Natural and built environmental exposures on children's active school travel: A Dutch global positioning system-based cross-sectional study

GPS-derived environmental exposures during pregnancy and early postpartum - Evidence from the madres cohort

The built and natural environment factors (e.g., greenspace, walkability) are associated with maternal and infant health during and after pregnancy. Most pregnancy studies assess exposures to environmental factors via static methods (i.e., residential location at a single point in time, usually 3rd trimester). These do not capture dynamic exposures encountered in activity spaces (e.g., locations one visits and paths one travels) and their changes over time. In this study, we aimed to compare daily environmental exposure estimates using residential and global positioning systems (GPS)-measured activity space approaches and evaluated potential for exposure measurement error in the former. To do this, we collected four days of continuous geolocation monitoring during the 1st and 3rd trimesters of pregnancy and at 4-6 months postpartum in sixty-two pregnant Hispanic women enrolled in the MADRES cohort. We applied residential and GPS-based methods to assess daily exposures to greenspace, access to parks and transit, and walkability, respectively. We assessed potential for exposure measurement error in residential vs GPS-based estimates using Pearson correlations for each measure overall and by study period. We found residential and GPS-based estimates of daily exposure to total areas of parks and open spaces were weakly positively correlated (r = 0.31, P < .001) across pregnancy and postpartum periods. Residential estimates of %greenspace (r = 0.52, P < .001) and tree cover (r = 0.55, P < .001) along walkable roads were moderately correlated with GPS-based estimates. Residential and GPS-based estimates of public transit proximity, pedestrian-oriented intersection density, and walkability index score were all highly positively correlated (r > 0.70, P < .001). We also found associations between residential and GPS-based estimates decreased among participants with greater daily mobility. Our findings suggest the popular approach that assessing the built and natural environment exposures using residential methods at one time point may introduce exposure measurement error in pregnancy studies. GPS-based methods, to the extent feasible, are recommended for future studies.

Correlates of Active School Transportation During the COVID-19 Pandemic Among Canadian 7- to 12-Year-Olds: A National Study

BACKGROUND

Active school transportation (AST) is an important source of physical activity for children and a potentially important climate change mitigation strategy. However, few studies have examined factors associated with AST in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic.

METHODS

We used baseline data from a longitudinal survey to investigate correlates of AST during the second wave of COVID-19 (December 2020). We collected survey data from 2291 parents of 7- to 12-year-olds across Canada and linked this information with data on neighborhood walkability and weather from national databases. We assessed potential correlates representing multiple levels of influence of the social-ecological model. We used gender-stratified binary logistic regression models to determine the correlates of children's travel mode to/from school (dichotomized as active vs motorized), while controlling for household income. We examined the correlates of travel mode for both the morning and afternoon trips.

RESULTS

Consistent correlates of AST among Canadian children during the COVID-19 pandemic included greater independent mobility, warmer outdoor temperature, having a parent who actively commuted to work or school, living in a household owning fewer vehicles, and living in a more walkable neighborhood. These findings were largely consistent between boys and girls and between morning and afternoon school trips.

CONCLUSIONS

Policymakers, urban planners, and public health workers aiming to promote AST should focus on these correlates while ensuring that neighborhoods are safe for children. Future research should monitor the prevalence and correlates of AST as COVID-19 restrictions are removed.

Neighborhood environment and body mass index in community-dwelling older adults in China: The mediating role of transport-related physical activity

OBJECTIVES

To examine whether the associations of neighborhood environment and body mass index (BMI) of community-dwelling older adults aged 70 and above were mediated by transport-related physical activity (TRPA).

METHODS

A bootstrap method was employed to test the mediation model with multisource data from Chongqing, China.

RESULTS

Neighborhood walkability (effect: 0.030, 95% CI [0.001-0.160]) and shopping facility accessibility (effect: 0.002, 95 % CI [0.001 - 0.101]) exhibited positive effects on BMI indirectly through decreasing TRPA duration. Negative indirect effects of sports facility accessibility (effect: -0.004, 95 % CI [-0.112 - -0.003]) and transit accessibility (effect: -0.044, 95 % CI [-0.074 - -0.002]) on BMI were observed through increasing TRPA duration. Park accessibility showed both direct (effect: -0.242, p < 0.05) and indirect (effect: -0.036, 95 % CI [-0.061 - -0.005]) negative correlations with BMI.

CONCLUSION

Our findings facilitate neighborhood environment interventions regarding obesity among older adults in developing countries.

How the Built Environment Moderates Gender Gap in Active Commuting to Schools

This study investigates the influences of built environmental (BE) factors, network design, and sociodemographic factors on active school travel (AST). Although numerous studies have explored these relationships, this study is trying to assess this issue with a focus on gender differences. Data from a cross-sectional sample of children from first to sixth grades from 16 public primary schools exclusive for girls and boys (N = 1260) in Shiraz collected in November 2019 was used. The analysis of the data revealed that, on average, boys are more willing to walk than girls, but that the boys' tendency to walk is less elastic with respect to distance. Moreover, it is shown that street connectivity for all distance thresholds has a positive relationship with walking level, but the street network choice parameter decreases the chance of walking within an 800 metre threshold. It is demonstrated the need to take gender differences into account in local planning policies to promote AST in a developing country context.

