Effect of spray-drying temperature on physicochemical, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of pectin/sodium alginate microencapsulated carvacrol

Carbohydrate-based co-encapsulation of spice oleoresin blends: Impact on flavor release profiles, storage stability, and sensory acceptance

The study highlights the impact of different carbohydrate-based wall materials on the encapsulation and release of flavors and physicochemical characteristics of spray-dried oleoresin blends. The inlet temperature and the wall material type significantly affected the spray drying yield, and Hi-Cap 100, at 150 °C, produced the highest yield. All the wall materials had high water solubility, and Hi-Cap 100 reported the best wettability. Gum Arabic denoted the highest encapsulation efficiency (77.3 ± 0.6%) and the best encapsulation capacity of pungent compounds, phytochemicals, and colors, being approximately two-fold higher than Hi-Cap 100. The blend of gum Arabic and Hi-Cap 100 produced the most efficient volatile release (31 compounds). Thermal treatments accelerated the release of pungent and aroma compounds, while 2% salt concentration delivered the maximum flavor release. Encapsulation retained more than 85% of compounds during 3 months of storage, and thus, the findings suggest industrial applications of encapsulated oleoresin powders would be favorable.

Microencapsulation of Pickering nanoemulsions containing walnut oil stabilized using soy protein-curcumin composite nanoparticles: Fabrication and evaluation of a novel plant-based milk substitute

Plant protein-stabilized Pickering nanoemulsions show potential as plant-based milk substitutes; however, their stability is challenged by mechanical stress during transportation and oxidative deterioration during storage. Herein, soybean isolate protein-curcumin composite nanoparticle (SPI-Cur-NPs)-stabilized Pickering nanoemulsions were converted into microcapsule powders via spray-drying with maltodextrin (MD), trehalose anhydrous (TA), and inulin (IN) as wall materials. Robust intermolecular hydrogen bonds and an amorphous structure were formed using composite wall materials, reducing microcapsule surface fissures while improving encapsulation rate (92.7 %) and solubility (>95 %). Moisture sorption isotherms indicated that the composite wall microcapsules demonstrated moisture resistance at a low-water activity (aw < 0.43) and superior hygroscopicity at a high-water activity (aw > 0.67). Accelerated oxidation tests revealed that the presence of curcumin and composite wall materials enhanced oxidative stability, demonstrating a low peroxide value (2.21 mmol/kg [34.4 %]) and TBARS content (97.8 μg/g [18.7 %]). Consequently, microencapsulated powders prepared with SPI-Cur-NPs and MD-TA-IN could potentially improve the limitation of plant-based milk substitutes.

Ampligo® 150 ZC affect the expression of sex hormone receptors and cell proliferation marker in female rabbit ovary: Protective effects of thyme essential oil and vitamin C

Pesticides tend to cause serious reproductive defects, disturbing endocrine functions and reducing fertility, especially in females. The objective of this work was to identify the reprotoxic effects of Ampligo® 150 ZC (AP), a mixture formulation of lambda cyhalothrin and chlorantraniliprole, on the ovary of female rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and the possible protective effect of co-treatment with thyme essential oil (TEO), extracted from (Thymus vulgaris) species, and vitamin C (vit C). Twenty female rabbits were divided into four equal groups (n = 5): Control (distilled water), AP (20 mg/ kg bw of the insecticide mixture every other day, by gavage for 28 days), AP+TEO (20 mg/ kg bw of AP + 0.5 mg/ kg bw of TEO every other day), and AP+TEO+Vit C (20 mg/ kg bw of AP + 0.5 mg/ kg bw of TEO + 200 mg/ kg bw of vitamin C every other day). The effects were tested on body weight, ovary histomorphometry, and immunohistochemical expression of AFP, estrogen receptor (ER), and progesterone receptor (PR). The results revealed that AP decreased body and ovarian weights, caused ovarian histological damages, and increased collagen fiber deposition. The immunostaining of the ovary showed a significant (p < .001) increase in AFP and decrease in both ER and PR expressions. In the opposite, co-administration of TEO and vitamin C was effective in improving all caused alterations. In conclusion, combined use of TEO and vitamin C ameliorated the toxic effects of Ampligo® on the ovary in female rabbits.

Formulation of W/O/W Emulsion-Based Chitosan-Alginate Microcapsules for Encapsulation of Cannabidiol and A. annua L. Extract Containing Luteolin and Apigenin: A Response Surface Optimization Approach

Background/Objectives: Chitosan-alginate microcapsules were produced to encapsulate bioactive compounds from Artemisia annua L. extract (apigenin, luteolin) and cannabidiol (CBD). The study aimed to optimize emulsion composition and encapsulation parameters for potential applications in food supplements and pharmaceuticals. Methods: A water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) emulsion and a modified coacervation extrusion technique were employed. The study was conducted in two phases using response surface methodology. Key metrics included encapsulation efficiency (EE), yield (EY), cumulative release in vitro, and physicochemical and morphological properties, analyzed via scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), high-performance liquid chromatography with a diode array detector (HPLC-DAD), and gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC-FID). Results: The optimal conditions were identified as 0.1% Tween 20, 3.8% Span 80, 3.8% CBD, 19.9% A. annua L. extract, 1.5% outer-phase Tween 20, 48.5% sodium alginate, 200 rpm stirring for 30 min, and a 0.05 mL/min flow rate. The EE values were 80.32 ± 4.11% for CBD, 88.13 ± 3.13% for apigenin, and 88.41 ± 4.17% for luteolin, with respective cumulative releases of 77.18 ± 4.4%, 75.12 ± 4.81%, and 75.32 ± 4.53%. Conclusions: The developed microcapsules demonstrated high encapsulation efficiency and controlled release, highlighting their potential for further development in food supplements and pharmaceuticals. Future studies should focus on refining the formulation for improved bioavailability and stability.

