), beauvericin (BEA), four enniatins (ENA, ENA1, ENB, and ENB1), zearalenone (ZEN), alternariol (AOH), tentoxin (TENT), T-2, and HT-2 toxins) in 40 samples of AMPs frequently consumed in Morocco by using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Evaluation of conjugated mycotoxins and their identification using liquid chromatography coupled to time-of-flight mass spectrometry with ion mass exact was also carried out. Results showed that 90% of the analyzed samples presented at least one mycotoxin, and 52% presented co-occurrence of them. Mycotoxins detected were: AOH (85%), ZEN (27.5%), β-ZEL (22%), AFG1 (17.5%), TENT (17.5%), ENB (10%), AFG2 (7.5%), α-ZEL (5%), ENA1 (2.5%), and HT-2 (2.5%), while the conjugated mycotoxins were ZEN-14-Glc (11%) and ZEN-14-Sulf (9%). The highest observed level was for AOH, with 309 ng/g. Ten samples exceeded the recommended levels set by the European Pharmacopoeia for AF mycotoxins in plant material (4 ng/g), and three samples exceeded the maximum limits for AFs (10 ng/g) in species established by the European Commission. Although the co-occurrence of several mycotoxins in AMP samples was observed, the dietary exposure assessment showed that the intake of mycotoxins through the consumption of AMP beverages does not represent a risk for the population.

Occurrence, Impact on Agriculture, Human Health, and Management Strategies of Zearalenone in Food and Feed: A Review

Mycotoxins represent an assorted range of secondary fungal metabolites that extensively occur in numerous food and feed ingredients at any stage during pre- and post-harvest conditions. Zearalenone (ZEN), a mycotoxin categorized as a xenoestrogen poses structural similarity with natural estrogens that enables its binding to the estrogen receptors leading to hormonal misbalance and numerous reproductive diseases. ZEN is mainly found in crops belonging to temperate regions, primarily in maize and other cereal crops that form an important part of various food and feed. Because of the significant adverse effects of ZEN on both human and animal, there is an alarming need for effective detection, mitigation, and management strategies to assure food and feed safety and security. The present review tends to provide an updated overview of the different sources, occurrence and biosynthetic mechanisms of ZEN in various food and feed. It also provides insight to its harmful effects on human health and agriculture along with its effective detection, management, and control strategies.

Zearalenone and Its Metabolites-General Overview, Occurrence, and Toxicity

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi and represent one of the most common groups of food contaminants with low molecular weight. These toxins are considered common and can affect the food chain at various stages of production, harvesting, storage and processing. Zearalenone is one of over 400 detected mycotoxins and produced by fungi of the genus Fusarium; it mainly has estrogenic effects on various organisms. Contaminated products can lead to huge economic losses and pose risks to animals and humans. In this review, we systemize information on zearalenone and its major metabolites.

Aflatoxin M1 prevalence in breast milk in Morocco: Associated factors and health risk assessment of newborns "CONTAMILK study"

The aim of this study was to assess the contamination of breast milk by aflatoxin M1 among nursing mothers from Rabat, Morocco, and to explore its association with several maternal parameters and dietary habits. In addition, the health risk assessment of the newborns by the estimation of the daily intake. A competitive Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay method was used for the analysis of aflatoxin M1 in breast milk samples. Analytical results indicate that out of 82 total samples, 43 samples (52.4%) of milk were positive. Aflatoxin M1 levels ranged from undetectable to 13.33 ng/L, while the mean level was 5.75 ± 3.44 ng/L. Besides, several factors and foodstuffs seem to increase the level of AFM1 in breast milk. As regards the estimated daily intake of aflatoxin M1, it varies between immeasurable and a maximum of 1.16 ng/kg.bw. The degree of exposure to AFB1 and the levels of its metabolite AFM1 in breast milk were low, compared to some studies from other countries. Further investigations and periodic monitoring programs are recommended in large samples and in many cities of morocco to assess the level of exposure of the Moroccan population.

