The Weiss system for evaluating adrenocortical neoplasms: 25 years later

Fully-automated CT derived body composition analysis reveals sarcopenia in functioning adrenocortical carcinomas

Determination of body composition (the relative distribution of fat, muscle, and bone) has been used effectively to assess the risk of progression and overall clinical outcomes in different malignancies. Sarcopenia (loss of muscle mass) is especially associated with poor clinical outcomes in cancer. However, estimation of muscle mass through CT scan has been a cumbersome, manually intensive process requiring accurate contouring through dedicated personnel hours. Recently, fully automated technologies that can determine body composition in minutes have been developed and shown to be highly accurate in determining muscle, bone, and fat mass. We employed a fully automated technology, and analyzed images from a publicly available cancer imaging archive dataset (TCIA) and a tertiary academic center. The results show that adrenocortical carcinomas (ACC) have relatively sarcopenia compared to benign adrenal lesions. In addition, functional ACCs have accelerated sarcopenia compared to non-functional ACCs. Further longitudinal research might shed further light on the relationship between body component distribution and ACC prognosis, which will help us incorporate more nutritional strategies in cancer therapy.

Deep learning approach for differentiating indeterminate adrenal masses using CT imaging

PURPOSE

Distinguishing stage 1-2 adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) and large, lipid poor adrenal adenoma (LPAA) via imaging is challenging due to overlapping imaging characteristics. This study investigated the ability of deep learning to distinguish ACC and LPAA on single time-point CT images.

METHODS

Retrospective cohort study from 1994 to 2022. Imaging studies of patients with adrenal masses who had available adequate CT studies and histology as the reference standard by method of adrenal biopsy and/or adrenalectomy were included as well as four patients with LPAA determined by stability or regression on follow-up imaging. Forty-eight (48) subjects with pathology-proven, stage 1-2 ACC and 43 subjects with adrenal adenoma >3 cm in size demonstrating a mean non-contrast CT attenuation > 20 Hounsfield Units centrally were included. We used annotated single time-point contrast-enhanced CT images of these adrenal masses as input to a 3D Densenet121 model for classifying as ACC or LPAA with five-fold cross-validation. For each fold, two checkpoints were reported, highest accuracy with highest sensitivity (accuracy focused) and highest sensitivity with the highest accuracy (sensitivity focused).

RESULTS

We trained a deep learning model (3D Densenet121) to predict ACC versus LPAA. The sensitivity-focused model achieved mean accuracy: 87.2% and mean sensitivity: 100%. The accuracy-focused model achieved mean accuracy: 91% and mean sensitivity: 96%.

CONCLUSION

Deep learning demonstrates promising results distinguishing between ACC and large LPAA using single time-point CT images. Before being widely adopted in clinical practice, multicentric and external validation are needed.

Role of computed tomography in predicting adrenal adenomas with cortisol hypersecretion

OBJECTIVES

To investigate performance of adrenal CT-derived multivariate prediction models in differentiating adenomas with cortisol hypersecretion from the other subtypes.

METHODS

This retrospective study included 127 patients who underwent adrenal CT and had a surgically proven adrenal adenoma. Adenoma subtypes were defined according to biochemical test results: Group A, overt cortisol hypersecretion; Group B, mild cortisol hypersecretion; Group C, aldosterone hypersecretion; and Group D, non-function. Two independent readers analyzed size, attenuation, and washout properties of adenomas, and performed quantitative and qualitative analyses for assessing contralateral adrenal atrophy. Actual and internally validated areas under the curves (AUCs) of adrenal CT-derived multivariate prediction models for differentiating adenomas with cortisol hypersecretion from the other subtypes were assessed.

RESULTS

In differentiating Group A from the other groups, the actual and internally validated AUCs of the prediction model were 0.856 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.786, 0.926) and 0.847 (95% CI: 0.695, 0.999) for Reader 1, respectively, and 0.901 (95% CI: 0.845, 0.956) and 0.897 (95% CI: 0.783, 1.000) for Reader 2, respectively. In differentiating Group B from groups C and D, the actual and internally validated AUCs of the prediction model were 0.777 (95% CI: 0.687, 0.866) and 0.760 (95% CI: 0.552, 0.969) for Reader 1, respectively, and 0.783 (95% CI: 0.690, 0.875) and 0.765 (95% CI: 0.553, 0.977) for Reader 2, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Adrenal CT may be useful in differentiating adenomas with cortisol hypersecretion from the other subtypes.