Antimicrobial and insecticidal activity of spray dried juniper berry (Juniperus communis L.) essential oil microcapsules prepared by using gum arabic and maltodextrin

This study was carried out to optimize spray drying conditions for juniper berry essential oil (JBEO) microencapsulation. The coating material for encapsulation was a combination of maltodextrin (MD) andgum arabic (GA). The wall material content, inlet air temperature and feed flow rate were optimized to obtain small particle size and high level of powder production, with high JBEO loading and encapsulation efficiency, small powder moisture and hygroscopicity. The optimal formulation was characterized by FTIR spectroscopy and used for investigation of antimicrobial and insecticidal activities. The obtained optimal conditions for JBEO microencapsulation were inlet air temperature of 140 °C, feed flow rate of 2.43 cm3 min-1 and wall/core ratio of 3:1. The considerably greater JBEO oil retention was obtained by using spray dried GA compared to GA in a form of the branched polysaccharide. Microencapsulated JBEO showed antibacterial and antifungal activities at oil concentrations 1-5 %. Strong repellency against S. oryzae and A. obtectus were achieved at concentration of JBEO of 2 %, while for mortality of 65.5 % (S. oryzae) and 85.5 % (A. obtectus) after 72 h, the 5 % of JBEO were required. JBEO microencapsulation could be a promising method for the production of biopesticides to reduce the use of chemical preparations.

Multifaceted roles of plant-derived bioactive polysaccharides: A review of their biological functions, delivery, bioavailability, and applications within the food and pharmaceutical sectors

Plant-derived bioactive polysaccharides (PDBPs), versatile polymers originating from various botanical sources, exhibit a spectrum of biological functionalities crucial for human health. This review delves into the multifaceted roles of these bioactive compounds, elucidating their immune-boosting properties, antioxidant prowess, anti-inflammatory capabilities, and contributions to gut health. Amidst their pivotal roles, the efficiency of PDBPs delivery and bioavailability in the human system stands as a central determinant of their efficacy and utilization. This review paper extensively and systematically examines the diverse biological activities, such as immunomodulatory effects, delivery mechanisms like microencapsulation, and promising applications of PDBPs within the realms of both food (functional foods and nutraceuticals) and pharmaceutical (antimicrobial agents and anti-inflammatory drugs) sectors. Additionally, it offers a comprehensive overview of the classification, sources, and structural diversity of these polysaccharides, highlighting various identification techniques and rheological considerations. Moreover, the review addresses critical safety and regulatory concerns alongside global legislation about plant bioactive polysaccharides, envisaging a broader landscape for their utilization. Through this synthesis, we aim to underscore the holistic significance of PDBPs and their potential to revolutionize nutritional and therapeutic paradigms.

Encapsulated fucoxanthin improves the functional properties and storage stability of Undaria Pinnatifida and apple freeze-dried snack food during accelerated storage

Carotenoids, recognized for their antioxidant and anti-aging properties, are commonly used in functional foods. To enhance the application of fucoxanthin (FX) in the food industry, this study employed the ion gel method for encapsulating FX and combined it with raw materials such as Undaria pinnatifida homogenate and apple pieces to create freeze-dried crunchy chunks. The study evaluated the effects of encapsulated-FX on the functional and structural characteristics of the Undaria pinnatifida and apple freeze-dried chunks over accelerated storage period under high temperature and humidity. Various analyses were conducted, including physicochemical properties, texture analysis, color evaluation, sensory assessment, and simulated digestion analysis. The results demonstrated that the FX-rich freeze-dried crunchy chunks exhibited favorable structural properties and appealing flavor. Notably, after the accelerated storage period, the encapsulated-FX maintained significant antioxidant activity, along with excellent thermal and light stability, indicating high storage stability. Additionally, the main ingredients, sodium alginate (SAA) and pectin (PE), significantly enhanced the stability of FX during in vitro digestion. This study provided a straightforward approach for producing freeze-dried snack foods rich in stabled-FX, contributing to the diversity of value-added algae products. Furthermore, it laid a theoretical foundation and reference for the future development of nutritional products.

Long-acting sustained release microcapsules of oregano essential oil-loaded gelatin/carrageenan for food preservation against Botrytis cinerea

As a food-derived natural component, oregano essential oil (OEO) exhibits excellent activity against Botrytis cinerea (B. cinerea). However, its poor water solubility and chemical instability limit its application in preservation. In this study, we determined the composition of OEO and encapsulated it in microcapsules using gelatin/carrageenan (GE/CRG) as the capsule wall, achieving a particle size of 336.10 nm and an encapsulation efficiency of 87.79 %. The microcapsules realize the slow-release duration of OEO to over 80 h. More importantly, due to the slow-release effect of OEO, OEO-GE/CRG microcapsules demonstrated excellent inhibitory activity against B. cinerea with an EC50 value of 0.18 mg/mL. The microcapsule treatment significantly prolonged the preservation period of cherry tomatoes in infection models with B. cinerea. These results indicate that OEO-GE/CRG microcapsules could serve as a potential fungal inhibitor and agent for fruit storage and preservation.