Co-Occurrence of Aflatoxin B1 and Ochratoxin A in Lebanese Stored Wheat

ABSTRACT

The aim of the study was to determine the levels of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in durum wheat samples collected over six periods of time from two official warehouses (A and B) in Lebanon. The concentrations of AFB1 in wheat samples taken from both warehouses ranged from 1.05 to 7.36 μg/kg. Results showed that 23.3 and 25.3% of samples taken from warehouse A and warehouse B, respectively, had AFB1 levels >2 μg/kg. For OTA, the contamination level of wheat samples taken from warehouse A and warehouse B was 52.0 and 44.6%, respectively, with concentrations ranging from 0.51 to 9.71 μg/kg. The percentage of samples with high detectable OTA levels (>3 μg/kg) was 28.6 and 25.3% for wheat samples taken from warehouse A and warehouse B, respectively. Thus, the consumption of wheat and derived products in Lebanon can be considered hazardous and may present a significant risk to the health of the Lebanese population regarding the overall daily exposure to these mycotoxins.

HIGHLIGHTS

Ochratoxin a in breast milk in Morocco: the affecting dietary habits of the lactating mothers and the degree of exposure of newborns "CONTAMILK study"

The aim of the present study is to evaluate the level of contamination of breast milk (BM) by ochratoxin A, among Moroccan lactating mothers in the city of Rabat, and to identify the associated factors of exposure, also to estimate the degree of exposure of the breastfeed infant. The analysis of ochratoxin A (OTA) was accomplished by ELISA method on 82 colostrum samples. OTA was detectable (>0.08 ng/mL) in 55% of samples with a maximum concentration of 10.04 ng/mL, and the levels exceeded 0.5 ng /mL in 50 % of the samples. In addition, several factors and dietary habits affect significantly the level of OTA in the analyzed samples of breast milk including, the consumption of industrial dairy products, the frequency of consumption of canned foods, dried fruits and legumes, also the period of breast milk collection. Besides, OTA was higher than the tolerable daily intake for 49% newborns. However, these results need to be confirmed by multicenter studies to more broadly estimate the levels of exposition of Moroccan population to OTA. Furthermore, awareness campaigns are recommended to inform the public, especially pregnant women and lactating women about appropriate preventive measures to limit exposure to this mycotoxin.

Exposure assessment to ochratoxin A through the intake of three cereal derivatives from the Moroccan market

Previous studies reported the contamination of cereals products with OTA in Morocco. Given bread, pasta and semolina are staple consumed food in the country, this study aims to assess the OTA exposure levels for the adult consumers in the country through cereal derivatives intake, by using a deterministic model based on the crossover of consumption and contamination data of 457 cereals products samples. The study also set out to determine under what conditions the OTA contributions from these 3 cereal derivatives alone were enough to cause a real public health problem in the country. The Estimated Weekly Intake EWI (ng/kg b.w./week) was used as an indicator of exposure for each cereal derivative. The global exposure (Total EWI) was determined by the summation of the EWI obtained for each cereal derivative for different consumers groups and at different OTA levels and nine scenarios were elaborated. Results showed that the total average OTA intake from the three cereal derivatives was estimated at 13.5 ng/kg b.w./week. Despite its low contamination levels, bread has been shown to be the main vector of exposure to OTA because of the high consumption levels by Moroccan adults. Its contribution to the total OTA intake was between 81 and 84% depending on the scenario. The contribution of the other investigated cereal products to total OTA intake seems to be modest and does not exceed 10% and 7% for semolina and pasta, respectively. The predominance of cereal derivatives in Moroccan food thus constitutes a potential risk factor for OTA exposure. Indeed, the risk of occurrence of potential adverse effects of OTA is real in three scenarios discussed in the study since the PTWI established by JECFA (100 ng/kg b.w./week) was exceeded. Moreover, the Maximum limit (3 ng/g) set by Moroccan regulations in 2016, seems to be less protective for the Moroccan consumers compared to other countries due to the high consumption level of cereal products. This situation is likely to cause a public health problem by the occurrence of specific pathologies at highly OTA exposed adults, especially high bread consumers.

