Immunological assays of hemocytes in the Northern Quahog Mercenaria mercenaria

Genome-wide association mapping for heat shock tolerance in Mercenaria mercenaria through SNP microarray analysis

BACKGROUND

The northern quahog Mercenaria mercenaria is a major aquaculture species on the US East Coast, and heat resistance is the most sought trait for aquaculture. This study aimed to establish a genome-wide association for heat tolerance using a 66K SNP array for M. mercenaria. Quahogs from three farms were combined for a heat challenge at 1 °C per day from 24 °C to 35 °C and stay for two days (Phase I), decreasing to 27 °C in 24 h, to 24 °C in another 24 h, and maintaining at 24 °C (Phase II) until no one dead within 48 h at 24 °C (Phase III). Dead and live quahogs were sampled for genotyping using the SNP array.

RESULTS

During the heat challenge, different mortalities among the quahogs from the three farms were identified at 38, 46, and 55% at Phase I, and 36, 30, and 29% at Phase II. For the survivors (Phase III), no changes were found in body weight before and after the heat shock challenges (p < 0.265). The PCA analyses of SNP frequencies indicated significant genetic differences associated with quahog survival under heat stress across the different farms. The heritability of the heat tolerance was 0.680 ± 0.063. GWAS analysis indicated that one SNP exhibited a significant association with the time-to-death trait on chromosome 7 (p = 1.98 × 10- 5). More significant SNPs (p < 10- 3.5) were inside genes that have been reported to function in heat tolerance such as serine/threonine-protein kinase 31 and carbohydrate sulfotransferase 11, and some genes found within 50 K bp far from SNP sites have a relationship with heat tolerance such as toll-like receptors 4 and 6 (TLRs 4 and TLRs 6), uracil-DNA glycosylase, and a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs gon-1 (ADAMTs).

CONCLUSION

The fastStructure analysis revealed the proportions of different ancestral components within the quahogs from different farming stocks, highlighting that the genetic factors may contribute to their varying survival rates under heat stress. The associated genes have potential roles in immune response, cellular stress, and tissue repair. The findings highlighted the power of high-throughput approaches for the identification of superior quahog genotypes for further breeding.

Biochemical and molecular responses to long-term salinity challenges in northern quahogs Mercenaria mercenaria

Salinity is a key environmental factor for aquatic organisms for survival, development, distribution, and physiological performance. Salinity fluctuation occurs often in estuary and coastal zones due to weather, tide, and freshwater inflow and thus heavily affects coastal marine aquaculture. The northern quahog Mercenaria mercenaria is an important aquaculture species along the Atlantic coast in the US, but information on the effects of salinity stress on physiological, immunological, and molecular responses is still scarce. The goal of this study was to investigate cellular and molecular responses through challenges of long-term hypo- and hyper-salinities in northern quahogs. The objectives were to: 1) measure the survival of market-sized quahogs under a three-month salinity challenge at 15 (hyposalinity), 25 (control), and 35 ppt (hypersalinity); 2) determine cellular changes of hemocytes through analysis of immune functions; 3) determine changes of the total free amino acid concentration in gills, and 4) evaluate the molecular responses in gills using RNAseq technology with qPCR verification. After a three-month salinity challenge, no mortality was observed, and increases in body weight were identified with a significantly higher increase in the hypersalinity group. Northern quahogs equilibrated their hemolymph osmolality with the ambient seawater and were verified to be osmoconformers. Significant differences were observed in total hemocyte concentration, lysosomal presence, ROS production, and phagocytic rate, but no differences were found in cell viability. The total free amino acid concentration within gills was positively correlated to water salinity, indicating amino acids were critical organic osmolytes. The transcriptome of gills using RNAseq revealed differential expression genes (DEG) encoding amino acid transporters (SLC6A3, SLC6A6, SLC6A13, SLC25A38), ion channel proteins (T38B1, GluCl, ATP2C1), and water channel protein (AQP8) in hyposalinity or/and hypersalinity groups, indicating these genes play critical roles in intracellular isosmotic regulation. Overall, the findings in this study provided new insights into osmoregulation in northern quahogs.