Progress of Researches on Pharmacological Effects and Bioavailability of Tangeretin

Tangeretin is one of the most abundant polymethoxyflavones in citrus peel and its pharmacological effects are extremely rich. However, due to its poor solubility, bitter taste and poor oral bioavailability, the oral administration of tangeretin is still limited, which seriously limits its application in industrial production. The establishment of encapsulation and delivery systems to improve bioavailability is an effective method. This paper reviewed the research progress of the structure and properties, pharmacological effects and main methods to improve bioavailability of tangeretin, including emulsion delivery, lipid encapsulation, microencapsulation and other delivery and utilization research and application. The article aims to provide theoretical basis for the high-value application of tangeretin in functional food and pharmaceutical industry.

Design of an antioxidant powder additive based on carvacrol encapsulated into a multilayer chitosan-alginate-maltodextrin emulsion

Carvacrol has demonstrated antioxidant activity; however, its high volatility and low water solubility limit its direct application in food matrices. Then, an effective encapsulation system is required to protect it. This study aimed to design and characterize a carvacrol-based additive encapsulated in a spray-dried multilayer emulsion based on chitosan/sodium alginate/maltodextrin. Spray-drying temperature of 120 °C and 3 %(w/w) maltodextrin content maximized both encapsulation efficiency (~97 %) and loading capacity (~53 %). The powder's antioxidant properties were evaluated in two food simulant media: water (SiW) and water-ethanol (SiD). The highest antioxidant activity was observed in SiW for both ABTS•+ (8.2 ± 0.3mgEAG/g) and FRAP (4.1 ± 0.2mgEAG/g) methods because of the reduced release of carvacrol in SiD vs. SiW, as supported by micro- and macrostructural observations by SAXS and microscopy, respectively. An increase from 143 to 157 °C attributable to carvacrol protection and Tg = 44.4 °C (> ambient) were obtained by TGA and DSC, respectively. FT-IR confirmed intermolecular interactions (e.g. -COO- and -NH3+) as well as H-bonding formation. High water solubility (81 ± 3 %), low hygroscopicity (8.8 ± 0.2 %(w/w), poor flowability (CI:45 ± 4), and high cohesiveness (HR:1.8 ± 0.1) between particles were achieved, leading to a powdered antioxidant additive with high potential for applications which required avoiding/reducing oxidation on hydrophilic and hydrophobic food products.

Effects of wall materials on the physicochemical properties of spray-dried bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L.) powders

Bitter gourd has numerous health-promoting effects on the human body. However, its use has been greatly limited due to its poor acceptance by consumers, resulting from its strong bitterness. This study investigated the effects of five wall materials, namely, soybean protein isolate, gum arabic, maltodextrin, resistant starch, and a soybean lecithin calcium caseinate mixture, on the physicochemical properties of spray-dried bitter gourd powders. The results showed that all five wall materials reduced the moisture content, water activity, browning degree, agglomeration, and bitterness of the spray-dried bitter gourd powder. Maltodextrin was found to be the most effective at reducing water activity, while soybean protein isolate was best at protecting the colour, and the soybean lecithin calcium caseinate mixture was best at reducing hygroscopicity and masking bitterness. Additionally, all five wall materials improved the preservation of flavonoids, saponins, and vitamin C, with soybean protein isolate being the most effective in improving the total flavonoid retention ratio and the soybean lecithin calcium caseinate mixture being the best in improving the retention ratios of total saponins and vitamin C. The spray-dried bitter gourd powder prepared with soybean protein isolate had the highest antioxidant activity and α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. These results are significant for understanding the relationship between wall materials and the physicochemical properties of spray-dried powder. Additionally, these materials provide bitter gourd product manufacturers with useful guidance for producing high-quality products. Furthermore, the results could provide useful insights for processing fruits with similar product characteristics, thus contributing to the enrichment of food processing knowledge.

Characterization of the Mechanical, Biodegradation, and Morphological Properties of NBR/Biopolymer Blend, Integrated with a Risk Evaluation

Biopolymer blends have attracted considerable attention in industrial applications due to their notable mechanical properties and biodegradability. This work delves into the innovative combination of butadiene-acrylonitrile (referred to as NBR) with a pectin-based biopolymer (NGP) at a 90:10 mass ratio through a detailed analysis employing mechanical characterization, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and morphology studies using SEM. Additionally, biopolymer's biodegradability under aerobic and anaerobic conditions is tested. The study's findings underscore the superior tensile strength and elongation at break of the NGP/NBR blend in comparison to pure NBR, while also exhibiting a decrease in puncture resistance due to imperfect bonds at the particle-matrix interfaces, necessitating the use of a compatibilizer. In anaerobic conditions, evaluation of biodegradable properties reveals 2% and 12% biodegradability in NBR and NGP/NBR blend, respectively. The degradation properties were also aligned with TGA results highlighting a lower decomposition temperature for NGP. Additionally, this research integrates the application of a conditional value-at-risk (CVaR)-based analysis of the blend's tensile properties to evaluate the uncertainty impact in the experiment. Under risk, a significant enhancement in the tensile performance (by 80%) of the NGP/NBR blend was shown compared to pure NBR. Ultimately, the study shows that adding pectin to the NBR compound amplifies the overall performance of the biopolymer significantly under select criteria.

