A far-upstream AP-1/Smad binding box regulates human NOX4 promoter activation by transforming growth factor-β

Redox signaling and skeletal muscle adaptation during aerobic exercise

Redox regulation is a fundamental physiological phenomenon related to oxygen-dependent metabolism, and skeletal muscle is mainly regarded as a primary site for oxidative phosphorylation. Several studies have revealed the importance of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) in the signaling process relating to muscle adaptation during exercise. To date, improving knowledge of redox signaling in modulating exercise adaptation has been the subject of comprehensive work and scientific inquiry. The primary aim of this review is to elucidate the molecular and biochemical pathways aligned to RONS as activators of skeletal muscle adaptation and to further identify the interconnecting mechanisms controlling redox balance. We also discuss the RONS-mediated pathways during the muscle adaptive process, including mitochondrial biogenesis, muscle remodeling, vascular angiogenesis, neuron regeneration, and the role of exogenous antioxidants.

NOX2 and NOX4 control mitochondrial function in chronic myeloid leukaemia

Cancer cells are characterised by an elevated metabolic plasticity and enhanced production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), two features acknowledged as hallmarks in cancer, with a high translational potential to the therapeutic setting. These aspects, that have been traditionally studied separately, are in fact intimately intermingled. As part of their transforming activity, some oncogenes stimulate rewiring of metabolic processes, whilst simultaneously promoting increased production of intracellular ROS. In this scenario the latest discoveries suggest the relevance of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidases (NOX) to connect ROS production and metabolic control. Here we have analysed the relevance of NOX2 and NOX4 in the regulation of metabolism in chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML), a neoplasia driven by the expression of the breakpoint cluster region-Abelson fusion oncogene (BCR-ABL). Silencing of NOX2 enhances glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation rates, together with an enhanced production of mitochondrial ROS and a decrease in mitochondrial DNA copy number, which reflects mitochondrial dysfunction. NOX4 expression was upregulated upon NOX2 silencing, and this was required to alter mitochondrial function. Our results support the relevance of NOX2 to regulate metabolism-related signalling pathways downstream of BCR-ABL. Overall we show that NOX2, through the regulation of NOX4 expression, controls metabolism and mitochondrial function in CML cells. This notion was confirmed by transcriptomic analyses, that strongly relate both NOX isoforms with metabolism regulation in CML.

ATM Regulates Differentiation of Myofibroblastic Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts and Can Be Targeted to Overcome Immunotherapy Resistance

Myofibroblastic cancer-associated fibroblast (myoCAF)-rich tumors generally contain few T cells and respond poorly to immune-checkpoint blockade. Although myoCAFs are associated with poor outcome in most solid tumors, the molecular mechanisms regulating myoCAF accumulation remain unclear, limiting the potential for therapeutic intervention. Here, we identify ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM) as a central regulator of the myoCAF phenotype. Differentiating myofibroblasts in vitro and myoCAFs cultured ex vivo display activated ATM signaling, and targeting ATM genetically or pharmacologically could suppress and reverse differentiation. ATM activation was regulated by the reactive oxygen species-producing enzyme NOX4, both through DNA damage and increased oxidative stress. Targeting fibroblast ATM in vivo suppressed myoCAF-rich tumor growth, promoted intratumoral CD8 T-cell infiltration, and potentiated the response to anti-PD-1 blockade and antitumor vaccination. This work identifies a novel pathway regulating myoCAF differentiation and provides a rationale for using ATM inhibitors to overcome CAF-mediated immunotherapy resistance.

SIGNIFICANCE

ATM signaling supports the differentiation of myoCAFs to suppress T-cell infiltration and antitumor immunity, supporting the potential clinical use of ATM inhibitors in combination with checkpoint inhibition in myoCAF-rich, immune-cold tumors.

Oxidative Stress Induced by Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and NADPH Oxidase 4 (NOX4) in the Pathogenesis of the Fibrotic Process in Systemic Sclerosis: A Promising Therapeutic Target

Numerous clinical and research investigations conducted during the last two decades have implicated excessive oxidative stress caused by high levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the development of the severe and frequently progressive fibrotic process in Systemic Sclerosis (SSc). The role of excessive oxidative stress in SSc pathogenesis has been supported by the demonstration of increased levels of numerous biomarkers, indicative of cellular and molecular oxidative damage in serum, plasma, and other biological fluids from SSc patients, and by the demonstration of elevated production of ROS by various cell types involved in the SSc fibrotic process. However, the precise mechanisms mediating oxidative stress development in SSc and its pathogenetic effects have not been fully elucidated. The participation of the NADPH oxidase NOX4, has been suggested and experimentally supported by the demonstration that SSc dermal fibroblasts display constitutively increased NOX4 expression and that reduction or abrogation of NOX4 effects decreased ROS production and the expression of genes encoding fibrotic proteins. Furthermore, NOX4-stimulated ROS production may be involved in the development of certain endothelial and vascular abnormalities and may even participate in the generation of SSc-specific autoantibodies. Collectively, these observations suggest NOX4 as a novel therapeutic target for SSc.

DRD4 (Dopamine D4 Receptor) Mitigate Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm via Decreasing P38 MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase)/NOX4 (NADPH Oxidase 4) Axis-Associated Oxidative Stress

[Figure: see text].

The hydrogen-peroxide producing NADPH oxidase 4 does not limit neointima development after vascular injury in mice

Objective

The NADPH oxidase Nox4 is an important source of H₂O₂. Nox4-derived H₂O₂ limits vascular inflammation and promotes smooth muscle differentiation. On this basis, the role of Nox4 for restenosis development was determined in the mouse carotid artery injury model.

Methods and results

Genetic deletion of Nox4 by a tamoxifen-activated Cre-Lox-system did not impact on neointima formation in the carotid artery wire injury model. To understand this unexpected finding, time-resolved single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNAseq) from injured carotid arteries of control mice and massive-analysis-of-cDNA-ends (MACE)-RNAseq from the neointima harvested by laser capture microdissection of control and Nox4 knockout mice was performed. This revealed that resting smooth muscle cells (SMCs) and fibroblasts exhibit high Nox4 expression, but that the proliferating de-differentiated SMCs, which give rise to the neointima, have low Nox4 expression. In line with this, the first weeks after injury, gene expression was unchanged between the carotid artery neointimas of control and Nox4 knockout mice.

Conclusion

Upon vascular injury, Nox4 expression is transiently lost in the cells which comprise the neointima. NADPH oxidase 4 therefore does not interfere with restenosis development after wire-induced vascular injury.

TGF-β2 Promotes Oxidative Stress in Human Trabecular Meshwork Cells by Selectively Enhancing NADPH Oxidase 4 Expression

Purpose

The multifunctional profibrotic cytokine TGF-β2 is implicated in the pathophysiology of primary open angle glaucoma (POAG). While the underlying cause of POAG remains unclear, TGF-β2 dependent remodeling of the extracellular matrix (ECM) within the trabecular meshwork (TM) microenvironment is considered an early pathologic consequence associated with impaired aqueous humor (AH) outflow and elevated IOP. Mitochondrial-targeted antioxidants have been recently shown by our group to markedly attenuate TGF-β2 profibrotic responses, strongly implicating oxidative stress as a key facilitator of TGF-β2 signaling in human TM cells. In this study, we determined the mechanism by which oxidative stress facilitates TGF-β2 profibrotic responses in cultured primary human TM cells.

Methods

Semiconfluent cultures of primary or transformed human TM cells were conditioned overnight in serum-free media and subsequently challenged without or with TGF-β2 (5 ng/mL). Relative changes in the mRNA content of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase (Nox) isoforms, connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), collagen 1α1 and 4α1 isoforms or relative changes in the protein content of Nox4, phospho- and total-Smad2 and -Smad3, collagens I and IV were determined in the absence or presence of GKT137831, a Nox1-Nox4 dual enzyme inhibitor, and quantified by real-time qPCR or by immunoblot, respectively. Relative in situ changes in collagens I and IV and in alpha smooth muscle actin (αSMA) were semiquantified by immunocytochemistry, whereas relative changes in filamentous actin stress fiber formation was semiquantified by phalloidin staining.