Perceived Safety Influencing Active Travel to School-A Built Environment Perspective

Despite the many research studies on active school travel (AST), the number of children walking/cycling to school is decreasing as there is a lack of implementable research evidence. This review through database searches from 2000 to 2020 aims to identify research gaps and explore new perspectives. The articles are selected and screened methodically for systematic presentation of the review. An existing active school travel framework is used to structure and discuss this review paper on mediating factors influencing children's active travel to school, that is the perceived traffic safety, neighborhood safety, and distance to school. Perception of traffic safety could be ameliorated through lateral separation from the traffic, and this could be a new area of research. The neighborhood safety perception may require more research to validate the previous findings. Schools should be located within high-density residential development so that many children can walk to school.

The impact of built environment on physical activity and subjective well-being of urban residents: A study of core cities in the Yangtze River Delta survey

Objective

In cities with high population density in China, the impact of built environment on human health is rather complicated. Physical activities are an important factor in promoting people's health. This study is aimed to explore ways of enhancing the residents' intensity of physical activities and psychological health in a limited built environment. For this purpose, this study conducted research on 1875 residents from cities in the Yangtze River Delta in China to clarify the complicated correlations among the residents' physical activities, the multi-dimensional geographic environment characteristics, and subjective well-being.

Methods

First, Neighborhood Environment Walkability Scale (NEWS-A), International Physical Activity Questionnaire Short Form (IPAQ-SF), and Subjective Well-being Scale for Chinese Citizens (SWBS-CC) were used to measure built environment characteristics, intensity of physical activities, and subjective well-being. Second, the correlations among built environment, physical activities, and subjective well-being were analyzed, which reflected different effects of built environment characteristics on physical activities and subjective well-being. Third, physical activities were viewed as a mediating variable in SEM to analyze the influence mechanism of each built environment characteristic on the subjective well-being of residents.

Result

Residents with different individual characteristics may have different levels of perception and usage of built environment. The intensity of physical activities has significant positive correlations with proximity to supporting facilities, accessibility of destinations, and public security, while no significant correlation with overall environmental aesthetics and street connectivity. The residents' subjective well-being has significant positive correlations with accessibility of destinations, overall environmental aesthetics, and public security, while no significant correlation with proximity to supporting facilities and street connectivity. Physical activities not only have a direct effect on subjective well-being, but also a mediating effect on the correlations between subjective well-being and built environment characteristics.

Conclusion

In the future, more research could be conducted on the optimization of correlations between residential built environment characteristics and physical activities as well as subjective well-being, so as to gain a deeper understanding about the impact of residential built environment on people's physical and mental health.

Analysis of Urban Built Environment Impacts on Outdoor Physical Activities-A Case Study in China

Outdoor physical activities can promote public health and they are largely influenced by the built environment in different urban settings. Understanding the association between outdoor physical activities and the built environment is important for promoting a high quality of life. Existing studies typically focus on one type of outdoor activity using interview-based small samples and are often lack of systematic understanding of the activities' intensity and frequency. In this study, we intend to gain deeper insight into how the built environment influences physical activities using the data extracted from individual's wearables and other open data sources for integrated analysis. Multi-linear regression with logarithm transformation is applied to perform the analysis using the data from Changsha, China. We found that built environment impacts on outdoor physical activities in Changsha are not always consistent with similar studies' results in other cities. The most effective measures to promote outdoor physical activities are the provision of good arterial and secondary road networks, community parks, among others in Changsha. The results shed light on future urban planning practices in terms of promoting public health.

Associations between Children's Physical Activity and Neighborhood Environments Using GIS: A Secondary Analysis from a Systematic Scoping Review

Regular participation in physical activity is essential for children's physical, mental, and cognitive health. Neighborhood environments may be especially important for children who are more likely to spend time in the environment proximal to home. This article provides an update of evidence for associations between children's physical activity behaviors and objectively assessed environmental characteristics derived using geographical information system (GIS)-based approaches. A systematic scoping review yielded 36 relevant articles of varying study quality. Most studies were conducted in the USA. Findings highlight the need for neighborhoods that are well connected, have higher population densities, and have a variety of destinations in the proximal neighborhood to support children's physical activity behaviors. A shorter distance to school and safe traffic environments were significant factors in supporting children's active travel behaviors. Areas for improvement in the field include the consideration of neighborhood self-selection bias, including more diverse population groups, ground-truthing GIS databases, utilising data-driven approaches to derive environmental indices, and improving the temporal alignment of GIS datasets with behavioral outcomes.

Associations between mobility and socio-economic indicators vary across the timeline of the Covid-19 pandemic

Covid-19 interventions are greatly affecting patterns of human mobility. Changes in mobility during Covid-19 have differed across socio-economic gradients during the first wave. We use fine-scale network mobility data in Ontario, Canada to study the association between three different mobility measures and four socio-economic indicators throughout the first and second wave of Covid-19 (January to December 2020). We find strong associations between mobility and the socio-economic indicators and that relationships between mobility and other socio-economic indicators vary over time. We further demonstrate that understanding how mobility has changed in response to Covid-19 varies considerably depending on how mobility is measured. Our findings have important implications for understanding how mobility data should be used to study interventions across space and time. Our results support that Covid-19 non-pharmaceutical interventions have resulted in geographically disparate responses to mobility and quantifying mobility changes at fine geographical scales is crucial to understanding the impacts of Covid-19.