Fabrication and Morphological Control of Nonspherical Alginate Hydrogel Particles

We report a simple platform for the fabrication of nonspherical alginate hydrogel particles using a dripping method. Hydrogel particles with novel morphologies, such as vortex ring, teardrop, disk, sphere, and mushroom, are fabricated by controlling various parameters. We monitored the deformation process of the hydrogel particles after they penetrated the crosslinking solution using a high-speed camera. Then, we proposed a mechanism showing a unique morphological transformation from a spherical to a disk shape. We demonstrated how controlling the collecting height that causes the drop impact force against the crosslinking solution surface was critical to producing hydrogel particles with these intriguing shapes. In particular, disk-shaped alginate particles show their ability as potential platforms for culturing mouse adrenocortical tumor cells (Y1) and a hippocampal neuronal cell (HT-22). To modify alginate particles, cell-adhesive gelatin is incorporated into the alginate matrix and then alginate particles are coated with poly(allylamine hydrochloride). Two modified alginate particles show good adhesion and proliferation rates on their surfaces. In particular, the hybrid hydrogel particles provide great potential to be developed into promising materials for cell culture, drug delivery, and tissue engineering.

Microencapsulation of Gallic Acid Based on a Polymeric and pH-Sensitive Matrix of Pectin/Alginate

The encapsulation of gallic acid (GA) through several methods has enhanced its shelf life and facilitated industrial applications. Polymeric matrices made of alginate and pectin were evaluated to encapsulate GA via spray drying. The pH-responsive release mechanism was monitored to validate the matrices' performances as wall materials and extend the bioactive compound stability. The microcapsules produced were characterized via scanning electron microscopy (SEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and cyclic voltammetry (CV). The retention and encapsulation efficiency ranges were 45-82% and 79-90%, respectively. The higher values were reached at 3 and 0.75% (w/v) pectin and sodium alginate, respectively. The scanning electron microscopy showed smooth spherical capsules and the average particle size ranged from 1327 to 1591 nm. Their performance and stability were evaluated with optimal results at a pH value of 7 throughout the investigation period. Therefore, this work demonstrated the suitability of gallic acid encapsulation via spray drying using pectin and alginate, which are biopolymers that can be obtained from circular economy processes starting from agro-industrial biomass. The developed formulations provide an alternative to protecting and controlling the release of GA, promoting its application in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries and allowing for the release of compounds with high bioactive potential.

Plant Antimicrobials for Food Quality and Safety: Recent Views and Future Challenges

The increasing demand for natural, safe, and sustainable food preservation methods drove research towards the use of plant antimicrobials as an alternative to synthetic preservatives. This review article comprehensively discussed the potential applications of plant extracts, essential oils, and their compounds as antimicrobial agents in the food industry. The antimicrobial properties of several plant-derived substances against foodborne pathogens and spoilage microorganisms, along with their modes of action, factors affecting their efficacy, and potential negative sensory impacts, were presented. The review highlighted the synergistic or additive effects displayed by combinations of plant antimicrobials, as well as the successful integration of plant extracts with food technologies ensuring an improved hurdle effect, which can enhance food safety and shelf life. The review likewise emphasized the need for further research in fields such as mode of action, optimized formulations, sensory properties, safety assessment, regulatory aspects, eco-friendly production methods, and consumer education. By addressing these gaps, plant antimicrobials can pave the way for more effective, safe, and sustainable food preservation strategies in the future.

Characterization analysis of date fruit pomace: An underutilized waste bioresource rich in dietary fiber and phenolic antioxidants

Date fruit pomace (DFP), an abundant byproduct of the date syrup industry, is currently underutilized. It is either fed to animals or landfilled where it ferments, causing serious environmental issues. Proper waste management through valorization strategies is required to reduce the environmental impact of date waste and foster the transition of the date processing industry towards sustainability. The implementation of valorization strategies requires characterizing the DFP composition. Herein, four DFP samples of Emirati varieties were characterized in terms of compositional and functional properties. The fresh DFPs contained moisture (∼60.0 g/100 g). On a dry matter basis, DFPs contained total dietary fiber (∼45.5 g/100 g), residual sugars (∼35.3 g/100 g), protein (∼10.6 g/100 g), ash (∼4.1 g/100 g), and fat (∼1.3 g/100 g). They were also rich in nutritionally important elements such as potassium (∼145.7 ppm), calcium (∼46 ppm), phosphorus (∼28.7 ppm), and magnesium (∼26.7 ppm). The total phenolic content varied from 170 to 260 mg gallic acid equivalents GAE/100 g, making DFP a good source of antioxidants. Scanning electron microscopy measurements revealed the presence of fibrous bundle-like structures, whose thermal stability was confirmed by thermogravimetric analysis, showing the dominance of insoluble over soluble fiber. Higher water- and oil-holding capacities were found for dried desugared pomace. The high fiber, phenolic, and elemental content highlight the high nutritional value of DFP, which can be used as dietary supplement, while its sugar content can be used to produce value-added biochemicals via fermentation. Thus, DFP may represent a valuable bioresource for food and non-food applications.