ADVANCES IN KNOWLEDGE

Adrenal CT may benefit in adrenal adenoma subtyping.

Prognostic Value of Microscopic Tumor Necrosis in Adrenal Cortical Carcinoma

Adrenal cortical carcinoma (ACC) is an uncommon neoplasm with variable prognosis. Several histologic criteria have been identified as predictors of malignancy in adrenal cortical tumors. The Weiss score is the system most widely employed for diagnostic purposes, but also possesses prognostic value. We aim to determine the relative impact of each Weiss parameter on ACC patient survival. A multicenter retrospective analysis was conducted on a series of 79 conventional ACCs surgically treated at the Florence and Utrecht centers of the European Network for the Study of Adrenal Tumors (ENSAT). Weiss classification was recapitulated using principal component analysis (PCA). The Kaplan-Meier and Cox multivariate regression analyses were applied in order to estimate the prognostic power of Weiss versus other clinical parameters. PCA reduced the nine Weiss parameters to the best fitting 4-component model, each parameter clustering with a single component. Necrosis and venous invasion clustered together with the highest scores, thus establishing the most relevant component (Component 1) to explain Weiss distribution variability. Only Component 1 significantly predicted overall survival (OS, log-rank = 0.008) and disease-free survival (DFS, log-rank < 0.001). When considering the prognostic power of Weiss parameters, necrosis alone could independently assess OS (log-rank = 0.004) and DFS (log-rank < 0.001) at both the Kaplan-Meier and multivariate Cox regression analyses [hazard ratio (HR) = 7.8, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.0-63.5, p = 0.05, and HR = 12.2, 95% CI = 1.6-95.0, p = 0.017, respectively]. The presence of necrosis significantly shortened time to survival (TtS) and time to recurrence (TtR), 57.5 [31.5-103.5] vs 34 [12-78] months (p = 0.05) and 57.5 [31.5-103.5] vs 7 [1.0-31.5] months (p < 0.001), respectively. Our study suggests that, of the Weiss parameters, necrosis is the most powerful adverse factor and the best predictor of OS and DFS in ACC patients.

Aldosterone- and Cortisol Co-secreting Adrenal Cortical Neoplasm With Lipomatous and Myelolipomatous Metaplasia

We report a case of a 58-year-old woman with a history of hypertension diagnosed at aged 35 years, on 5 antihypertensive agents and a history of intermittent spontaneous hypokalemia, was found to have a 6-cm left adrenal mass on computed tomography scan of the abdomen. The unenhanced computed tomography attenuation of the adrenal mass was -16 Hounsfield units (HU). The biochemical evaluation showed potassium of 2.8 mEq/L (SI unit, mmol/L) (reference range, 3.5-5.0), plasma aldosterone concentration of 61.3 ng/dL (SI unit, 1701 pmol/L) with plasma renin activity of 0.4 ng/mL/h (SI unit, μg/L/h). An overnight 1-mg dexamethasone suppression test showed nonsuppressible serum cortisol of 10.8 μg/dL (SI unit, 298 nmol/L). Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate and ACTH were measured at 24.5 μg/dL (age-adjusted, 26-200) (SI unit, 0.66 μmol/L; 0.70-5.43) and <5 pg/mL (SI unit, < 1.1 pmol/L), respectively. Left adrenalectomy was performed and hydrocortisone therapy was initiated. Postoperatively and thereafter, her blood pressure was controlled with no antihypertensive agent. Seven months later, hydrocortisone therapy was stopped once her cortisol level had normalized. Pathology showed adrenal cortical neoplasm of uncertain malignant potential with associated lipomatous and myelolipomatous metaplasia. This is a rare case of aldosterone and cortisol co-secreting adrenal cortical neoplasm of uncertain malignant potential with lipomatous and myelolipomatous metaplasia. Although the majority of cases of myelolipoma are benign and nonfunctioning, this case emphasizes the importance of thorough hormonal and morphologic evaluation of the tumor.