Microbiological Detoxification of Mycotoxins: Focus on Mechanisms and Advances

Some fungal species of the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium secretes toxic metabolites known as mycotoxins, have become a global concern that is toxic to different species of animals and humans. Biological mycotoxins detoxification has been studied by researchers around the world as a new strategy for mycotoxin removal. Bacteria, fungi, yeast, molds, and protozoa are the main living organisms appropriate for the mycotoxin detoxification. Enzymatic and degradation sorptions are the main mechanisms involved in microbiological detoxification of mycotoxins. Regardless of the method used, proper management tools that consist of before-harvest prevention and after-harvest detoxification are required. Here, in this review, we focus on the microbiological detoxification and mechanisms involved in the decontamination of mycotoxins.

Safety evaluation of Ochratoxin A and Citrinin after 28 days repeated dose oral exposure to Wistar rats

Mycotoxins, ochratoxin A (OTA), and citrinin (CTN) are toxic metabolites of filamentous fungi. The most common fungal species that produce OTA and CTN belong to genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Monascus, and these fungal species are found to be contaminant a wide range of grains, food, and food product. The aim of our study was to evaluate the sub-acute repeated dose oral toxicity of OTA and CTN in experimental rodents by following OECD test guidelines for testing chemicals no. 407 with minor modifications. Twenty-five rats of each sex were divided equally into five groups; vehicle control, OTA 25 μg/kg b. wt., OTA 100 μg/kg b. wt., CTN 25 μg/kg b.wt. and CTN 100 μg/kg b. wt. The results of this study showed no abnormal clinical signs during 28 days of the experimental period. We did not found any significant changes in body weight gain, food consumption pattern, organ weight, hematology except few parameters, and biochemical values in any of the treatment and control groups. However, histopathological observations revealed severe nephrotoxicity and mild follicular depletion in the spleen of 100 μg/kg b. wt. treated groups of both OTA and CTN mycotoxins. The findings of our study are of its first kind that reports the systemic toxicity of OTA and CTN oral exposure to laboratory rodents.

Multi-Mycotoxin Occurrence and Exposure Assessment Approach in Foodstuffs from Algeria

A survey on 120 cereal samples (barley, maize, rice and wheat) from Algerian markets has been carried out to evaluate the presence of 15 mycotoxins (ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, fumonisin B1 and B2, T-2 and HT-2 toxins, zearalenone, fusarenon X, citrinin, sterigmatocystin, enniatins A, A1, B and B1, and beauvericin). With this purpose, a QuEChERS-based extraction and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) were used. Analytical results showed that 78 cereal samples (65%) were contaminated with at least one toxin, while 50% were contaminated with three to nine mycotoxins. T-2 toxin, citrinin, beauvericin and deoxynivalenol were the most commonly found mycotoxins (frequency of 50%, 41.6%, 40.8% and 33.3%, respectively). Fumonisins (B1 + B2), enniatins B and B1, deoxynivalenol and zearalenone registered high concentrations (289-48878 µg/kg, 1.2-5288 µg/kg, 15-4569 µg/kg, 48-2055 µg/kg and 10.4-579 µg/kg, respectively). Furthermore, concentrations higher than those allowed by the European Union (EU) were observed in 21, 8 and 1 samples for fumonisins, zearalenone and deoxinivalenol, respectively. As a conclusion, the high levels of fumonisins (B1 + B2) in maize and deoxynivalenol, zearalenone and HT-2 + T-2 toxins in wheat, represent a health risk for the average adult consumer in Algeria. These results pointed out the necessity of a consistent control and the definition of maximum allowed levels for mycotoxins in Algerian foodstuffs.