Results

Quiescent primary human TM cells cultured in the presence of TGF-β2 exhibited a marked selective increase in endogenous Nox4 mRNA and Nox4 protein expression. Actinomycin D prevented TGF-β2 mediated increases in Nox4 mRNA expression. TM cells reverse transfected with siRNA against Smad3 prevented TGF-β2 mediated increases in Nox4 mRNA expression. Pre-incubating TM cells with GKT137831 attenuated TGF-β2 mediated increases in intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), in COL1A1, COL4A1, and CTGF mRNA expression, in Smad3 protein phosphorylation, in collagens I, collagens IV, and αSMA protein expression, and in filamentous actin stress fiber formation.

Conclusions

TGF-β2 promotes oxidative stress in primary human TM cells by selectively increasing expression of NADPH oxidase 4. Dysregulation of redox equilibrium by induction of NADPH oxidase 4 expression appears to be a key early event involved in the pathologic profibrotic responses elicited by TGF-β2 canonical signaling, including ECM remodeling, filamentous actin stress fiber formation, and αSMA expression. Selective inhibition of Nox4 expression/activation, in combination with mitochondrial-targeted antioxidants, represents a novel strategy by which to slow the progression of TGF-β2 elicited profibrotic responses within the TM.

The role of NOX4 in pulmonary diseases

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase 4 (NOX4) is a subtype of the NOX family, which is mainly expressed in the pulmonary vasculature and pulmonary endothelial cells in the respiratory system. NOX4 has unique characteristics, and is a constitutively active enzyme that primarily produces hydrogen peroxide. The signaling pathways associated with NOX4 are complicated. Negative and positive feedback play significant roles in regulating NOX4 expression. The role of NOX4 is controversial because NOX4 plays a protective or damaging role in different respiratory diseases. This review summarizes the structure, enzymatic properties, regulation, and signaling pathways of NOX4. This review then introduces the roles of NOX4 in different diseases in the respiratory system, such as acute respiratory distress syndrome, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and pulmonary fibrosis.

Hypoallergenic infant formula lacks transforming growth factor beta activity and has a lower anti-inflammatory activity than regular infant formula

Hypoallergenic formulas are recommended for infants who are not breastfed and cannot tolerate cow milk formulas due to allergy. These formulas are hydrolyzed to break down larger protein chains into shorter, easy-to-digest, and potentially less allergenic proteins. Hydrolysis, however, possibly occurs at the expense of the transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) and anti-inflammatory activity that is inherent in regular formula. Our objective was to determine the TGF-β and the anti-inflammatory activity of commercially available hypoallergenic and regular formulas. Human gingival fibroblasts were incubated with reconstituted formulas followed by detection of TGF-β target genes and activation of Smad2/3 signaling. Gingival fibroblasts and the oral squamous cell carcinoma cell line HSC-2 were also exposed to formulas before adding interleukin (IL)1β and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)α to provoke expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. For murine bone marrow-derived macrophages, pro-inflammatory cytokine expression was stimulated with saliva. Changes in p65 nuclear translocation and phosphorylation of smad3 and p38 were analyzed by immunostaining. Our study demonstrated that regular formula, but not hypoallergenic formula, enhanced the expression of TGF-β target genes IL11, PRG4, and NOX4 in gingival fibroblasts. Hypoallergenic formulas also failed to initiate nuclear translocation of Smad2/3 and phosphorylation of Smad3. Moreover, regular formulas were more potent than hypoallergenic formulas in reducing the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines in gingival fibroblasts, HSC-2 epithelial cells, and murine bone marrow macrophages. Hypoallergenic and regular formulas had a similar capacity to reduce p65 nuclear translocation and phosphorylation of p38 in fibroblasts. These findings suggest that hypoallergenic formulas lack in vitro TGF-β activity and have a lower anti-inflammatory activity compared with regular formulas.

Oxidative Stress in Pulmonary Fibrosis

Oxidative stress has been linked to various disease states as well as physiological aging. The lungs are uniquely exposed to a highly oxidizing environment and have evolved several mechanisms to attenuate oxidative stress. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a progressive age-related disorder that leads to architectural remodeling, impaired gas exchange, respiratory failure, and death. In this article, we discuss cellular sources of oxidant production, and antioxidant defenses, both enzymatic and nonenzymatic. We outline the current understanding of the pathogenesis of IPF and how oxidative stress contributes to fibrosis. Further, we link oxidative stress to the biology of aging that involves DNA damage responses, loss of proteostasis, and mitochondrial dysfunction. We discuss the recent findings on the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in specific fibrotic processes such as macrophage polarization and immunosenescence, alveolar epithelial cell apoptosis and senescence, myofibroblast differentiation and senescence, and alterations in the acellular extracellular matrix. Finally, we provide an overview of the current preclinical studies and clinical trials targeting oxidative stress in fibrosis and potential new strategies for future therapeutic interventions. © 2020 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 10:509-547, 2020.

Sirtuin 6 attenuates epithelial-mesenchymal transition by suppressing the TGF-β1/Smad3 pathway and c-Jun in asthma models

Allergic asthma is a chronic inflammatory airway disease involving airway remodeling. The histone deacetylase sirtuin6 (SIRT6) has protective effects in cardiac and liver fibrosis; however, its role in airway remodeling is unclear. In this study, we investigated the expression of SIRT6 in a rat model of airway remodeling and observed its effects on the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in human bronchial epithelial 16HBE cells. Sprague-Dawley rats were sensitized and challenged with ovalbumin to induce airway remodeling or with phosphate-buffered saline as a control for different periods. Morphological changes, cell counts in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, and SIRT6 expression were assessed. 16HBE cells were transfected with plasmids to silence or overexpress SIRT6. Western blotting, quantitative polymerase chain reaction, Transwell assays, and cell proliferation assays were performed to examine the transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1-induced changes in EMT indicators and EMT-related cell behaviors. SIRT6 expression was upregulated in bronchial epithelial cells from rats with airway remodeling and in TGF-β1-treated 16HBE cells. SIRT6 overexpression affected TGF-β1-induced changes in EMT markers and EMT-like cell behaviors. In particular, SIRT6 overexpression alleviated the reduction in E-cadherin and the increases in N-cadherin, vimentin, alpha-smooth muscle actin, and metalloproteinase-9 levels in TGF-β1-treated 16HBE cells. Forced expression of SIRT6 also decreased the rates of cell migration and proliferation, reduced activation of phosphorylated Smad3 induced by TGF-β1 treatment, suppressed the acetylation level at histone H3K9, and inhibited the transcriptional activity of the c-Jun promotor. These results suggested that SIRT6 expression is upregulated during airway remodeling and modulates EMT in bronchial epithelial cells targeting Smad3 and c-Jun, highlighting a new therapeutic candidate for improving airway remodeling in asthma.

ENERGY SENSING PATHWAYS IN AGING AND CHRONIC LUNG DISEASE

Aging is associated with an increased risk of a number of clinical syndromes, including chronic lung disease. There have been significant advances in our understanding of the biology of aging leading to the elucidation of the so-called "hallmarks of aging." The cause-effect relationships between various hallmarks such as dysregulated nutrient sensing, mitochondrial dysfunction, and cellular senescence are not well understood. Here, I discuss the evidence for alterations in energy/metabolic sensing pathways in the degenerative chronic lung disease called idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). The pathobiological mechanisms by which this defect may contribute to age-related susceptibility to IPF and potentially other diseases of the elderly are also discussed.