Nanostructured steady-state nanocarriers for nutrients preservation and delivery

Food bioactives possess specific physiological benefits of preventing certain diet-related chronic diseases or maintain human health. However, the limitations of the bioactives are their poor stability, lower water solubility and unacceptable bioaccessibility. Structure damage or degradation is often found for the bioactives under certain environmental conditions like high temperature, strong light, extreme pH or high oxygen concentration during food processing, packaging, storage and absorption. Nanostructured steady-state nanocarriers have shown great potential in overcoming the drawbacks for food bioactives. Various delivery systems including solid form delivery system, liquid form delivery system and encapsulation technology have been developed. The embedded food nutrients can largely decrease the loss and degradation during food processing, packaging and storage. The design and application of stimulus and targeted delivery systems can improve the stability, bioavailability and efficacy of the food bioactives upon oral consumption due to enzymatic degradation in the gastrointestinal tract. The food nutrients encapsulated in the smart delivery system can be well protected against degradation during oral administration, thus improving the bioavailability and releazing controlled or targeted release for food nutrients. The encapsulated food bioactives show great potential in nutrition therapy for sub-health status and disease. Much effort is required to design and prepare more biocompatible nanostructured steady-state nanocarriers using food-grade protein or polysaccharides as wall materials, which can be used in food industry and maintain the human health.

Combination of α-lactalbumin and gum Arabic for microencapsulation of L-menthol: The effects on flavor release during storage and rehydration

L-menthol-containing food products generally show the flavor loss during storage due to their high volatility. The hydrophobicity of L-menthol also causes the inadequate flavor release during rehydration. In this study, the stability of L-menthol was enhanced by microencapsulation and the effect of different powder drying techniques was also investigated. The highest efficiency (76.58-78.66 %) and loading content (18.58-28.35 mg/g) of encapsulations were obtained by using a mass ratio of 2:1(α-LA: GA). Then they were dried by non-thermal spray freeze drying (SFD) technique compared to spray drying (SD) and freeze-drying (FD) process. The SFD particles were shown to be spherical and porous with the highest porosity (86.82 %). α-LA/GA based microparticles with spherical shapes were demonstrated to largely enhance flavor retention during high humidity storage. In addition, the porous structures of SFD powders could cause rapid rehydration in liquid models, and the release behaviors of loaded L-menthol followed the Fickian diffusion. Consequently, the SFD technique shows great potential to produce microparticles by regulating the release behaviors of L-menthol during storage and rehydration.

Influence of spray drying parameters on the physicochemical characteristics of microencapsulated pomelo (Citrus grandis (L.) Osbeck) essential oil

This study aimed to evaluate the encapsulation of pomelo (Citrus grandis (L.) Osbeck) essential oils using the spray drying technique. The parameters of the process include concentration of maltodextrin (20-35% by wt%/wt%), concentration of essential oil (1-2.5% by wt%/wt%), inlet temperature of spray drying (120-180 °C), and feed flow rates (120-240 mL/h) were soundly examined. The utilization of suitable parameters as the concentration of maltodextrin at 30% (by wt%/wt%), the concentration of essential oil at 1.5% (by wt%/wt%), the inlet temperature of 140 °C, and feed flow rate of 120 mL/h showed the highest drying yields (90.05%), microencapsulation yield (75.59%), and microencapsulation efficiency (89.44%). TGA and DSC results verified higher stability of Citrus grandis essential oil after encapsulation. The encapsulation of pomelo essential oils maintained most of the major components in comparison with the non-encapsulated essential oils without any significant changing in powder-obtained quality.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10068-022-01161-5.

Carvacrol and HP-β-Cyclodextrin Complexes: Extensive Characterization and Potential Cytotoxic Effect in Human Colorectal Carcinoma Cells

The aim of this study was to obtain solid carvacrol-cyclodextrin (CD) complexes for use in the pharmaceutical industry. To this end, the complexation of carvacrol at different pH values was studied in detail, to determine the type of CD and the reaction environment that supported the highest amount of encapsulated carvacrol. Evidence of the capability of hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrins (HP-β-CD) to form inclusion complexes with carvacrol (K_C = 5042 ± 176 L mol^-1) and more high complexation efficiency (2.824) was demonstrated for HP-β-CDs using two different energy sources, ultrasound (US) (K_C = 8129 ± 194 L mol^-1 24 h) and microwave irradiation (MWI) (K_C = 6909 ± 161 L mol^-1), followed by spraying the resulting solution in a spray dryer. To confirm complex formation, the complexes were characterized using various instrumental methods to corroborate the carvacrol incorporation into the hydrophobic cavity of HP-β-CD. The obtained carvacrol solid complexes were analyzed by 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H-NMR) and 2D nuclear magnetic resonance (ROSEY), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TG) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) characterization. The structures of the resulting complexes were also characterized by molecular modeling. Furthermore, 1 mM HP-β-CD-carvacrol complex has been shown to reduce cell proliferation in HCT-116 colorectal cancer cells by 43%, much more than in a healthy lung fibroblast MRC-5 cell line (11%).

Therapeutic application of carvacrol: A comprehensive review

Carvacrol is a major natural constituent and is significantly present as an essential oil in aromatic plants and is well known for its numerous biological activities. Therapeutic properties of carvacrol have been demonstrated as anti-oxidant, anticancer, diabetes prevention, cardioprotective, anti-obesity, hepatoprotective and reproductive role, antiaging, antimicrobial, and immunomodulatory properties. The carvacrol biosynthesis has been mediated through mevalonate pathway. Carvacrol has the anticancer ability against malignant cells via decreasing the expressions of matrix metalloprotease 2 and 9, inducing apoptosis, enhancing the expression of pro-apoptotic proteins, disrupting mitochondrial membrane, suppressing extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 mitogen-activated protein kinase signal transduction, and also decreasing the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B. It also decreased the concentrations of alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase and aspartate aminotransferase, and gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase as well as also restored liver function, insulin level, and plasma glucose level. Carvacrol also has been found to exert antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Coagulase-negative staphylococcus, Salmonella spp., Enterococcus sp. Shigella, and Escherichia coli. The current review article summarizes the health-promoting perspectives of carvacrol through various pathways.