Variation of Fusarium Free, Masked, and Emerging Mycotoxin Metabolites in Maize from Agriculture Regions of South Africa

The presence of mycotoxins in cereal grain is a very important food safety issue with the occurrence of masked mycotoxins extensively investigated in recent years. This study investigated the variation of different Fusarium metabolites (including the related regulated, masked, and emerging mycotoxin) in maize from various agriculture regions of South Africa. The relationship between the maize producing regions, the maize type, as well as the mycotoxins was established. A total of 123 maize samples was analyzed by a LC-MS/MS multi-mycotoxin method. The results revealed that all maize types exhibited a mixture of free, masked, and emerging mycotoxins contamination across the regions with an average of 5 and up to 24 out of 42 investigated Fusarium mycotoxins, including 1 to 3 masked forms at the same time. Data obtained show that fumonisin B1, B2, B3, B4, and A1 were the most prevalent mycotoxins and had maximum contamination levels of 8908, 3383, 990, 1014, and 51.5 µg/kg, respectively. Deoxynivalenol occurred in 50% of the samples with a mean concentration of 152 µg/kg (max 1380 µg/kg). Thirty-three percent of the samples were contaminated with zearalenone at a mean concentration of 13.6 µg/kg (max 146 µg/kg). Of the masked mycotoxins, DON-3-glucoside occurred at a high incidence level of 53%. Among emerging toxins, moniliformin, fusarinolic acid, and beauvericin showed high occurrences at 98%, 98%, and 83%, and had maximum contamination levels of 1130, 3422, and 142 µg/kg, respectively. Significant differences in the contamination pattern were observed between the agricultural regions and maize types.

Mycotoxin concentrations in rice from three climatic locations in Africa as affected by grain quality, production site, and storage duration

Information on the mycotoxin contamination of rice in Africa is limited although the risk of contamination is high. In this study, domestic milled rice processed by actors using suboptimal methods was purchased and total fumonisin (FUM), zearalenone, and aflatoxin concentrations determined at 0, 90, and 180 days after storage. Three different climatic locations, Cotonou (Benin) in the Guinea savanna, Yaoundé (Cameroon) in the Tropical forest, and N'diaye (Senegal) in the Sahel, were selected as storage sites. Subsets of the samples collected from Glazoue (Benin), Ndop (Cameroon), and Dagana (Senegal) were stored in plastic woven bags under room conditions in the respective sites with or without calcium oxide (burnt scallop shell-BSS, 0.1% w/w) treatment. Multivariance analysis showed that FUM concentration was positively influenced by the duration of storage only while zearalenone concentration was negatively influenced by relative humidity and head rice but positively by impurities. Zearalenone concentration was also influenced by sample collection/storage location, processing type, and duration of storage. Aflatoxin concentration was influenced negatively by storage room temperature and head rice but positively by impurities and chalky grains. In addition, aflatoxin concentration was influenced by collection/storage location and processing type. BSS treatment followed by storage for 6 months had no effect on the concentration of the three assessed mycotoxins. Strategies to reduce the risk of mycotoxin contamination in study sites will include the improvement of physical rice quality through better pre- and postharvest practices and proper packaging of both treated rice and untreated rice in hermetic systems before marketing and storage.

The B Group Vitamins and Mineral Elements in the Selective Removal of Wheat Kernel Layers

The objective of this study was to investigate how selective removal of the surface layers of whole wheat grains by abrasive scouring affects the distribution of mineral elements (macronutrients, micronutrients and trace elements) and the B group vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin pyridoxine, pantothenic acid and niacin) in three soft winter wheat varieties (Partizanka, Novosadska rana and Lasta). Although representing technologically different quality classes of wheat, the varieties were not significantly different in the B group vitamin contents, except for pyridoxine. Whole grains of all varieties exhibited very similar scouring behavior in reduction of vitamins: the most intensive investigated regime only slightly, but not significantly reduced the concentration of the B group vitamins. The nutritive value of scoured wheat grains with regard to the B group vitamins was preserved.