Application of TFE3 Immunophenotypic and TFE3 mRNA Expressions in Diagnosis and Prognostication of Adrenal Cortical Neoplasms and Distinction From Kidney Tumors

We explored the application of TFE3 immunostaining and TFE3 mRNA expression in the differential diagnosis and prognostication of adrenal cortical tumors and distinction of the latter from clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) which show significant morphologic overlap. TFE3 immunostaining was performed on a large cohort of samples including 40 adrenal cortex tissues, 95 adrenocortical adenoma (ACA), 11 adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC), 53 ccRCC, and 18 pheochromocytomas. TFE3 was compared with other immunomarkers melan-A, inhibin-α, synaptophysin, chromogranin A, CAIX and CD10. One hundred percent normal adrenal cortices and 94% ACA were strongly and diffusely stained for TFE3 while no ACC showed diffuse staining. TFE3 is thus useful in distinguishing ACA from ACC. TFE3 is also useful in separating ACC from ccRCC as 64% ACC showed partial, while only 7% of ccRCC showed partial TFE3 staining. Only 1 pheochromocytoma showed focal weak TFE3 staining. Results also demonstrated superiority of TFE3 over other commonly used immunomarkers. TFE3 gene rearrangement testing by fluorescence in situ hybridization showed no rearrangement in 6 TFE3 positive adrenal tumors. TFE3 mRNA were analyzed by the Cancer Genome Atlas database and we found TFE3 mRNA expression correlated with overall patient survival in ACC. Our study showed usefulness of TFE3 in distinguishing ACA from ACC, and ACC from ccRCC. TFE3 is superior over other commonly used immunomarkers for adrenal tumors. In addition, decreased TFE3 immunoexpression and TFE3 mRNA expression may carry poor prognostic implication in adrenal tumors.

Histopathologic Features of Adrenal Cortical Carcinoma

Adrenal cortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare and aggressive malignancy that poses challenging issues regarding the diagnostic workup. Indeed, no presurgical technique or clinical parameters can reliably distinguish between adrenal cortical adenomas, which are more frequent and have a favorable outcome, and ACC, and the final diagnosis largely relies on histopathologic analysis of the surgical specimen. However, even the pathologic assessment of malignancy in an adrenal cortical lesion is not straightforward and requires a combined evaluation of multiple histopathologic features. Starting from the Weiss score, which was developed in 1984, several histopathologic scoring systems have been designed to tackle the difficulties of ACC diagnosis. Dealing with specific histopathologic variants (eg, Liss-Weiss-Bisceglia scoring system for oncocytic ACC) or patient characteristics (eg, Wieneke index in the pediatric setting), these scores remarkably improved the diagnostic workup of ACC and its subtypes. Nevertheless, cases with misleading features or discordant correlations between pathologic findings and clinical behavior still occur. Owing to multicentric collaborative studies integrating morphologic features with ancillary immunohistochemical markers and molecular analysis, ACC has eventually emerged as a multifaceted, heterogenous malignancy, and, while innovative and promising approaches are currently being tested, the future clinical management of patients with ACC will mainly rely on personalized medicine and target-therapy protocols. At the dawn of the new Fifth World Health Organization classification of endocrine tumors, this review will tackle ACC from the pathologist's perspective, thus focusing on the main available diagnostic, prognostic, and predictive tissue-tethered features and biomarkers and providing relevant clinical and molecular correlates.

Exceptional Clinical Response to Surgery in Somalian Child Affected by Hyper Secretive Adrenal Cortical Carcinoma

Adrenocortical cancers in childhood are very rare tumors. They are categorized as functional (hormone-secreting) or silent and as either benign or malignant. They have a bimodal distribution. Although in most adults they are non-functional, in the pediatric age group they may present as hormonal active or as an active tumor presenting with either virilizing forms or Cushing’s syndrome or both sometimes. In children, due to the rapid development of symptoms, they come to attention early. However, if not diagnosed and treated early, they can develop into serious medical conditions. We present here a 6-year-old girl complaining of voice changes (deepening), extremely overweight, excessive hair growth over her body, and clitoromegaly for one year. Abdominal ultrasound and computed tomography revealed a well-defined adrenal mass with a slightly heterogeneous appearance and heterogeneous-contrast enhancement containing some necrotic areas. The patient was discharged one week after unilateral right adrenalectomy in good condition, and oral medications were given along with high-dose corticosteroid medications, which were reduced gradually. All the symptoms disappeared 6 months after the operation.