The Chromatin Remodeler Brg1 Integrates ROS Production and Endothelial-Mesenchymal Transition to Promote Liver Fibrosis in Mice

Trans-differentiation of endothelial cells to myofibroblast contributes to liver fibrosis. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) plays a key role in endothelial-mesenchymal transition (EndMT) although the underlying epigenetic mechanism is unclear. Here we report that endothelial conditional knockout of Brg1, a chromatin remodeling protein, attenuated liver fibrosis in mice. Brg1 deficiency in endothelial cells was paralleled by a decrease in ROS production and blockade of EndMT both in vivo and in vitro. The ability of BRG1 to regulate ROS production and EndMT was abolished by NOX4 depletion or inhibition. Further analysis revealed that BRG1 interacted with SMAD3 and AP-1 to mediate TGF-β induced NOX4 transcription in endothelial cells. Mechanistically, BRG1 recruited various histone modifying enzymes to alter the chromatin structure surrounding the NOX4 locus thereby activating its transcription. In conclusion, our data uncover a novel epigenetic mechanism that links NOX4-dependent ROS production to EndMT and liver fibrosis. Targeting the BRG1-NOX4 axis may yield novel therapeutics against liver fibrosis.

TGF-β activity in cow milk and fermented milk products: An in vitro bioassay with oral fibroblasts

OBJECTIVE

Milk is a rich source of transforming growth factor (TGF)-β which supports intestinal mucosal homeostasis of infants. Milk may also have beneficial effects on the integrity of the oral cavity, its being part of the gastrointestinal tract. However, it is unclear if milk and fermented milk products provoke a TGF-β response in oral cells.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Human gingival fibroblasts were exposed to pasteurized cow milk, yoghurt, sour milk, buttermilk and whey, followed by a reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction of the TGF-β target genes interleukin11 (IL11), proteoglycan4 (PRG4), and NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX4). Immunoassays were performed for IL11 and TGF-β in cell culture supernatant and milk products, respectively. Signaling was investigated with the TGF-β receptor type I kinase inhibitor SB431542.

RESULTS

We report here that pasteurized cow milk and the aqueous fractions of yoghurt, sour milk, buttermilk and whey enhanced the expression of IL11, NOX4 and PRG4 in gingival fibroblasts. Moreover, IL11 protein levels in the respective supernatant were significantly increased. Cow milk, yoghurt, sour milk and buttermilk contain approximately 1-2 ng TGF-β1, whereas active TGF-β1 is hardly detectable in whey. SB431542 reduced the response of gingival fibroblasts to pasteurized cow milk and fermented milk products based on IL11 release into the supernatant.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate that gingival fibroblasts respond to pasteurized cow milk and to fermented milk products with an increased expression of TGF-β target genes.

Inhibition of Nox4-dependent ROS signaling attenuates prostate fibroblast activation and abrogates stromal-mediated protumorigenic interactions

Carcinoma-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) play a key onco-supportive role during prostate cancer (PCa) development and progression. We previously reported that the reactive oxygen species (ROS)-producing enzyme NADPH oxidase 4 (Nox4) is essential for TGFβ1-mediated activation of primary prostate human fibroblasts to a CAF-like phenotype. This study aimed to further investigate the functional relevance of prostatic Nox4 and determine whether pharmacological inhibition of stromal Nox4 abrogates paracrine-mediated PCa-relevant processes. RNA in situ hybridization revealed significantly elevated Nox4 mRNA levels predominantly in the peri-tumoral stroma of clinical PCa with intense stromal Nox4 staining adjacent to tumor foci expressing abundant TGFβ protein levels. At pharmacologically relevant concentrations, the Nox1/Nox4 inhibitor GKT137831 attenuated ROS production, CAF-associated marker expression and migration of TGFβ1-activated but not nonactivated primary human prostate fibroblasts. Similar effects were obtained upon shRNA-mediated silencing of Nox4 but not Nox1 indicating that GKT137831 primarily abrogates TGFβ1-driven fibroblast activation via Nox4 inhibition. Moreover, inhibiting stromal Nox4 abrogated the enhanced proliferation and migration of PCa cell lines induced by TGFβ1-activated prostate fibroblast conditioned media. These effects were not restricted to recombinant TGFβ1 as conditioned media from PCa cell lines endogenously secreting high TGFβ1 levels induced fibroblast activation in a stromal Nox4- and TGFβ receptor-dependent manner. Importantly, GKT137831 also attenuated PCa cell-driven fibroblast activation. Collectively, these findings suggest the TGFβ-Nox4 signaling axis is a key interface to dysregulated reciprocal stromal-epithelial interactions in PCa pathophysiology and provide a strong rationale for further investigating the applicability of Nox4 inhibition as a stromal-targeted approach to complement current PCa treatment modalities.

Histone modifications affect differential regulation of TGFβ- induced NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX4) by wild-type and mutant p53

Previously, we showed wild-type (WT) and mutant (mut) p53 differentially regulate reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation by NADPH oxidase-4 (NOX4): p53-WT suppresses TGFβ-induced NOX4, ROS and cell migration, whereas tumor-associated mut-p53 proteins enhance NOX4 expression and cell migration. Here, we extended our findings on the effects of p53 on NOX4 in several tumors and examined the basis of NOX4 transcriptional regulation by p53 and SMAD3. Statistical analysis of expression data from primary tumors available from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) detected correlations between mut-p53 and increased NOX4 expression. Furthermore, by altering p53 levels in cell culture models we showed several common tumor-associated mutant forms support TGFβ/SMAD3-dependent NOX4 expression. Deletion analysis revealed two critical SMAD3 binding elements (SBE) required for mut-p53-dependent NOX4 induction, whereas p53-WT caused dose-dependent suppression of NOX4 transcription. ChIP analysis revealed SMAD3 and p53-WT or mut-p53 associate with SBEs and p53 response elements in a TGFβ-dependent manner. Interestingly, the repressive effects of p53-WT on NOX4 were relieved by mutation of its transactivation domain or histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor treatment. Overexpression of p300, a transcriptional co-regulator and histone acetyltransferase (HAT), enhanced p53-mediated NOX4 induction, whereas HAT-inactive p300 reduced NOX4 expression. Mut-p53 augmented TGFβ-stimulated histone acetylation within the NOX4 promoter. Finally, wound assays demonstrated NOX4 and p300 promote TGFβ/mut-p53-mediated cell migration. Our studies provide new insight into TGFβ/SMAD3 and mut-p53-mediated NOX4 induction involving epigenetic control of NOX4 in tumor cell migration, suggesting NOX4 is a potential therapeutic target to combat tumor progression and metastasis.

c-Fos mediates α1, 2-fucosyltransferase 1 and Lewis y expression in response to TGF-β1 in ovarian cancer

FUT1 is a key rate-limiting enzyme in the synthesis of Lewis y, a membrane-associated carbohydrate antigen. The aberrant upregulation of FUT1 and Lewis y antigen is related to proliferation, invasion and prognosis in malignant epithelial tumors. A c-Fos/activator protein-1 (AP-1) binding site was found in the FUT1 promoter. However, the mechanisms of transcriptional regulation of FUT1 remain poorly understood. TGF-β1 is positively correlated to Lewis y. In the present study, we investigated the molecular mechanism of FUT1 gene expression in response to TGF-β1. We demonstrated that c-Fos was highly expressed in 77.50% of ovarian epithelial carcinoma cases and was significantly correlated with Lewis y. Using luciferase activity and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay, we further revealed that c-Fos interacted with the FUT1 promoter in ovarian cancer cells and transcriptional capacity of the heterodimer formed by c-Fos and c-Jun was stronger than that of the c-Fos or c-Jun homodimers. Then, we demonstrated that TGF-β1 induced dose-dependent c-Fos expression, which was involved in TGF-β1-induced ovarian cancer cell proliferation. In addition, inhibition of MAPK activation or TGF-β1 receptor by pharmacological agents prevented TGF-β1-induced c-Fos and Lewis y expression. Silencing of c-Fos prevented TGF-β1-induced Lewis y expression. Collectively, the results of these studies demonstrated that TGF-β1 regulated FUT1 and Lewis y expression by activating the MAPK/c-Fos pathway.