Morphological and functional characterization of the oyster Crassostrea gasar circulating hemocytes: Cell types and phagocytosis activity

Hemocytes are the circulating cells of the hemolymph of oysters and are responsible for numerous physiological functions, including immune defense. The oyster Crassostrea gasar is a native species inhabiting mangrove habitat and is of great commercial interest, cultured throughout the Brazilian coast, mainly in the north and northeast. Despite its commercial importance, little is known about its immunological aspects and defense cells, the hemocytes. This work aimed to morphologically characterize hemocytes of the oyster C. gasar and to study one of the main cellular defense response, phagocytosis, using light microscopy and flow cytometry. The results showed the presence of six hemocyte populations in C. gasar hemolymph. These comprise of large and small granulocytes, large and small hyalinocytes, blast-like cells and a rare type classified as vesicular or serous hemocytes. Hyalinocytes were highly abundant and the most heterogeneous cell population, while small granulocytes, along with vesicular hemocytes were the less abundant population. Hemocytes of C. gasar oysters demonstrated capabilities to phagocytose three different types of particles tested: zymosan A, latex particles and Escherichia coli, indicating a broad defense capacity. The zymosan A were the most engulfed particles, followed by beads, mainly phagocytized by granulocytes, the most phagocytic cells, and finally E. coli, which were the least phagocytized. This study is the first characterization of C. gasar oyster hemocytes and will support future studies that aim to understand the participation of different hemocyte types in defense responses against pathogens and/or environmental changes.

Sublethal effects on the hard clam Mercenaria mercenaria after exposure to Aureococcus anophagefferens Chinese strain isolates

Brown tides caused by Aureococcus anophagefferens occur frequently worldwide and have contributed to the collapse of Mercenaria mercenaria farming in the United States. This economically valuable hard clam has been used in China for more than 20 years. To date, it has remained unknown whether A. anophagefferens Chinese strain has an impact on hard clam cultivation in the coastal areas of China or other sea areas worldwide if it enters through ship ballast water and other ways. In this study, a Chinese strain of A. anophagefferens isolated from the brown tide waters of Bohai Bay, China, was selected to explore its influence on the feedback of hard clams. After being fed with A. anophagefferens, hard clams showed characteristics similar to starvation. The reduced feeding efficiency of hard clams leads to reduced energy intake. However, the immune response and oxidative stress, result in increased energy consumption. An imbalance in the energy budget may be an important reason for hard clam starvation. This study has described the response characteristics of the A. anophagefferens Chinese strain to M. mercenaria, explored the reasons for the negative impact of A. anophagefferens on hard clams, and provides ideas for reducing shellfish aquaculture caused by brown tides.

Bivalve Haemocyte Subpopulations: A Review

Bivalve molluscs stand out for their ecological success and their key role in the functioning of aquatic ecosystems, while also constituting a very valuable commercial resource. Both ecological success and production of bivalves depend on their effective immune defence function, in which haemocytes play a central role acting as both the undertaker of the cellular immunity and supplier of the humoral immunity. Bivalves have different types of haemocytes, which perform different functions. Hence, identification of cell subpopulations and their functional characterisation in immune responses is essential to fully understand the immune system in bivalves. Nowadays, there is not a unified nomenclature that applies to all bivalves. Characterisation of bivalve haemocyte subpopulations is often combined with 1) other multiple parameter assays to determine differences between cell types in immune-related physiological activities, such as phagocytosis, oxidative stress and apoptosis; and 2) immune response to different stressors such as pathogens, temperature, acidification and pollution. This review summarises the major and most recent findings in classification and functional characterisation of the main haemocyte types of bivalve molluscs.