The investigated minerals were: Na, K, Ca, Mg, Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Ni, Cr, Se, Pb and Cd. The concentrations of minerals in scoured wheat grains were significantly reduced, dropping on average to 65% of the initial values for macro and 55% for microelements. The change of concentrations with the duration of applied treatment followed different patterns for different elements. Furthermore, a different pattern of the change for the same element in different wheat varieties was noticed. This might be due either to different mechanical properties of bran and bran layer interfaces or genotypic variability in distribution of elements in wheat grain. Severe reduction in Pb concentrations was achieved leading to improvement of whole-wheat food safety.

Overview of Fungi and Mycotoxin Contamination in Capsicum Pepper and in Its Derivatives

Capsicum products are widely commercialised and consumed worldwide. These substrates present unusual nutritional characteristics for microbial growth. Despite this, the presence of spoilage fungi and the co-occurrence of mycotoxins in the pepper production chain have been commonly detected. The main aim of this work was to review the critical control points, with a focus on mycotoxin contamination, during the production, storage and distribution of Capsicum products from a safety perspective; outlining the important role of ecophysiological factors in stimulating or inhibiting mycotoxin biosynthesis in these food commodities. Moreover, the human health risks caused by the ingestion of peppers contaminated with mycotoxins were also reviewed. Overall, Capsicum and its derivative-products are highly susceptible to contamination by mycotoxins. Pepper crop production and further transportation, processing and storage are crucial for production of safe food.

Mycobiota and Mycotoxic Contamination of Feed Cereals

The cereals are a suitable substrate for the growth of microscopic filamentous fungi. Micromycetes are capable of reducing the nutritional value of feedstuff and they can produce several mycotoxins. The most frequent genera of microscopic filamentous fungi are Fusarium, Penicillium, Alternaria and Aspergillus. The contamination by microscopic fungi and mycotoxins was determinated in 56 samples of feed cereals originating from the Slovak Republic. The most common genera of fungi detected in the feed cereals included: Alternaria (67.8 %), Fusarium (44.6 %), Penicillium (39.2 %), Mucor (30.3 %), Rhizopus (28.5 %), Cladosporium (21.4 %), Scopulariopsis (8.9 %) and Aspergillus (1.7 %). Deoxynivalenol was present in 24 samples (42.8 %) and zearalenone in 15 samples (26.7 %). The values of both mycotoxins did not reach the regulatory limits and thus they do not pose a risk to livestock nutrition.

Toxigenic fungi and mycotoxin occurrence and prevention in food and feed in northern Africa – a review

North African countries (Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia) are surrounded by water bodies, such as the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Their climate is characterised by high temperatures and high relative humidity in some areas, which are environmental conditions favourable to fast fungal growth and toxinogenesis. This paper reports information on the presence of toxigenic fungi, mycotoxins (especially aflatoxins and ochratoxin A) and emerging Fusarium mycotoxins (enniatins, beauvericin and fusaproliferin) in some Northern African commodities that are largely consumed and were investigated thoroughly, especially raw cereals, bread, couscous, pasta, milk, spices, wine, beer, fruit juices, olives and olive oil, dried fruits and nuts, poultry feeds, etc. in the three North African countries. High contamination levels have been reported for some food samples from the three countries. Steps towards better prevention of mycotoxin production in feeds and decrease of intestinal absorption, by means of plant essential oils associated with clay, have been undertaken. Morocco presumably is the country where mycotoxin regulation is the most detailed in comparison with Algeria and Tunisia. Finally, the conclusion section offers some prospects and recommendations for actions by authorities and scientists during the monitoring of mycotoxins in the foods and feeds produced and/or commercialised in the three countries.