Oxidative Stress in Oral Diseases: Understanding Its Relation with Other Systemic Diseases

Oxidative stress occurs in diabetes, various cancers, liver diseases, stroke, rheumatoid arthritis, chronic inflammation, and other degenerative diseases related to the nervous system. The free radicals have deleterious effect on various organs of the body. This is due to lipid peroxidation and irreversible protein modification that leads to cellular apoptosis or programmed cell death. During recent years, there is a rise in the oral diseases related to oxidative stress. Oxidative stress in oral disease is related to other systemic diseases in the body such as periodontitis, cardiovascular, pancreatic, gastric, and liver diseases. In the present review, we discuss the various pathways that mediate oxidative cellular damage. Numerous pathways mediate oxidative cellular damage and these include caspase pathway, PERK/NRF2 pathway, NADPH oxidase 4 pathways and JNK/mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase pathway. We also discuss the role of inflammatory markers, lipid peroxidation, and role of oxygen species linked to oxidative stress. Knowledge of different pathways, role of inflammatory markers, and importance of low-density lipoprotein, fibrinogen, creatinine, nitric oxide, nitrates, and highly sensitive C-reactive proteins may be helpful in understanding the pathogenesis and plan better treatment for oral diseases which involve oxidative stress.

Fibroblast-specific TGF-β-Smad2/3 signaling underlies cardiac fibrosis

The master cytokine TGF-β mediates tissue fibrosis associated with inflammation and tissue injury. TGF-β induces fibroblast activation and differentiation into myofibroblasts that secrete extracellular matrix proteins. Canonical TGF-β signaling mobilizes Smad2 and Smad3 transcription factors that control fibrosis by promoting gene expression. However, the importance of TGF-β-Smad2/3 signaling in fibroblast-mediated cardiac fibrosis has not been directly evaluated in vivo. Here, we examined pressure overload-induced cardiac fibrosis in fibroblast- and myofibroblast-specific inducible Cre-expressing mouse lines with selective deletion of the TGF-β receptors Tgfbr1/2, Smad2, or Smad3. Fibroblast-specific deletion of Tgfbr1/2 or Smad3, but not Smad2, markedly reduced the pressure overload-induced fibrotic response as well as fibrosis mediated by a heart-specific, latency-resistant TGF-β mutant transgene. Interestingly, cardiac fibroblast-specific deletion of Tgfbr1/2, but not Smad2/3, attenuated the cardiac hypertrophic response to pressure overload stimulation. Mechanistically, loss of Smad2/3 from tissue-resident fibroblasts attenuated injury-induced cellular expansion within the heart and the expression of fibrosis-mediating genes. Deletion of Smad2/3 or Tgfbr1/2 from cardiac fibroblasts similarly inhibited the gene program for fibrosis and extracellular matrix remodeling, although deletion of Tgfbr1/2 uniquely altered expression of an array of regulatory genes involved in cardiomyocyte homeostasis and disease compensation. These findings implicate TGF-β-Smad2/3 signaling in activated tissue-resident cardiac fibroblasts as principal mediators of the fibrotic response.

Paradoxical roles of dual oxidases in cancer biology

Dysregulated oxidative metabolism is a well-recognized aspect of cancer biology, and many therapeutic strategies are based on targeting cancers by altering cellular redox pathways. The NADPH oxidases (NOXes) present an important enzymatic source of biological oxidants, and the expression and activation of several NOX isoforms are frequently dysregulated in many cancers. Cell-based studies have demonstrated a role for several NOX isozymes in controlling cell proliferation and/or cell migration, further supporting a potential contributing role for NOX in promoting cancer. While various NOX isoforms are often upregulated in cancers, paradoxical recent findings indicate that dual oxidases (DUOXes), normally prominently expressed in epithelial lineages, are frequently suppressed in epithelial-derived cancers by epigenetic mechanisms, although the functional relevance of such DUOX silencing has remained unclear. This review will briefly summarize our current understanding regarding the importance of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and NOXes in cancer biology, and focus on recent observations indicating the unique and seemingly opposing roles of DUOX enzymes in cancer biology. We will discuss current knowledge regarding the functional properties of DUOX, and recent studies highlighting mechanistic consequences of DUOX1 loss in lung cancer, and its consequences for tumor invasiveness and current anticancer therapy. Finally, we will also discuss potentially unique roles for the DUOX maturation factors. Overall, a better understanding of mechanisms that regulate DUOX and the functional consequences of DUOX silencing in cancer may offer valuable new diagnostic insights and novel therapeutic opportunities.

CYLD Deubiquitinates Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate Oxidase 4 Contributing to Adventitial Remodeling

OBJECTIVE

Transdifferentiation of adventitial fibroblasts (AFs) into myofibroblasts plays a critical role during the vascular remodeling that occurs during atherosclerosis, restenosis, and aortic aneurysm. The ubiquitination/deubiquitination regulatory system is essential for the quality control of proteins. The involvement of ubiquitination/deubiquitination during AF transdifferentiation remains largely unknown. In this study, we determined the role of cylindromatosis (CYLD), a deubiquitinase, in the process of AF differentiation and activation in vitro and in vivo.

APPROACH AND RESULTS

Transforming growth factor-β1 and homocysteine, 2 known inducers of AF transdifferentiation, greatly upregulated CYLD expression in a time- and dose-dependent manner. The silencing of CYLD significantly inhibited AF transdifferentiation and activation as evidenced by the expression of contractile proteins, the production of the proinflammatory cytokines MCP-1 (monocyte chemotactic protein 1) and IL-6 (interleukin-6), the deposition of extracellular matrix, and cell migration. We further asked whether CYLD mediates AF activation via the regulation of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase 4 (Nox4) as it is an essential factor during AF transdifferentiation. Indeed, the silencing of CYLD repressed transforming growth factor-β1-induced and homocysteine-induced Nox4 upregulation and reactive oxygen species production, whereas Nox4 overexpression greatly rescued the inhibitory effect on AF activation by CYLD silencing. Most interestingly, transforming growth factor-β1 and homocysteine repressed Nox4 ubiquitination and prolonged the half-life of Nox4. Moreover, Nox4 was deubiquitinated via a direct interaction with the ubiquitin-specific protease domain of CYLD. In accordance, hyperhomocysteinemia significantly increased adventitial CYLD and Nox4 expression, promoted AF transdifferentiation, and aggravated CaPO₄-induced abdominal aortic aneurysm in mice. These effects were abolished in CYLD^-/- mice.

CONCLUSIONS

CYLD contributes to the transdifferentiation of AFs via deubiquitinating Nox4 and may play a role in vascular remodeling.

The Role of NOX4 and TRX2 in Angiogenesis and Their Potential Cross-Talk

The nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase (NOX) family is the major source of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the vascular system. In this family, NOX4, a constitutive active form of NOXs, plays an important role in angiogenesis. Thioredoxin 2 (TRX2) is a key mitochondrial redox protein that maintains normal protein function and also provides electrons to peroxiredoxin 3 (PRX3) to scavenge H₂O₂ in mitochondria. Angiogenesis, a process of new blood vessel formation, is involved in a variety of physiological processes and pathological conditions. It seems to be paradoxical for ROS-producing NOX4 and ROS-scavenging TRX2 to have a similar role in promoting angiogenesis. In this review, we will focus on data supporting the role of NOX4 and TRX2 in angiogenesis and their cross-talks and discuss how ROS can positively or negatively regulate angiogenesis, depending on their species, levels and locations. NOX4 and TRX2-mediated ROS signaling could be promising targets for the treatment of angiogenesis-related diseases.