Associations of neighborhood built, safety, and social environment with walking to and from school among elementary school-aged children in Chiba, Japan

BACKGROUND

Although it is globally known that Japan has high prevalence of active school travel among children, there are few international studies on Japanese children's school travel. Moreover, only few studies have focused on the differences in their mode of travel between to-school and from-school. This study examined the associations of neighborhood built, safety, and social environments with walking to/from school among elementary school-aged children in Chiba, Japan.

METHODS

We conducted an online survey with 1545 parents of children aged 6-12 years residing in Chiba between 25 and 27 November 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic. A neighborhood was defined as the area of a postcode provided by the participants. Each neighborhood environment was assessed based on the built environment (new town designation, walkability, distance to school, population density), social environment (neighborhood cohesion and connection), and safety (CCTVs, a road section for walking alone, safety volunteers). Neighborhood walkability was measured using subscales of the Neighborhood Environment Walkability Scale (youth and abbreviated versions) including crime safety and traffic safety. Parents' perceived influence of COVID-19 on school commuting and after-school activities were also included in the model as covariates. Walking to and from school were separately analyzed using multinomial logistic regressions, where new towns and walkability were computed separately as explanatory variables.

RESULTS

Four fifths of children walked to and from school daily. Walking to school was positively associated with crime safety, neighborhood connections, and schools sited in new towns. Walking from school had positive associations with traffic safety, neighborhood cohesion, and CCTVs, but negative associations with safety volunteers and after-school activities. The presence of a section for walking alone and perceived influence of COVID-19 had negative associations with walking to and from school.

CONCLUSIONS

Recent social changes such as declining birthrate, decline in public elementary schools, and increasing after-school activities may change parental attitudes toward children's walking to/from school, and subsequently, their mode of school travel over time. To maintain the high prevalence of walking to/from school in Japan, multidisciplinary approaches involving different stakeholders from education, public health, and urban planning are required to overcome sectionalism and support this behavior in the long term.

Measuring the Built Environment in Studies of Child Health-A Meta-Narrative Review of Associations

Although the built environment (BE) is important for children’s health, there is little consensus about which features are most important due to differences in measurement and outcomes across disciplines. This meta-narrative review was undertaken by a multi-disciplinary team of researchers to summarise ways in which the BE is measured, and how this links to children’s health. A structured search of four databases across the relevant disciplines retrieved 108 relevant references. The most commonly addressed health-related outcomes were active travel, physical activity and play, and obesity. Many studies used objective (GIS and street audits) or standardised subjective (perceived) measurements of the BE. However, there was a wide variety, and sometimes inconsistency, in their definition and use. There were clear associations between the BE and children’s health. Objective physical activity and self-reported active travel, or obesity, were positively associated with higher street connectivity or walkability measures, while self-reported physical activity and play had the strongest association with reduced street connectivity, indicated by quieter, one-way streets. Despite the high heterogeneity found in BE measures and health outcomes, the meta-narrative approach enabled us to identify ten BE categories that are likely to support children’s health and be protective against some non-communicable disease risk factors. Future research should implement consistent BE measures to ensure key features are explored. A systems approach will be particularly relevant for addressing place-based health inequalities, given potential unintended health consequences of making changes to the BE.

Interactive Urban Play to Encourage Active Mobility: Usability Study of a Web-Based Augmented Reality Application

Owing to increasing cases of sedentary lifestyles and their negative impact on health, practical solutions are needed to address the physical and mental wellbeing of citizens and to enhance their standard of living. Among the problems are premature mortality rates caused by physical inactivity, which leads to chronic diseases. Innovative solutions are needed to address many of the problems that we face as a society. Location-based games have been identified as effective solutions for increasing physical activity, enhancing social interaction, and exploration in urban environments. In this pilot study, we explore how to encourage active mobility (walking and cycling) through urban play by integrating technology into the built environment. We examined the usability of a web-based augmented reality application in providing interactive experience to users as they explored the urban environment looking for tasks. Overall, participants’ perceptions of the usability of the application were positive; they enjoyed how the application revealed the tasks at each location and all the checkpoints at the different locations had at least a couple of visitors. We present limitations and future research directions.

Is there a correlation between children's outdoor active mobility behaviour and neighbourhood safety? A systematic review of the evidence

OBJECTIVE

To identify, summarise and evaluate evidence on the correlation between perceived and actual neighbourhood safety (personal and road danger) and diverse forms of outdoor active mobility behaviour (ie, active play, exercise, and travel) among primary-school-aged children.

DESIGN

A systematic review of evidence from observational studies exploring children's active mobility behaviour and safety.

DATA SOURCES

Six electronic databases were searched: Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct, ProQuest and Web of Science from study inception until July 2020.

DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS

Study selection and quality assessment were conducted independently by two reviewers. We expanded on a quality assessment tool and adopted a vote-counting technique to determine strength of evidence. The outcomes were categorised by individual, family and neighbourhood levels.