Theophylline-Loaded Pectin/Chitosan Hydrochloride Submicron Particles Prepared by Spray Drying with a Continuous Feeding Ultrasonic Atomizer

Pectin/chitosan hydrochloride (CHC) particles containing theophylline were prepared by a spray-drying apparatus coupled with a continuous feeding ultrasonic atomizer and a heating column. The formation of the submicron particles was investigated at various compositions of pectin solutions added with a chitosan hydrochloride or calcium chloride solution as a crosslinking agent. Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) images showed the pectin/chitosan hydrochloride particles had spherical and smooth surfaces. Depending on the feeding concentrations, the produced particles had diameters in the range of 300 to 800 nm with a narrow size distribution. Furthermore, the theophylline (TH)-loaded pectin/CHC particles were also prepared by the same apparatus. The TH release from the submicron particles in phosphate-buffered saline at 37 °C was monitored in real-time by a UV-Visible spectrophotometer. The Ritger-Peppas model could well describe the TH release profiles. All the diffusional exponents (n) of the release systems were greater than 0.7; thus, the transport mechanism was not a simple Fickian diffusion. Particularly, the n value was 1.14 for the TH-loaded particles at a pectin/CHC weight ratio of 5/2, which was very close to the zero-order drug delivery (n = 1). Therefore, the constant drug-release rate could be achieved by using the spray-dried pectin/CHC particles as the drug carrier.

Recent Developments in the Microencapsulation of Fish Oil and Natural Extracts: Procedure, Quality Evaluation and Food Enrichment

Due to the beneficial health effects of omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidants and their limited stability in response to environmental and processing factors, there is an increasing interest in microencapsulating them to improve their stability. However, despite recent developments in the field, no specific review focusing on these topics has been published in the last few years. This work aimed to review the most recent developments in the microencapsulation of fish oil and natural antioxidant compounds. The impact of the wall material and the procedures on the quality of the microencapsulates were preferably evaluated, while their addition to foods has only been studied in a few works. The homogenization technique, the wall-material ratio and the microencapsulation technique were also extensively studied. Microcapsules were mainly analyzed for size, microencapsulation efficiency, morphology and moisture, while in vitro digestion, flowing properties, yield percentage and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were used more sparingly. Findings highlighted the importance of optimizing the most influential variables of the microencapsulation procedure. Further studies should focus on extending the range of analytical techniques upon which the optimization of microcapsules is based and on addressing the consequences of the addition of microcapsules to food products.

Preparation and Characteristics of Alginate Microparticles for Food, Pharmaceutical and Cosmetic Applications

Alginates are the most widely used natural polymers in the pharmaceutical, food and cosmetic industries. Usually, they are applied as a thickening, gel-forming and stabilizing agent. Moreover, the alginate-based formulations such as matrices, membranes, nanospheres or microcapsules are often used as delivery systems. Alginate microparticles (AMP) are biocompatible, biodegradable and nontoxic carriers, applied to encapsulate hydrophilic active substances, including probiotics. Here, we report the methods most frequently used for AMP production and encapsulation of different actives. The technological parameters important in the process of AMP preparation, such as alginate concentration, the type and concentration of other reagents (cross-linking agents, oils, emulsifiers and pH regulators), agitation speed or cross-linking time, are reviewed. Furthermore, the advantages and disadvantages of alginate microparticles as delivery systems are discussed, and an overview of the active ingredients enclosed in the alginate carriers are presented.

Polysaccharides as wall materials in spray-dried microencapsulation of bioactive compounds: Physicochemical properties and characterization

Natural bioactive compounds (BCs) are types of chemicals found in plants and certain foods that promote good health, however they are sensitive to processing and environmental conditions. Microencapsulation by spray drying is a widely used and cost-effective approach to create a coating layer to surround and protect BCs and control their release, enabling the production of high functional products/ingredients with extended shelf life. In this process, wall materials determine protection efficiency, and physical properties, bioavailability, and storage stability of microencapsulated products. Therefore, an understanding of physicochemical properties of wall materials is essential for the successful and effective spray-dried microencapsulation process. Typically, polysaccharide-based wall materials are generated from more sustainable sources and have a wider range of physicochemical properties and applications compared to their protein-based counterparts. In this review, we highlight the essential physicochemical properties of polysaccharide-based wall materials for spray-dried microencapsulation of BCs including solubility, thermal stability, and emulsifying properties, rheological and film forming properties. We provide further insight into possibilities for the chemical structure modification of native wall materials and their controlled release behaviors. Finally, we summarize the most recent studies involving polysaccharide biopolymers as wall materials and/or emulsifiers in spray-dried microencapsulation of BCs.

Influence of Fermentation Beetroot Juice Process on the Physico-Chemical Properties of Spray Dried Powder

Picking vegetables is, along with salting and drying, one of the oldest ways to preserve food in the world. This is the process of decomposition of simple sugars into lactic acid with the participation of lactic bacteria. The aim of the study was to obtain powders from fermented red beet juice with the highest possible amount of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and active ingredients. For the analysis, juices were squeezed from the vegetables and two types of fermentation were used: a spontaneous fermentation and a dedicated one. After inoculation, samples were taken for analysis on a daily basis. Extract, pH, total acidity, pigments, and color were measured. In addition, microbiological tests were also carried out. The juices from the fifth day of fermentation was also spray dried, to obtain fermented beetroot powder. Juices from 3–5th day were characterized by a high content of LAB and betanin, had also a low pH, which proves that the lactic fermentation is working properly. The exception was the juice from spontaneous fermentation. According to the observations, the fermentation process did not run properly, and further analysis is needed. The powders were stable; however, results obtained from the pigment content and the LAB content are not satisfactory and require further analysis.