Coordinate activities of BRD4 and CDK9 in the transcriptional elongation complex are required for TGFβ-induced Nox4 expression and myofibroblast transdifferentiation

Transdifferentiation of quiescent dermal fibroblasts to secretory myofibroblasts has a central role in wound healing and pathological scar formation. This myofibroblast transdifferentiation process involves TGFβ-induced de novo synthesis of alpha smooth muscle cell actin (αSMA)+ fibers that enhance contractility as well as increased expression of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins, including collagen and fibronectin. These processes are mediated upstream by the reactive oxygen species (ROS)-producing enzyme Nox4, whose induction by TGFβ is incompletely understood. In this study, we demonstrate that Nox4 is involved in αSMA+ fiber formation and collagen production in primary human dermal fibroblasts (hDFs) using a small-molecule inhibitor and siRNA-mediated silencing. Furthermore, TGFβ-induced signaling via Smad3 is required for myofibroblast transformation and Nox4 upregulation. Immunoprecipitation-selected reaction monitoring (IP-SRM) assays of the activated Smad3 complex suggest that it couples with the epigenetic reader and transcription co-activator bromodomain and extraterminal (BET) domain containing protein 4 (BRD4) to promote Nox4 transcription. In addition, cyclin-dependent kinase 9 (CDK9), a component of positive transcription elongation factor, binds to BRD4 after TGFβ stimulation and is also required for RNA polymerase II phosphorylation and Nox4 transcription regulation. Surprisingly, BRD4 depletion decreases myofibroblast differentiation but does not affect collagen or fibronectin expression in primary skin fibroblasts, whereas knockdown of CDK9 decreases all myofibroblast genes. We observe enhanced numbers and persistence of myofibroblast formation and TGFβ signaling in hypertrophic scars. BRD4 inhibition reverses hypertrophic skin fibroblast transdifferentiation to myofibroblasts. Our data indicate that BRD4 and CDK9 have independent, coordinated roles in promoting the myofibroblast transition and suggest that inhibition of the Smad3-BRD4 pathway may be a useful strategy to limit hypertrophic scar formation after burn injury.

NADPH oxidase 4 regulates vascular inflammation in aging and atherosclerosis

We recently reported that increased NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX4) expression and activity during aging results in enhanced cellular and mitochondrial oxidative stress, vascular inflammation, dysfunction, and atherosclerosis. The goal of the present study was to elucidate the molecular mechanism(s) for these effects and determine the importance of NOX4 modulation of proinflammatory gene expression in mouse vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). A novel peptide-mediated siRNA transfection approach was used to inhibit Nox4 expression with minimal cellular toxicity. Using melittin-derived peptide p5RHH, we achieved significantly higher transfection efficiency (92% vs. 85% with Lipofectamine) and decreased toxicity (p<0.001 vs. Lipofectamine in MTT and p<0.0001 vs. Lipofectamine in LDH assays) in VSMCs. TGFβ1 significantly upregulates Nox4 mRNA (p<0.01) and protein (p<0.01) expression in VSMCs. p5RHH-mediated Nox4 siRNA transfection greatly attenuated TGFβ1-induced upregulation of Nox4 mRNA (p<0.01) and protein (p<0.0001) levels and decreased hydrogen peroxide production (p<0.0001). Expression of pro-inflammatory genes Ccl2, Ccl5, Il6, and Vcam1 was significantly upregulated in VSMCs in several settings cells isolated from aged vs. young wild-type mice, in atherosclerotic arteries of Apoe-/- mice, and atherosclerotic human carotid arteries and correlated with NOX4 expression. p5RHH-mediated Nox4 siRNA transfection significantly attenuated the expression of these pro-inflammatory genes in TGFβ1-treated mouse VSMCs, with the highest degree of inhibition in the expression of Il6. p5RHH peptide-mediated knockdown of TGFβ-activated kinase 1 (TAK1, also known as Map3k7), Jun, and Rela, but not Nfkb2, downregulated TGFβ1-induced Nox4 expression in VSMCs. Together, these data demonstrate that increased expression and activation of NOX4, which might result from increased TGFβ1 levels seen during aging, induces a proinflammatory phenotype in VSMCs, enhancing atherosclerosis.

Brd4 inhibition attenuates unilateral ureteral obstruction-induced fibrosis by blocking TGF-β-mediated Nox4 expression

Uncovering new therapeutic targets for renal fibrosis holds promise for the treatment of chronic kidney diseases. Bromodomain and extra-terminal (BET) protein inhibitors have been shown to effectively ameliorate pathological fibrotic responses. However, the pharmacological effects and underlying mechanisms of these inhibitors in renal fibrosis remain elusive. In this study, we determined that the inhibition of Brd4, a BET family member, with a selective potent chemical inhibitor, JQ1, could prevent the development of renal fibrosis and block the progression of fibrosis in rats that have undergone unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO). Inhibiting Brd4 with either JQ1 or genetic knockdown resulted in decreased expression of fibrotic genes such as α-smooth muscle actin, collagen IV and fibronectin both in UUO-induced fibrosis and upon TGF-β1 stimulation in HK-2 cells. Brd4 inhibition also suppressed the oxidative stress induced by UUO in vivo or by TGF-β1 in HK-2 cells. Moreover, Nox4, which is constitutively active in renal cells and is involved in the generation of hydrogen peroxide, was up-regulated during UUO-mediated fibrosis and induced by TGF-β1 in HK-2 cells, and this up-regulation could be blunted by Brd4 inhibition. Consistently, Nox4-mediated ROS generation and fibrotic gene expression were attenuated upon Brd4 inhibition. Further, the transcriptional activity of Nox4 was suppressed by JQ1 or siRNA against Brd4. Additionally, Smad3 and ERK1/2 phosphorylation, which are upstream signals of Nox4 expression, were inhibited both in JQ1-administered UUO rats and Brd4-inhibited HK-2 cells. In conclusion, these results indicated that the inhibition of Brd4 might protect against renal fibrosis by blocking the TGF-β-Nox4-ROS-fibrosis axis, suggesting that Brd4 could be a promising therapeutic target.

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Brd4 was up-regulated in the progression of renal fibrosis.

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Brd4 inhibitor JQ1 prevented renal fibrosis and delayed the fibrotic progression.

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Brd4 inhibition blocked TGF-β1-induced oxidative stress and fibrosis through Nox4.

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Brd4 regulated Nox4 expression via Smad and ERK pathways.

Regulation of NADPH oxidases in skeletal muscle

The only known function of NAD(P)H oxidases is to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS). Skeletal muscles express three isoforms of NAD(P)H oxidases (Nox1, Nox2, and Nox4) that have been identified as critical modulators of redox homeostasis. Nox2 acts as the main source of skeletal muscle ROS during contractions, participates in insulin signaling and glucose transport, and mediates the myocyte response to osmotic stress. Nox2 and Nox4 contribute to skeletal muscle abnormalities elicited by angiotensin II, muscular dystrophy, heart failure, and high fat diet. Our review addresses the expression and regulation of NAD(P)H oxidases with emphasis on aspects that are relevant to skeletal muscle. We also summarize: i) the most widely used NAD(P)H oxidases activity assays and inhibitors, and ii) studies that have defined Nox enzymes as protagonists of skeletal muscle redox homeostasis in a variety of health and disease conditions.