RESULTS

A total of 29 studies were included, with a majority of cross-sectional design. Higher parental perceived personal safety correlated with increased children's active mobility behaviour, but most commonly in active travel (eg, independent walking or cycling to a local destination). Increased concerns regarding road danger correlated with a decrease in each type of children's active behaviour; active travel, play and exercise. However, these correlations were influenced by child's sex/gender, age, car ownership, neighbourhood types, across time, and proximity to destination. Limited or inconclusive evidence was found on correlate of children's outdoor active mobility behaviour to 'stranger danger', children's perceived personal safety, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status or measured safety.

CONCLUSION

Children are restricted by perception of safety. Encouraging children's active travel may require future strategies to address characteristics relevant to types of the neighbourhood that promote a high sense of personal safety. Children and parents may embrace other types of active mobility behaviour if road danger is mitigated. Sex/gender and age-specific interventions and redesign of public places could lead to child-friendly cities. Future studies may benefit from adopting validated measurement methods and fill existing research gaps.

Influence of weather conditions on children’s school travel mode and physical activity in 3 diverse regions of Canada

Children who engage in active school transportation (AST) have higher levels of physical activity (PA). Climate and weather were shown to influence adults’ daily travel behaviours, but their influence on children’s AST and PA has been less examined. This study examined the influence of weather conditions on children’s AST and overall PA. Children in grades 4 to 6 (N = 1699; age, 10.2 ± 1.0 years) were recruited in schools located in urban, suburban and rural areas, stratified by area-level socioeconomic status, in 3 different regions of Canada (Trois-Rivières, Québec; Ottawa, Ontario; Vancouver, British Columbia). Mode of school travel was self-reported and physical activity was measured using a pedometer. We used publicly available data on total precipitation and early morning temperature. AST increased with temperature only among girls. Daily precipitation was negatively associated with boys’ and girls’ PA while warmer temperature was associated with increased PA on weekend days. We also observed that season and region moderated the relationship between weather conditions and children’s physical activity behaviours. Our results suggest that daily weather variations influence children’s AST and PA to a greater extent than seasonal variations. Interventions designed to help children and families adapt to weather-related barriers to AST and PA are needed.

Novelty: In Canada, weather conditions may influence children’s active behaviours daily. Associations between weather conditions, choice of travel mode and physical activity vary by sex, season, and region. Weather affects children's PA differently during the week than on weekends.

Children's Experiences of Their Journey to School: Integrating Behaviour Change Frameworks to Inform the Role of the Built Environment in Active School Travel Promotion

Childhood obesity is a public health problem with multiple effects on children’s life. Promoting Active School Travel (AST) could provide an inclusive opportunity for physical activity and shape healthy behaviours. Data for this cross-sectional study were drawn from questionnaires carried out in five primary schools located in Newcastle upon Tyne, UK, in neighbourhoods chosen for their variability in IMD (index of multiple deprivation) and spatial structure of street networks (measured through space syntax measure of integration). A randomly selected and heterogenic sample of 145 pupils (aged 9–10) completed an open-ended questionnaire to state what they like and dislike about their journey to school. Thematic analysis identified four typologies (environmental context, emotions, social influences and trip factors) based on the Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF) and specific themes and sub-themes underlying children’s affective experiences of their journeys to school. This study is the first known to authors to attempt to adapt the Capability, Opportunity and Motivation Behaviour (COM-B) model into AST and children’s experiences and associated behavioural domains with design aspects. Such an insight into children’s attitudes could inform urban planners and designers about how to apply more effective behaviour change interventions, targeting an AST increase among children.

Virtual Reality Representations of Nature to Improve Well-Being amongst Older Adults: a Rapid Review

Poor well-being amongst older adults poses a serious health concern. Simultaneously, research shows that contact with nature can improve various facets of well-being, including physical, social, and mental well-being. However, nature is not always accessible for older adults due to mobility restrictions and related care needs that come with age. A promising strategy aims at bringing nature inside through pervasive technologies. However, so far, there is little academic understanding of essential nature characteristics, psychological processes involved, and means for implementation in practice. The current study used a three-folded rapid review to assess current understanding and strategies used for improving well-being for older adults through virtual reality representations of nature. Searches were performed across three databases, followed-up by content-based evaluation of abstracts. In total, a set of 25 relevant articles was identified. Only three studies specifically focus on digital nature as an intervention strategy for improving well-being amongst older adults. Although these studies provide useful starting points for the design and (technological) development of such environments, they do not generate understanding of how specific characteristics of virtual nature representations impact social well-being measures in particular, and of the underlying psychological processes involved. We conclude that follow-up research is warranted to close the gap between insights and findings from nature research, gerontology, health research, and human-technology interaction.

Environmental Exposures in Singapore Schools: An Ecological Study

Global climate change is a clear and present danger to our environment, but the impacts of climate change on human health are less known. People in Asian countries are more susceptible to the negative impacts of climate change and the subsequent environmental exposures because of the high population density, rapid urbanization, and natural geography of the region. The objective of this multidisciplinary collaborative ecological study was to explore the impact of environmental exposures such as temperature (°C), noise (db), humidity (%rh), air conditioning exposure time (hours), and distance traveled to school (km) on the comfort and academic success of school children in Singapore. Analysis of a large dataset from the Singapore National Science Experiment revealed a positive correlation between the distance traveled to school and favorable environmental conditions (moderate temperatures, low noise, low humidity, and higher amount of air conditioning time) and student academic performance. The analysis revealed that the distance traveled between home and school for public school students falls within a larger range than that for independent (private) school students. On average, students traveled farther distances to attend schools of higher academic caliber thereby increasing their exposure to environmental pollution. Student exposure to pollution can be minimized if all schools adhere to higher standards of environmental comfort and standardized academic caliber. If students can attend the school closest to their homes, they can minimize their daily pollution exposure due to traffic/commute, thereby mitigating the resultant negative health consequences.