Emerging drying techniques for food safety and quality: A review

The new trends in drying technology seek a promising alternative to synthetic preservatives to improve the shelf-life and storage stability of food products. On the other hand, the drying process can result in deformation and degradation of phytoconstituents due to their thermal sensitivity. The main purpose of this review is to give a general overview of common drying techniques with special attention to food industrial applications, focusing on recent advances to maintain the features of the active phytoconstituents and nutrients, and improve their release and storage stability. Furthermore, a drying technique that extends the shelf-life of food products by reducing trapped water, will negatively affect the spoilage of microorganisms and enzymes that are responsible for undesired chemical composition changes, but can protect beneficial microorganisms like probiotics. This paper also explores recent efficient improvements in drying technologies that produce high-quality and low-cost final products compared to conventional methods. However, despite the recent advances in drying technologies, hybrid drying (a combination of different drying techniques) and spray drying (drying with the help of encapsulation methods) are still promising techniques in food industries. In conclusion, spray drying encapsulation can improve the morphology and texture of dry materials, preserve natural components for a long time, and increase storage times (shelf-life). Optimizing a drying technique and using a suitable drying agent should also be a promising solution to preserve probiotic bacteria and antimicrobial compounds.

In vitro digestion of sodium alginate/pectin co-encapsulated Lactobacillus bulgaricus and its application in yogurt bilayer beads

The purpose of this study was to prepare sodium alginate (SA)/pectin (PE) hydrogel microspheres using the extrusion method to encapsulate Lactobacillus bulgaricus. Microscopic observation showed that the beads were spherical with a smooth and uniform surface. For microspheres with a diameter range of 140-156 μm, the encapsulation efficiency reached 85.67%. After simulating saliva, gastric juice, and intestinal juice, the activity of the microcapsules was estimated to be 5.78 × 10⁴ log colony forming unit (CFU)/mL. These data show that the use of SA and PE encapsulated probiotics exhibit enhanced viability. In addition, double-layer beads containing probiotic microspheres and yogurt were prepared, and physical and chemical analysis was performed using scanning electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and differential scanning calorimetry. Texture and sensory property analysis revealed that the beads had good elasticity, chewiness, and high commercial value. Collectively, these findings indicate that SA and PE can be used for the encapsulation, protection, and gastrointestinal delivery of probiotics. Moreover, these microcapsules exhibit good stability in vitro and improve yogurt characteristics by increasing the survival rate of encapsulated probiotics, thus demonstrating their commercial application potential.

Pectin microparticles for peptide delivery: Optimization of spray drying processing

Spray-dried pectin microparticles can potentially improve the oral bioavailability of peptides by virtue of their mucoadhesion. However, developing such formulations with desirable quality attributes is challenging due to the sensitivity of microparticle critical quality attributes towards changes in spray drying processing parameters. In this study, a central composite design approach was applied to investigate the influence of input temperature, aspirator rate, feed flow rate, polymer concentration and polymer feed weight on the yield and particle size of pectin microparticles prepared via spray drying. A mathematical model for the prediction of yield was statistically significant with good predictability. A maximum yield of 72.2% was achieved through optimizing the spray drying conditions. The particle size remained in a relatively narrow range (D50, 2.16-3.67 μm), and therefore was considered independent of the factors investigated. The model for yield prediction was further validated using octreotide acetate as a representative peptide. The presence of octreotide acetate in the pectin microparticles increased their surface roughness and decreased their melting enthalpy. In addition, it was determined that pectin with a high degree of esterification (72%, AU201) resulted in faster drug release compared to pectin with a lower degree of esterification (62%, CU401). Interestingly, the degree of esterification did not impact microparticle particle size, morphology or thermal properties. This study demonstrates the importance of DoE in optimization of the spray drying process for the development of pectin-based peptide microparticles. This is the first report using spray-dried pectin-based microparticles for octreotide delivery. The yield prediction model achieved using a central composite design may also be helpful for formulation development of similar drug products.

Chemotherapy-induced hearing loss: the applications of bio-nanotechnologies and bile acid-based delivery matrices

Advancement in the prevention of chemotherapy-induced hearing loss has proposed new nano-based delivery matrices that can target inner ear regions most damaged by chemotherapy. Chemotherapy agents (e.g., cisplatin) induce increased reactive oxygen species formation in the inner ear that damage sensory hair cells and result in irreversible hearing impairment. Exogenous antioxidants (e.g., Probucol and metformin) have been shown to block the formation of these reactive oxygen species. Delivery of these drugs in effective concentrations remains a challenge. Microencapsulation in combination with drug excipients provides one technique to effectively deliver these drugs. This paper investigates the use of probucol and metformin in combination with drug excipients for novel, inner ear, delivery.