Trichostatin A, a histone deacetylase inhibitor suppresses NADPH Oxidase 4-Derived Redox Signalling and Angiogenesis

Histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors are known to suppress abnormal development of blood vessels. Angiogenic activity in endothelial cells depends upon NADPH oxidase 4 (Nox4)-dependent redox signalling. We set out to study whether the HDAC inhibitor trichostatin A (TSA) affects Nox4 expression and angiogenesis. Nox4 expression was measured by real time PCR and Western blot analysis in endothelial cells. Hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) was measured by amplex(®) red assay in endothelial cells. Nox4 was knocked down by Nox4 shRNA. In vitro angiogenic activities such migration and tubulogenesis were assessed using wound healing and Matrigel assays, respectively. In vivo angiogenic activity was assessed using subcutaneous sponge assay in C57Bl/6 and Nox4-deficient mice. Trichostatin A reduced Nox4 expression in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. Both TSA and Nox4 silencing decreased Nox4 protein and H2 O2 . Mechanistically, TSA reduced expression of Nox4 via ubiquitination of p300- histone acetyltransferase (p300-HAT). Thus, blocking of the ubiquitination pathway using an inhibitor of ubiquitin-activating enzyme E1 (PYR-41) prevented TSA inhibition of Nox4 expression. Trichostatin A also reduced migration and tube formation, and these effects were not observed in Nox4-deficient endothelial cells. Finally, transforming growth factor beta1 (TGFβ1) enhanced angiogenesis in sponge model in C57BL/6 mice. This response to TGFβ1 was substantially reduced in Nox4-deficient mice. Similarly intraperitoneal infusion of TSA (1 mg/kg) also suppressed TGFβ1-induced angiogenesis in C57BL/6 mice. Trichostatin A reduces Nox4 expression and angiogenesis via inhibition of the p300-HAT-dependent pathway. This mechanism might be exploited to prevent aberrant angiogenesis in diabetic retinopathy, complicated vascular tumours and malformations.

NADPH oxidase is implicated in the pathogenesis of oxidative phosphorylation dysfunction in mice fed a high-fat diet

The aim of this study was to evaluate the role of NADPH oxidase (NADPHox) in the pathogenesis of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) dysfunction as found in mice fed a high-fat diet (HFD). C57BL/6J mice were distributed in four groups: WT/SCD: six wild-type (WT) mice fed a standard chow diet (SCD); WT/HFD, six WT mice fed a HFD; NOX2(-/-)/SCD, six NADPHox-deficient mice on a SCD; (4) NOX2(-/-)/HFD, six NADPHox-deficient mice on a HFD. After 32 weeks, we studied the liver for: histology; OXPHOS complex activity; fully assembled OXPHOS complexes and their subunits; gene expression of OXPHOS subunits; oxidative and nitrosative stress; and oxidative DNA damage. In the liver of WT/HFD mice, we found a significant decreased in the activity of all OXPHOS complexes, in fully assembled complexes, in the amount of OXPHOS subunits, and in gene expression of mitochondrial DNA-encoded subunits. 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine was only increased in mitochondrial DNA. The liver of NOX(-/-)/HFD mice showed mild steatosis but no non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) lesions were found. OXPHOS activity, OXPHOS subunits, and assembly of subunits into OXPHOS complexes were normal in these mice. We conclude that this study shows that NADPH deficiency protects mice from developing OXPHOS dysfunction and NASH caused by a HFD.

Toxic and DNA damaging effects of a functionalized fullerene in human embryonic lung fibroblasts

Water-soluble fullerenes have been studied as potential nanovectors and therapeutic agents, but their possible toxicity is of concern. We have studied the effects of F-828, a soluble fullerene [C60] derivative, on diploid human embryonic lung fibroblasts (HELFs) in vitro. F-828 causes complex time-dependent changes in ROS levels. Inhibition of Nox4 activity by plumbagin blocks F-828-dependent ROS elevation. F-828 induces DNA breaks, as measured by the comet assay and γH2AX expression, and the activities of the transcription factors NF-kB and p53 increase. F-828 concentrations>25μM are cytotoxic; cell death occurs by necrosis. Expression levels of TGF-β, RHOA, RHOC, ROCK1, and SMAD2 increase following exposure to F-828. Our results raise the possibility that fullerene F-828 may induce pulmonary fibrosis in vivo.

Increased expression of NAPDH oxidase 4 in systemic sclerosis dermal fibroblasts: regulation by transforming growth factor β

OBJECTIVE

Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is characterized by severe and often progressive fibrosis of the skin and multiple internal organs. The mechanisms responsible for these alterations remain obscure, although excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated oxidative stress has been implicated. NOX-4 is 1 of 7 isoforms of NADPH oxidase responsible for the generation of ROS. The purpose of this study was to examine NOX-4 expression in skin and cultured dermal fibroblasts from SSc patients and to examine its regulation by transforming growth factor β1 (TGFβ1).

METHODS

NOX-4 was assessed in normal and SSc skin by immunohistologic analysis and in normal and SSc cultured dermal fibroblasts by quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis, fluorescence microscopy, and Western blotting. ROS levels were assessed by fluorescence measurement of H2 O2 production. Specific kinase inhibitors were used to study the TGFβ1 signaling involved in NOX-4 stimulation. NOX-4 inhibition/down-regulation was induced with a selective NOX-4 small-molecule inhibitor and NOX-4 small interfering RNA (siRNA).

RESULTS

In contrast with normal skin fibroblasts, those from SSc skin showed intense NOX-4 staining. Cultured SSc fibroblasts displayed increased NOX-4 expression. TGFβ1 caused potent NOX-4 protein and messenger RNA stimulation in normal and SSc fibroblasts, which was mediated by the protein kinase Cδ (PKCδ) and Smad2/3 pathways. NOX-4 knockdown in SSc fibroblasts reduced the production of ROS and lowered the expression of type I collagen.

CONCLUSION

NOX-4 expression and production were found to be constitutively elevated in SSc skin and cultured SSc dermal fibroblasts. TGFβ1 stimulated NOX-4 expression in normal and SSc fibroblasts through PKCδ and Smad2/3 signaling pathways. A small-molecule NOX-4 inhibitor decreased collagen and fibronectin production by normal and SSc fibroblasts, and NOX-4 siRNA knockdown reduced ROS and collagen production by SSc fibroblasts. These results demonstrate the involvement of NOX-4 in SSc-associated fibrosis and indicate NOX-4 inhibitors as novel therapeutic approaches for SSc.

NOX4 NADPH Oxidase-Dependent Mitochondrial Oxidative Stress in Aging-Associated Cardiovascular Disease

AIMS

Increased oxidative stress and vascular inflammation are implicated in increased cardiovascular disease (CVD) incidence with age. We and others demonstrated that NOX1/2 NADPH oxidase inhibition, by genetic deletion of p47phox, in Apoe(-/-) mice decreases vascular reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and atherosclerosis in young age. The present study examined whether NOX1/2 NADPH oxidases are also pivotal to aging-associated CVD.

RESULTS

Both aged (16 months) Apoe(-/-) and Apoe(-/-)/p47phox(-/-) mice had increased atherosclerotic lesion area, aortic stiffness, and systolic dysfunction compared with young (4 months) cohorts. Cellular and mitochondrial ROS (mtROS) levels were significantly higher in aortic wall and vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) from aged wild-type and p47phox(-/-) mice. VSMCs from aged mice had increased mitochondrial protein oxidation and dysfunction and increased vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 expression, which was abrogated with (2-(2,2,6,6-Tetramethylpiperidin-1-oxyl-4-ylamino)-2-oxoethyl)triphenylphosphonium chloride (MitoTEMPO) treatment. NOX4 expression was increased in the vasculature and mitochondria of aged mice and its suppression with shRNA in VSMCs from aged mice decreased mtROS levels and improved function. Increased mtROS levels were associated with enhanced mitochondrial NOX4 expression in aortic VSMCs from aged subjects, and NOX4 expression levels in arterial wall correlated with age and atherosclerotic severity. Aged Apoe(-/-) mice treated with MitoTEMPO and 2-(2-chlorophenyl)-4-methyl-5-(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-1H-pyrazolo[4,3-c]pyridine-3,6(2H,5H)-dione had decreased vascular ROS levels and atherosclerosis and preserved vascular and cardiac function.