Access to bike lanes and childhood obesity: A systematic review and meta-analysis

The lack of bike lane access has been a proven risk factor for childhood obesity due to its role in discouraging healthy lifestyles. However, there has not been a systematic review of this important association in the existing literature. This study aims to fill this gap. A literature search was conducted in the Cochrane Library, PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science for studies published from 1 January 2019 onwards that examined the association between bike lane access and weight-related behaviours and outcomes among children aged <18 years. A total of 21 studies were included in this systematic review. Among them, most of the studies showed that bike lane access was significantly associated with children and adolescents' physical activity (PA), whereas only two studies showed a negative association. Meta-analysis also supported these findings and showed that bike lane access was significantly associated with children and adolescents' PA (odds ratio [OR] = 1.57, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.37-1.81). Additionally, we reviewed how bike lane characteristics and microenvironment variables such as children and adolescents' choice of bicycle travel mode, the degree of separation of cycle path, cycle path unevenness, and street maintenance were associated with adolescents' preferences and intention to cycle. This systematic review and meta-analysis strongly suggests that bike lane access is associated with children and adolescents' PA. Nonetheless, it was difficult to draw a conclusion on the association between bike lane access and weight-related outcomes.

Are school-based measures of walkability and greenness associated with modes of commuting to school? Findings from a student survey in Ontario, Canada

OBJECTIVES

In Canada, students are increasingly reliant on motorized vehicles to commute to school, and few meet the recommended overall physical activity guidelines. Infrastructure and built environments around schools may promote active commuting to and from school, thereby increasing physical activity. To date, few Canadian studies have examined this research question.

METHODS

This study is a cross-sectional analysis of 11,006 students, aged 11-20, who participated in the 2016/2017 Ontario Student Drug Use and Health Survey. The remote sensing-derived Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), at a buffer of 500 m from the schools' locations, was used to characterize greenness, while the 2016 Canadian Active Living Environments (Can-ALE) measure was used for walkability. Students were asked about their mode of regular commuting to school, and to provide information on several socio-demographic variables. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to quantify associations between active commuting and greenness and the Can-ALE. The resulting odds ratios, and their 95% confidence intervals, were adjusted for a series of risk factors that were collected from the survey.

RESULTS

Overall, 21% of students reported active commuting (biking or walking) to school, and this prevalence decreased with increasing age. Students whose schools had higher Can-ALE scores were more likely to be active commuters. Specifically, the adjusted odds ratio (OR) of being an active commuter for schools in the highest quartile of the Can-ALE was 2.11 (95% CI = 1.64, 2.72) when compared with those in the lowest. For children, aged 11-14 years, who attended schools in high dwelling density areas, a higher odds of active commuting was observed among those in the upper quartile of greenness relative to the lowest (OR = 1.41; 95% CI = 0.92, 2.15). In contrast, for lower dwelling density areas, greenness was inversely associated with active commuting across all ages.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that students attending schools with higher Can-ALE scores are more likely to actively commute to school, and that positive impacts of greenness on active commuting are evident only in younger children in more densely populated areas. Future studies should collect more detailed data on residential measures of the built environment, safety, distance between home and school, and mixed modes of commuting behaviours.

Children's Active School Travel: Examining the Combined Perceived and Objective Built-Environment Factors from Space Syntax

Increasing active school travel (AST) among children may provide the required level of daily physical activity and reduce the prevalence of obesity. Despite efforts to promote this mode, recent evidence shows that AST rates continue to decrease in suburban and urban areas alike. The aim of this research study, therefore, is to facilitate our understanding of how objective and perceived factors near the home influence children's AST in an understudied city, İstanbul, Turkey. Using data from a cross-sectional sample of students aged 12-14 from 20 elementary schools (n = 1802) and consenting parents (n = 843), we applied a nominal logistic regression model to highlight important predictors of AST. The findings showed that street network connectivity (as measured by two novel space syntax measures, metric reach and directional reach) was the main deciding factor for active commuting to school, while parents' perceptions of condition of sidewalks and shade-casting street trees were moderately significant factors associated with AST. Overall, this study demonstrated the significance of spatial structure of street network around the homes in the potential for encouraging AST, and more importantly, the need to consider objective and perceived environmental attributes when strategizing means to increase this mode choice and reduce ill-health among children.

Chinese tourists in Nordic countries: An analysis of spatio-temporal behavior using geo-located travel blog data

Geo-located travel blogs, a new data source, enable to achieve more detailed analysis of tourists' spatio-temporal behavior. Taking Chinese tourists in Nordic countries as the research object, this paper focuses on their behavior, seasonal patterns and complex network effects by using geo-located travel blog data collected from Qunar.com. The results show that: (1) Chinese tourists visiting Nordic countries are often experienced in traveling. The local climate during the cold season does not prevent them from pursuing the aurora scenery. (2) The travel behavior of Chinese tourists is spatially heterogeneous. The network analysis reveals that Iceland showcases stronger, compared to the other Nordic countries, community independence and small world effect. (3) During the warm season, Chinese tourists choose a variety of destinations, while in cold season, they tend to choose destinations with higher chances for spotting the northern lights. These results provide helpful information for the tourism management departments of Nordic countries to improve their marketing and development efforts directed for Chinese tourists.