Microencapsulation of Curcumin in Crosslinked Jelly Fig Pectin Using Vacuum Spray Drying Technique for Effective Drug Delivery

Microencapsulation of curcumin in jelly fig pectin was performed by the vacuum spray drying (VSD) technique. The VSD was advanced with a low inlet temperature of 80-90 °C and low pressure of 0.01 mPa. By the in situ cross-linking with multivalent calcium ions, jelly fig pectin produced stable curcumin encapsulated microparticles. The physiochemical characteristics of microparticles were thoroughly investigated. The results revealed that 0.75 w/w% of jelly fig pectin and inlet temperature of 90 °C could be feasible for obtaining curcumin microparticles. The VSD technique showed the best encapsulation efficiency and yield and loading efficiency was up to 91.56 ± 0.80%, 70.02 ± 1.96%, and 5.45 ± 0.14%, respectively. The curcumin was readily released into simulated gastrointestinal fluid with 95.34 ± 0.78% cumulative release in 24 h. The antioxidant activity was stable after being stored for six months and stored as a solution for seven days at room temperature before analysis. Hence, the VSD technique could be applicable for the microencapsulation of bioactive compounds such as curcumin to protect and use in the food/pharmaceutical industry.

Carvacrol-loaded liposome suspension: optimization, characterization and incorporation into poly(vinyl alcohol) films

The purpose of this study was to encapsulate carvacrol into liposomes in order to promote its application in active food packaging. Response surface methodology was used to evaluate the effect of the concentration of the liposomal components on its characteristics. The optimum formulation for the preparation of liposomes with the highest encapsulation efficiency (59.0 ± 1.99%) was found to be 3000 μg mL^-1 of cholesterol and 4000 μg mL^-1 of carvacrol. Carvacrol reduced the polydispersity index and increased the zeta potential and the thermal stability of liposomes. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy indicated that the interaction of carvacrol with liposomes occurred probably through hydrogen-bonding. The incorporation into liposomes maintained the antibacterial effect of carvacrol, but when in the film, carvacrol liposomes were not effective against the microorganisms tested. Liposomes may offer a viable option for stabilizing carvacrol, however, more studies are necessary to enable its application in food packaging.

Effects of Steaming, Microwaving, and Hot-Air Drying on the Physicochemical Properties and Storage Stability of Oat Bran

Oat bran is a nutrient-dense, resource-rich byproduct that is produced from oat milling. Oxidative deterioration is the main reason that limits the utilisation of oat bran. Thus, improving the storage stability of oat bran has become an urgent requirement. This study aimed to investigate the inhibition of oat bran deterioration via steaming, microwaving, and hot-air drying treatments and the effects of these methods on oat bran physicochemical properties and storage stability. Results indicated that, after the three heating treatments, the solubility of oat bran increased and the powder fluidity showed no significant change ( $P<0.05$ ). Steam-treated oat bran demonstrated increased initial gelatinisation temperature, peak temperature, and enthalpy, significantly reduced peak viscosity, trough viscosity, breakdown value, final viscosity, and setback value, and significantly improved thermal stability ( $P<0.05$ ). During accelerated storage, oat bran samples subjected to the three heat treatments showed increased sensory scores and L ${}^{\ast }$ , a ${}^{\ast }$ , and b ${}^{\ast }$ values, whereas due to the decrease of lipase activity in oat bran, their fatty acid values and malondialdehyde content increased slowly and were always lower than those of unprocessed oat bran. All three heat treatments could improve the storage stability and the quality deterioration of oat bran during storage due to oil oxidation. Steaming had the most significant effect.

The Effect of Controlled-Release Carvacrol on Safety and Quality of Blueberries Stored in Perforated Packaging

The objective of this research was to evaluate the use of a controlled-release carvacrol powder to delay storage decay and maintain the safety of blueberries. The controlled-release carvacrol powder was a microcapsule of carvacrol (11% (w/w) active carvacrol) surrounded by a pectin/sodium alginate matrix. The microcapsules were packed in an air-permeable pouch, and then attached to the top of a clamshell filled with blueberries. The blueberries, inoculated with Escherichia coli or Colletotrichum acutatum, or non-inoculated control, were monitored for microbial growth and quality for 10 days at 10 °C and 5 days at 20 °C. Three treatments were compared: controlled-release microencapsulated carvacrol, non-encapsulated carvacrol, and control. The results showed that both the microencapsulated carvacrol and the non-encapsulated carvacrol treatments significantly reduced the populations of yeast and mold, and of E. coli and mesophilic aerobic bacteria. The microencapsulated carvacrol treated berries retained better quality due to significantly lower weight loss than control after 10 days at 10 °C. Sensory panelists found that the microencapsulated carvacrol berries had significantly higher overall blueberry flavor and lower discernible off-flavor in comparison with the non-encapsulated treatment after 3 days at 20 °C. The fruit internal quality, including total soluble solids content (SSC), and titratable acidity (TA), was not significantly affected by any treatment. These results indicate that pectin/sodium alginate controlled-release microencapsulated carvacrol can be used for the preservation of blueberries or other small fruit.

Recent advancements in encapsulation of bioactive compounds as a promising technique for meat preservation

Encapsulation is currently considered as one the most valuable methods for preserving aromatic compounds or hiding odors, enhancing their thermal and oxidative stability, and expanding their food applications. Indeed, this current article was aimed to provide an overview regarding the encapsulation of plant bioactive compounds and the spray-drying and extrusion processes with a focused discussion regarding the encountered challenges for meat and meat product preservation. Furthermore, different ranges of carbohydrates as wall materials (carriers) besides the process conditions' effects on the encapsulation effectiveness and the particle size of the encapsulated bioactive compounds have been discussed. The encapsulation of these compounds ameliorates the quality of the stored meat products by further delaying in microflora growth and lipid/protein oxidation. Therefore, the innovative technologies for plant active compounds encapsulation offer a prospective alternative for natural preservation development in the meat industry.