INNOVATION AND CONCLUSION

These data suggest that NOX4, but not NOX1/2, and mitochondrial oxidative stress are mediators of CVD in aging under hyperlipidemic conditions. Regulating NOX4 activity/expression and using mitochondrial antioxidants are potential approaches to reducing aging-associated CVD.

Myocardin-related Transcription Factor Regulates Nox4 Protein Expression: LINKING CYTOSKELETAL ORGANIZATION TO REDOX STATE

TGFβ-induced expression of the NADPH oxidase Nox4 is essential for fibroblast-myofibroblast transition. Rho has been implicated in Nox4 regulation, but the underlying mechanisms are largely unknown. Myocardin-related transcription factor (MRTF), a Rho/actin polymerization-controlled coactivator of serum response factor, drives myofibroblast transition from various precursors. We have shown that TGFβ is necessary but insufficient for epithelial-myofibroblast transition in intact epithelia; the other prerequisite is the uncoupling of intercellular contacts, which induces Rho-dependent nuclear translocation of MRTF. Because the Nox4 promoter harbors a serum response factor/MRTF cis-element (CC(A/T)6GG box), we asked if MRTF (and thus cytoskeleton organization) could regulate Nox4 expression. We show that Nox4 protein is robustly induced in kidney tubular cells exclusively by combined application of contact uncoupling and TGFβ. Nox4 knockdown abrogates epithelial-myofibroblast transition-associated reactive oxygen species production. Laser capture microdissection reveals increased Nox4 expression in the tubular epithelium also during obstructive nephropathy. MRTF down-regulation/inhibition suppresses TGFβ/contact disruption-provoked Nox4 protein and mRNA expression, Nox4 promoter activation, and reactive oxygen species production. Mutation of the CC(A/T)6GG box eliminates the synergistic activation of the Nox4 promoter. Jasplakinolide-induced actin polymerization synergizes with TGFβ to facilitate MRTF-dependent Nox4 mRNA expression/promoter activation. Moreover, MRTF inhibition prevents Nox4 expression during TGFβ-induced fibroblast-myofibroblast transition as well. Although necessary, MRTF is insufficient; Nox4 expression also requires TGFβ-activated Smad3 and TAZ/YAP, two contact- and cytoskeleton-regulated Smad3-interacting coactivators. Down-regulation/inhibition of TAZ/YAP mitigates injury-induced epithelial Nox4 expression in vitro and in vivo. These findings uncover new MRTF- and TAZ/YAP-dependent mechanisms, which link cytoskeleton remodeling and redox state and impact epithelial plasticity and myofibroblast transition.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ inhibits Porphyromonas gingivalis lipopolysaccharide-induced activation of matrix metalloproteinase-2 by downregulating NADPH oxidase 4 in human gingival fibroblasts

We investigated the roles of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ (PPARδ) in Porphyromonas gingivalis-derived lipopolysaccharide (Pg-LPS)-induced activation of matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2). In human gingival fibroblasts (HGFs), activation of PPARδ by GW501516, a specific ligand of PPARδ, inhibited Pg-LPS-induced activation of MMP-2 and generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which was associated with reduced expression of NADPH oxidase 4 (Nox4). These effects were significantly smaller in the presence of small interfering RNA targeting PPARδ or the specific PPARδ inhibitor GSK0660, indicating that PPARδ is involved in these events. In addition, modulation of Nox4 expression by small interfering RNA influenced the effect of PPARδ on MMP-2 activity, suggesting a mechanism in which Nox4-derived ROS modulates MMP-2 activity. Furthermore, c-Jun N-terminal kinase and p38, but not extracellular signal-regulated kinase, mediated PPARδ-dependent inhibition of MMP-2 activity in HGFs treated with Pg-LPS. Concomitantly, PPARδ-mediated inhibition of MMP-2 activity was associated with the restoration of types I and III collagen to levels approaching those in HGFs not treated with Pg-LPS. These results indicate that PPARδ-mediated downregulation of Nox4 modulates cellular redox status, which in turn plays a critical role in extracellular matrix homeostasis through ROS-dependent regulation of MMP-2 activity.

Role of cellular senescence and NOX4-mediated oxidative stress in systemic sclerosis pathogenesis

Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is a systemic autoimmune disease characterized by progressive fibrosis of skin and numerous internal organs and a severe fibroproliferative vasculopathy resulting frequently in severe disability and high mortality. Although the etiology of SSc is unknown and the detailed mechanisms responsible for the fibrotic process have not been fully elucidated, one important observation from a large US population study was the demonstration of a late onset of SSc with a peak incidence between 45 and 54 years of age in African-American females and between 65 and 74 years of age in white females. Although it is not appropriate to consider SSc as a disease of aging, the possibility that senescence changes in the cellular elements involved in its pathogenesis may play a role has not been thoroughly examined. The process of cellular senescence is extremely complex, and the mechanisms, molecular events, and signaling pathways involved have not been fully elucidated; however, there is strong evidence to support the concept that oxidative stress caused by the excessive generation of reactive oxygen species may be one important mechanism involved. On the other hand, numerous studies have implicated oxidative stress in SSc pathogenesis, thus, suggesting a plausible mechanism in which excessive oxidative stress induces cellular senescence and that the molecular events associated with this complex process play an important role in the fibrotic and fibroproliferative vasculopathy characteristic of SSc. Here, recent studies examining the role of cellular senescence and of oxidative stress in SSc pathogenesis will be reviewed.

Hepatocyte Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate Reduced Oxidase 4 Regulates Stress Signaling, Fibrosis, and Insulin Sensitivity During Development of Steatohepatitis in Mice

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Reactive oxidative species (ROS) are believed to be involved in the progression of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). However, little is known about the sources of ROS in hepatocytes or their role in disease progression. We studied the effects of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate reduced oxidase 4 (NOX4) in liver tissues from patients with NASH and mice with steatohepatitis.

METHODS

Liver biopsy samples were obtained from 5 patients with NASH, as well as 4 patients with simple steatosis and 5 patients without steatosis (controls) from the University of California, Davis Cancer Center Biorepository. Mice with hepatocyte-specific deletion of NOX4 (NOX4(hepKO)) and NOX4(floxp+/+) C57BL/6 mice (controls) were given fast-food diets (supplemented with high-fructose corn syrup) or choline-deficient l-amino acid defined diets to induce steatohepatitis, or control diets, for 20 weeks. A separate group of mice were given the NOX4 inhibitor (GKT137831). Liver tissues were collected and immunoblot analyses were performed determine levels of NOX4, markers of inflammation and fibrosis, double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase, and phospho-eIF-2α kinase-mediated stress signaling pathways. We performed hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp studies and immunoprecipitation analyses to determine the oxidation and phosphatase activity of PP1C.

RESULTS

Levels of NOX4 were increased in patients with NASH compared with controls. Hepatocyte-specific deletion of NOX4 reduced oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, and liver fibrosis in mice with diet-induced steatohepatitis. A small molecule inhibitor of NOX4 reduced liver inflammation and fibrosis and increased insulin sensitivity in mice with diet-induced steatohepatitis. In primary hepatocytes, NOX4 reduced the activity of the phosphatase PP1C, prolonging activation of double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase and phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase-mediated stress signaling. Mice with hepatocyte-specific deletion of NOX4 and mice given GKT137831 had increased insulin sensitivity.

CONCLUSIONS

NOX4 regulates oxidative stress in the liver and its levels are increased in patients with NASH and mice with diet-induced steatohepatitis. Inhibitors of NOX4 reduce liver inflammation and fibrosis and increase insulin sensitivity, and might be developed for treatment of NASH.