Objective measurement of children's physical activity geographies: A systematic search and scoping review

This study aimed to systematically identify, map out, and describe geographical information systems (GIS)-based approaches that have been employed to measure children's neighborhood geographies for physical activity behaviors. Forty studies were included, most were conducted in the USA. Heterogeneity in GIS methods and measures was found. The majority of studies estimated children's environments using Euclidean or network buffers ranging from 100 m to 5 km. No singular approach to measuring children's physical activity geographies was identified as optimal. Geographic diversity in studies as well as increased use of measures of actual neighborhood exposure are needed. Improved consistency and transparency in reporting research methods is urgently required.

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Varied GIS measures of children's physical activity geographies were identified.

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Evidence was heterogeneous and predominantly from the USA.

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Most research used Euclidean or network buffers ranging from 100 m to 5 km.

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Larger buffer sizes (i.e., ≥800 m) performed better than smaller buffer sizes.

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No optimal approach to measuring children's activity geographies was determined.

A systematic review of the evolution of GPS use in active living research: A state of the evidence for research, policy, and practice

This is the first systematic review to comprehensively capture Global Positioning Systems' (GPS) utilization in active living research by investigating the influence of physical contexts and social environment on all intensities of physical activity and sedentary behavior among all age groups. An extensive search of peer-reviewed literature was conducted using six databases. Out of 2026 articles identified, 129 studies met the inclusion criteria. After describing the evolution of GPS use across four themes (study designs and methods, physical contexts and social environment, active transportation, and behaviors), evidence-based recommendations for active living research, policy, and practice were generated.

Associations of the objective built environment along the route to school with children's modes of commuting: A multilevel modelling analysis (the SLIC study)

As active commuting levels continue to decline among primary schoolchildren, evidence about which built environmental characteristics influence walking or cycling to school remains inconclusive and is strongly context-dependent. This study aimed to identify the objective built environmental drivers of, and barriers to, active commuting to school for a multi-ethnic sample of 1,889 healthy primary schoolchildren (aged 5-11) in London, UK. Using cross-sectional multilevel ordered logistic regression modelling, supported by the spatial exploration of built environmental characteristics through cartography, the objective built environment was shown to be strongly implicated in children's commuting behaviour. In line with earlier research, proximity to school emerged as the prime variable associated with the choice for active commuting. However, other elements of the urban form were also significantly associated with children's use of active or passive modes of transport. High levels of accidents, crime and air pollution along the route to school were independently correlated with a lower likelihood of children walking or cycling to school. Higher average and minimum walkability and higher average densities of convenience stores along the way were independently linked to higher odds of active commuting. The significance of the relations for crime, air pollution and walkability disappeared in the fully-adjusted model including all built environmental variables. In contrast, relationships with proximity, traffic danger and the food environment were maintained in this comprehensive model. Black children, pupils with obesity, younger participants and those from high socioeconomic families were less likely to actively commute to school. There is thus a particular need to ensure that roads with high volumes of actively commuting children are kept safe and clean, and children's exposure to unhealthy food options along the way is limited. Moreover, as short commuting distances are strongly correlated with walking or cycling, providing high-quality education near residential areas might incite active transport to school.

Methodologies for assessing contextual exposure to the built environment in physical activity studies: A systematic review

Growing research has integrated Global Positioning Systems (GPS), Geographic Information Systems (GIS), and accelerometry in studying effects of built environment on physical activity outcomes. This systematic review aimed to summarize current geospatial methods of assessing contextual exposure to the built environment in these studies. Based on reviewing 79 eligible articles, methods were identified and grouped into three main categories based on similarities in their approaches as follows: domain-based (67% of studies), buffer-based (22%), and activity space-based (11%). Additionally, technical barriers and potential sources of uncertainties in each category were discussed and recommendations on methodological improvements were made.

Activity spaces in studies of the environment and physical activity: A review and synthesis of implications for causality

Activity spaces are increasingly used to understand how people interact with their environment and engage in activity but their use may raise challenges regarding causal inference. We conducted a systematic review of findings and the methodological, analytical and conceptual issues relevant to causal inference. Studies were included if they comprised a spatial summary of locations visited, assessed any part of the causal pathway between the environment, physical activity and health, and used quantitative or qualitative methods. We searched seven electronic databases in January 2018 and screened 11910 articles for eligibility. Forty-seven studies were included for review. Studies answered research questions about features of or environmental features within activity spaces using a range of spatial and temporal summary techniques. The conceptual challenge of using activity spaces to strengthen causal inference was rarely considered, although some studies discussed circularity, temporality, and plausibility. Future studies should use longitudinal and experimental designs and consider the potential and actual use of spaces for physical activity, and their relationship with total levels of activity.