Endothelial cell tumor growth is Ape/ref-1 dependent

Tumor-forming endothelial cells have highly elevated levels of Nox-4 that release H2O2 into the nucleus, which is generally not compatible with cell survival. We sought to identify compensatory mechanisms that enable tumor-forming endothelial cells to survive and proliferate under these conditions. Ape-1/ref-1 (Apex-1) is a multifunctional protein that promotes DNA binding of redox-sensitive transcription factors, such as AP-1, and repairs oxidative DNA damage. A validated mouse endothelial cell (EOMA) tumor model was used to demonstrate that Nox-4-derived H2O2 causes DNA oxidation that induces Apex-1 expression. Apex-1 functions as a chaperone to keep transcription factors in a reduced state. In EOMA cells Apex-1 enables AP-1 binding to the monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (mcp-1) promoter and expression of that protein is required for endothelial cell tumor formation. Intraperitoneal injection of the small molecule inhibitor E3330, which specifically targets Apex-1 redox-sensitive functions, resulted in a 50% decrease in tumor volume compared with mice injected with vehicle control (n = 6 per group), indicating that endothelial cell tumor proliferation is dependent on Apex-1 expression. These are the first reported results to establish Nox-4 induction of Apex-1 as a mechanism promoting endothelial cell tumor formation.

Epigenetic mechanisms regulate NADPH oxidase-4 expression in cellular senescence

Aging is a well-known risk factor for a large number of chronic diseases, including those of the lung. Cellular senescence is one of the hallmarks of aging, and contributes to the pathogenesis of age-related diseases. Recent studies implicate the reactive oxygen species (ROS)-generating enzyme, NADPH oxidase 4 (Nox4) in cellular senescence. In this study, we investigated potential mechanisms for epigenetic regulation of Nox4. We observed constitutively high levels of Nox4 gene/protein and activity in a model of replication-induced cellular senescence of lung fibroblasts. In replicative senescent fibroblasts, the Nox4 gene is enriched with the activation histone mark, H4K16Ac, and inversely associated with the repressive histone mark, H4K20Me3, supporting an active transcriptional chromatin conformation. Silencing of the histone acetyltransferase Mof, which specifically acetylates H4K16, down-regulates Nox4 gene/protein expression. The Nox4 gene promoter is rich in CpG sites; mixed copies of methylated and unmethylated Nox4 DNA were detected in both nonsenescent and senescent cells. Interestingly, the Nox4 gene is variably associated with specific DNA methyltransferases and methyl binding proteins in these two cell populations. These results indicate a critical role for histone modifications involving H4K16Ac in epigenetic activation of the Nox4 gene, while the role of DNA methylation may be contextual. Defining mechanisms for the epigenetic regulation of Nox4 will aid in the development of novel therapeutic strategies for age-related diseases in which this gene is overexpressed, in particular idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and cancer.

Smad-independent pathway involved in transforming growth factor β1-induced Nox4 expression and proliferation of endothelial cells

NADPH oxidase-derived reactive oxygen species are important for various cellular functions, including proliferation. Endothelial cells predominantly express the Nox4 isoform of NADPH oxidase, but it is not entirely clear how it is regulated. In this study, we investigated the signalling pathways involved in transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1)-induced Nox4 expression and the proliferation of human microvascular endothelial cells (HMECs). TGF-β1 stimulated Nox4 messenger RNA and protein expression in HMECs. TGF-β1-induced Nox4 also increased hydrogen peroxide production, which was inhibited by diphenyleneiodonium and EUK134. The acute treatment of HMECs with TGF-β1 enhanced the phosphorylation of Smad2 and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2, without affecting p38MAPK, Akt, or Jun N-terminal kinase 1/2 (JNK1/2) pathways. Further, inhibition of Smad2 signalling using an inhibitor of activin receptor-linked kinase 5 SB431542 reduced TGF-β1-induced Nox4 expression, while inhibition of ERK1/2 with the inhibitor of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 1/2 U0126 decreased both basal and TGF-β1-induced Nox4 expression. Inhibition of ERK1/2 phosphorylation with U0126 did not affect Smad2 phosphorylation. Finally, TGF-β1 enhanced endothelial cell proliferation, which was reduced by U0126 but not by SB431542. These findings suggest that the non-canonical pathway ERK1/2 regulates Nox4 expression and may be involved in TGF-β1-induced proliferation of endothelial cells, which is vital during angiogenesis and vascular development.

High-fat diet decreases activity of the oxidative phosphorylation complexes and causes nonalcoholic steatohepatitis in mice

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most frequent histological finding in individuals with abnormal liver-function tests in the Western countries. In previous studies, we have shown that oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) is decreased in individuals with NAFLD, but the cause of this mitochondrial dysfunction remains uncertain. The aims of this study were to determine whether feeding mice a high-fat diet (HFD) induces any change in the activity of OXPHOS, and to investigate the mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of this defect. To that end, 30 mice were distributed between five groups: control mice fed a standard diet, and mice on a HFD and treated with saline solution, melatonin (an antioxidant), MnTBAP (a superoxide dismutase analog) or uric acid (a scavenger of peroxynitrite) for 28 weeks intraperitoneously. In the liver of these mice, we studied histology, activity and assembly of OXPHOS complexes, levels of subunits of these complexes, gene expression of these subunits, oxidative and nitrosative stress, and oxidative DNA damage. In HFD-fed mice, we found nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, increased gene expression of TNFα, IFNγ, MCP-1, caspase-3, TGFβ1 and collagen α1(I), and increased levels of 3-tyrosine nitrated proteins. The activity and assembly of all OXPHOS complexes was decreased to about 50–60%. The amount of all studied OXPHOS subunits was markedly decreased, particularly the mitochondrial-DNA-encoded subunits. Gene expression of mitochondrial-DNA-encoded subunits was decreased to about 60% of control. There was oxidative damage to mitochondrial DNA but not to genomic DNA. Treatment of HFD-fed mice with melatonin, MnTBAP or uric acid prevented all changes observed in untreated HFD-fed mice. We conclude that a HFD decreased OXPHOS enzymatic activity owing to a decreased amount of fully assembled complexes caused by a reduced synthesis of their subunits. Antioxidants and antiperoxynitrites prevented all of these changes, suggesting that nitro-oxidative stress played a key role in the pathogenesis of these alterations. Treatment with these agents might prevent the development of NAFLD in humans.

Negative regulation of NADPH oxidase 4 by hydrogen peroxide-inducible clone 5 (Hic-5) protein

Hydrogen peroxide-inducible clone 5 (Hic-5) is a focal adhesion adaptor protein induced by the profibrotic cytokine TGF-β1. We have demonstrated previously that TGF-β1 induces myofibroblast differentiation and lung fibrosis by activation of the reactive oxygen species-generating enzyme NADPH oxidase 4 (Nox4). Here we investigated a potential role for Hic-5 in regulating Nox4, myofibroblast differentiation, and senescence. In normal human diploid fibroblasts, TGF-β1 induces Hic-5 expression in a delayed manner relative to the induction of Nox4 and myofibroblast differentiation. Hic-5 silencing induced constitutive Nox4 expression and enhanced TGF-β1-inducible Nox4 levels. The induction of constitutive Nox4 protein in Hic-5-silenced cells was independent of transcription and translation and controlled by the ubiquitin-proteasomal system. Hic-5 associates with the ubiquitin ligase Cbl-c and the ubiquitin-binding protein heat shock protein 27 (HSP27). The interaction of these proteins is required for the ubiquitination of Nox4 and for maintaining low basal levels of this reactive oxygen species-generating enzyme. Our model suggests that TGF-β1-induced Hic-5 functions as a negative feedback mechanism to limit myofibroblast differentiation and senescence by promoting the ubiquitin-proteasomal system-mediated degradation of Nox4. Together, these studies indicate that endogenous Hic-5 suppresses senescence and profibrotic activities of myofibroblasts by down-regulating Nox4 protein expression. Additionally, these are the first studies, to our knowledge, to demonstrate posttranslational regulation of Nox4.