Mobile Sensing in Environmental Health and Neighborhood Research

Public health research has witnessed a rapid development in the use of location, environmental, behavioral, and biophysical sensors that provide high-resolution objective time-stamped data. This burgeoning field is stimulated by the development of novel multisensor devices that collect data for an increasing number of channels and algorithms that predict relevant dimensions from one or several data channels. Global positioning system (GPS) tracking, which enables geographic momentary assessment, permits researchers to assess multiplace personal exposure areas and the algorithm-based identification of trips and places visited, eventually validated and complemented using a GPS-based mobility survey. These methods open a new space-time perspective that considers the full dynamic of residential and nonresidential momentary exposures; spatially and temporally disaggregates the behavioral and health outcomes, thus replacing them in their immediate environmental context; investigates complex time sequences; explores the interplay among individual, environmental, and situational predictors; performs life-segment analyses considering infraindividual statistical units using case-crossover models; and derives recommendations for just-in-time interventions.

Remote Sensing in Environmental Justice Research—A Review

Human health is known to be affected by the physical environment. Various environmental influences have been identified to benefit or challenge people’s physical condition. Their heterogeneous distribution in space results in unequal burdens depending on the place of living. In addition, since societal groups tend to also show patterns of segregation, this leads to unequal exposures depending on social status. In this context, environmental justice research examines how certain social groups are more affected by such exposures. Yet, analyses of this per se spatial phenomenon are oftentimes criticized for using “essentially aspatial” data or methods which neglect local spatial patterns by aggregating environmental conditions over large areas. Recent technological and methodological developments in satellite remote sensing have proven to provide highly detailed information on environmental conditions. This narrative review therefore discusses known influences of the urban environment on human health and presents spatial data and applications for analyzing these influences. Furthermore, it is discussed how geographic data are used in general and in the interdisciplinary research field of environmental justice in particular. These considerations include the modifiable areal unit problem and ecological fallacy. In this review we argue that modern earth observation data can represent an important data source for research on environmental justice and health. Especially due to their high level of spatial detail and the provided large-area coverage, they allow for spatially continuous description of environmental characteristics. As a future perspective, ongoing earth observation missions, as well as processing architectures, ensure data availability and applicability of ’big earth data’ for future environmental justice analyses.

Geographic Imputation of Missing Activity Space Data from Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) GPS Positions

This research presents a pilot study to develop and compare methods of geographic imputation for estimating the location of missing activity space data collected using geographic ecological momentary assessment (GEMA). As a demonstration, we use data from a previously published analysis of the effect of neighborhood disadvantage, captured at the U.S. Census Bureau tract level, on momentary psychological stress among a sample of 137 urban adolescents. We investigate the impact of listwise deletion on model results and test two geographic imputation techniques adapted for activity space data from hot deck and centroid imputation approaches. Our results indicate that listwise deletion can bias estimates of place effects on health, and that these impacts are mitigated by the use of geographic imputation, particularly regarding inflation of the standard errors. These geographic imputation techniques may be extended in future research by incorporating approaches from the non-spatial imputation literature as well as from conventional geographic imputation and spatial interpolation research that focus on non-activity space data.

The role of the natural and built environment in cycling duration in the Netherlands

Background

Cycling for transportation has the potential to contribute to an increase in people’s physical activity levels. A growing body of evidence links the natural and the built environment to cycling. Whereas previous studies were mostly done within one city or one region, the present study covers the whole of the Netherlands, allowing an investigation of whether associations between environmental characteristics and cycling are context-specific. The study examines the extent to which objectively measured natural and built environment characteristics contribute to cycling duration in the Netherlands, as well as the differential effect of environmental characteristics on cycling duration by municipality size.

Methods

Our sample from the Dutch National Travel Survey 2010–2014 comprised 110,027 people aged 20–89 years, residing in 3163 four-digit postal code areas, nested within 387 municipalities across the whole of the Netherlands. Multilevel Tobit regression models were fitted to assess the associations between the natural and the built environment with average daily cycling duration (in minutes), while adjusting for individual and household characteristics. Interaction effects of natural and built environment characteristics and municipality size on cycling duration were also investigated.

Results

Higher address density, more bus stops, and shorter distance from home to the nearest train station were positively related to cycling duration. Respondents were more likely to cycle on days with higher temperatures, less wind, and less precipitation. Interaction tests showed that increased street density and address density were less cycling-promotive in small urban areas compared to medium or large cities. On the other hand, the positive association between number of bus stops and cycling duration was weaker in the largest and medium-sized cities compared to small urban and rural areas.

Conclusions

Interactions suggest that relations between environmental characteristics and cycling duration are context-specific (i.e., dependent on circumstances that differ between highly urbanized and less urbanized areas). Our findings need to be replicated in other countries to gain more insight into the interplay between environmental factors and municipality size.

Toward dynamic urban environmental exposure assessments in mental health research

It is increasingly recognized that mental disorders are affected by both personal characteristics and environmental exposures. The built, natural, and social environments can either contribute to or buffer against metal disorders. Environmental exposure assessments related to mental health typically rely on neighborhoods within which people currently live. In this article, I call into question such neighborhood-based exposure assessments at one point in time, because human life unfolds over space and across time. To circumvent inappropriate exposure assessments and to better grasp the etiologies of mental disease, I argue that people are exposed to multiple health-supporting and harmful exposures not only during their daily lives, but also over the course of their lives. This article aims to lay a theoretical foundation elucidating the impact of dynamic environmental exposures on mental health outcomes. I examine, first, the possibilities and challenges for mental health research to integrate people's environmental exposures along their daily paths and, second, how exposures over people's residential history might affect mental health later in life. To push the borders of scientific inquiries, I stress that only such mobility-based approaches facilitate an exploration of exposure duration, exposure sequences, and exposure accumulation.

Objectively measured active transportation to school and other destinations among 10-13 year olds

BACKGROUND

Descriptive data on active transportation in children focuses on the trip to school and has relied on subjective reports. The purpose of this study was to use objective measures to describe total active transportation and active transportation to common destinations within children.

METHODS

This was a descriptive study of 388 children aged 10-13 years from Kingston, Ontario, Canada. Participants wore a Garmin GPS watch during waking hours for seven days. Personal Activity Measurement Location System software used the GPS data to identify trips, time spent in each trip and the trip modality (walking, bicycle or vehicle). Google Maps software was used to identify trip destinations.

RESULTS

A total of 8875 trips were identified. Most (69%) trips were made by vehicle; 25% were made by walking and 6% by bicycle. Mean time spent in active transportation was 10.3 min/day (95% CI: 7.4, 14.5). Time spent in active transportation was higher for boys (12.1 min/day [95% CI: 8.8, 17.0) than for girls (8.5 min/day [95% CI: 6.1, 12.0]) and increased from 7.7 min/day (95% CI: 5.5, 11.1) at age 10 to 14.3 min/day (95% CI: 10.3, 19.9) at age 13. Time spent in active transportation was lower in the winter by comparison to the other seasons. The four most common active transportation destinations were the participant's home, school, other people's homes, and parks or greenspace with 69%, 39%, 37% and 32% of participants walking or bicycling to these destinations at least once over the 7-day measurement period.

CONCLUSION

Over 65% of trips made and time spent travelling occurred in a vehicle. When active transportation was used, the most common destinations were home, school, other people's homes, and parks.

Associations of built environment and children's physical activity: a narrative review

PROBLEM

Childhood obesity has been an epidemic particularly in high-income countries. There is a considerable volume of data and studies depicting the rising number of obese children and adolescents in different countries. As suggested by the literature, physical inactivity is one the main drivers of childhood obesity. This paper addresses the associations of the built environment with physical activity of children in order to find to theoretically facilitate intervention and prevention measures. Literature: There is a large body of literature describing the overall determinants of children's physical activity. The built environment is one of the influential factors that have been partially examined. Among the physical environment indicators, distance to school has been repeatedly reported to be negatively associated with active travels to school; thus, it indirectly affects physical activity of children. Apart from distance to school, some other built environment indicators have also been less researched, such as population and construction densities, distance to the city center, land use mix, and type of urban fabric (urban, suburban, etc.).

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this review was to shed light on some of the less-studied areas of the existing literature related to the relationship between the built environment and physical activity of children aged between 3 and 12 years.

METHOD

The English-language publications, majority of which were peer-reviewed journal papers published in recent years, were collected and descriptively analyzed. Two large categories were the backbone of this narrative review: (1) non-school outdoor activities of children that take place in the residential neighborhood and (2) commuting to school and the related interventions such as safe routes to school.

RESULTS

Seven areas were synthesized by this review of the literature. Differences in associations of the built environment and physical activity in (1) different types of urban forms and land uses such as urban, suburban, high-density, etc.; (2) different city sizes such as small towns, mid-sized cities, large cities and megacities; (3) different cultures, subcultures and ethnicities in the same city of country, e.g. the Asian minority of London or the Turkish minority of Germany; (4) between perceptions of parents and children and associations with children's physical activity, e.g. how they perceive safety and security of the neighborhood; (5) associations of the built environment with children's physical activity in less-studied contexts, e.g. many developing and under-developed countries or eastern European countries; (6) differences in built environment - physical activity associations in different regions of the world, e.g. continents; and finally (7) associations between mobility patterns of parents and their children's physical activity, for instance, the frequencies of taking public transport or walk as a commute mode.

CONCLUSION

Researchers are recommended to focus their less-researched subtopics mentioned under the Results section in accordance with local conditions observed in less-researched contexts so that measures and interventions are accordingly planned.

Weather is not significantly correlated with destination-specific transport-related physical activity among adults: A large-scale temporally matched analysis

Weather is an element of the natural environment that could have a significant effect on physical activity. Existing research, however, indicates only modest correlations between measures of weather and physical activity. This prior work has been limited by a failure to use time-matched weather and physical activity data, or has not adequately examined the different domains of physical activity (transport, leisure, occupational, etc.). Our objective was to identify the correlation between weather variables and destination-specific transport-related physical activity in adults. Data were sourced from the California Household Travel Survey, collected in 2012-3. Weather variables included: relative humidity, temperature, wind speed, and precipitation. Transport-related physical activity (walking) was sourced from participant-recorded travel diaries. Three-part hurdle models were used to analyze the data. Results indicate statistically or substantively insignificant correlations between the weather variables and transport-related physical activity for all destination types. These results provide the strongest evidence to date that transport-related physical activity may occur relatively independently of weather conditions. The knowledge that weather conditions do not seem to be a significant barrier to this domain of activity may potentially expand the universe of geographic locations that are amenable to environmental and programmatic interventions to increase transport-related walking.