TERT Copy Number Alterations, Promoter Mutations and Rearrangements in Adrenocortical Carcinomas

Molecular characterization of adrenocortical carcinomas (ACC) by The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) has highlighted a high prevalence of TERT alterations, which are associated with disease progression. Herein, 78 ACC were profiled using a combination of next generation sequencing (n = 76) and FISH (n = 9) to assess for TERT alterations. This data was combined with TCGA dataset (n = 91). A subset of borderline adrenocortical tumors (n = 5) and adrenocortical adenomas (n = 7) were also evaluated. The most common alteration involving the TERT gene involved gains/amplifications, seen in 22.2% (37/167) of cases. In contrast, "hotspot" promoter mutations (C > T promoter mutation at position -124, 7/167 cases, 4.2%) and promoter rearrangements (2/165, 1.2%) were rare. Recurrent co-alterations included 22q copy number losses seen in 24% (9/38) of cases. Although no significant differences were identified in cases with and without TERT alterations pertaining to age at presentation, tumor size, weight, laterality, mitotic index and Ki67 labeling, cases with TERT alterations showed worse outcomes. Metastatic behavior was seen in 70% (28/40) of cases with TERT alterations compared to 51.2% (65/127, p = 0.04) of cases that lacked these alterations. Two (of 5) borderline tumors showed amplifications and no TERT alterations were identified in 7 adenomas. In the borderline group, 0 (of 4) patients with available follow up had adverse outcomes. We found that TERT alterations in ACC predominantly involve gene amplifications, with a smaller subset harboring "hotspot" promoter mutations and rearrangements, and 70% of TERT-altered tumors are associated with metastases. Prospective studies are needed to validate the prognostic impact of these findings.

Ang-Tie Angiogenic Pathway Is Distinctively Expressed in Benign and Malignant Adrenocortical Tumors

The differential diagnosis between adrenocortical adenomas (ACAs) and adrenocortical carcinomas (ACCs) relies on unspecific clinical, imaging and histological features, and, so far, no single molecular biomarker has proved to improve diagnostic accuracy. Similarly, prognostic factors have an insufficient capacity to predict the heterogeneity of ACC clinical outcomes, which consequently lead to inadequate treatment strategies. Angiogenesis is a biological process regulated by multiple signaling pathways, including VEGF and the Ang–Tie pathway. Many studies have stressed the importance of angiogenesis in cancer development and metastasis. In the present study, we evaluated the expression of VEGF and Ang–Tie pathway mediators in adrenocortical tumors (ACTs), with the ultimate goal of assessing whether these molecules could be useful biomarkers to improve diagnostic accuracy and/or prognosis prediction in ACC. The expression of the proteins involved in angiogenesis, namely CD34, VEGF, VEGF-R2, Ang1, Ang2, Tie1 and Tie2, was assessed by immunohistochemistry in ACC (n = 22), ACA with Cushing syndrome (n = 8) and non-functioning ACA (n = 13). ACC presented a significantly higher Ang1 and Ang2 expression when compared to ACA. Tie1 expression was higher in ACC with venous invasion and in patients with shorter overall survival. In conclusion, although none of these biomarkers showed to be useful for ACT diagnosis, the Ang–Tie pathway is active in ACT and may play a role in regulating ACT angiogenesis.

Synergistic effects of telomerase reverse transcriptase and regulator of telomere elongation helicase 1 on aggressiveness and outcomes in adrenocortical carcinoma

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is one of the deadliest endocrine malignancies and telomere maintenance by activated telomerase is critically required for ACC development and progression. Because telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) and regulator of telomere elongation helicase 1 (RTEL1) play key roles in telomere homeostasis, we determined their effect on ACC pathogenesis and outcomes. Analyses of TCGA and GEO datasets showed significantly higher expression of RTEL1 but not TERT in ACC tumors, compared to their benign or normal counterparts. Furthermore, gains/amplifications of both TERT and RTEL1 genes were widespread in ACC tumors and their expression correlated with their gene copy numbers. Higher expression of either TERT or RTEL1 was associated with shorter overall and progression-free survival (OS and PFS) in the TCGA ACC patient cohort, and higher levels of both TERT and RTEL1 mRNA predicted the shortest patient OS and PFS. However, multivariate analyses showed that only RTEL1 independently predicted patient OS and PFS. Gene set enrichment analysis further showed enrichments of wnt/β-catenin, MYC, glycolysis, MTOR, and DNA repair signaling pathways in ACC tumors expressing high TERT and RTEL1 mRNA levels. Taken together, TERT and RTEL1 promote ACC aggressiveness synergistically and may serve as prognostic factors and therapeutic targets for ACC.

Oncocytic adrenocortical neoplasm with undetermined malignant potential and autonomous cortisol secretion

Increasing incidence of adrenal incidentalomas with hypercortisolemia not associated with overt features of Cushing's syndrome has led to the evolution of the term autonomous cortisol secretion. Oncocytic adrenocortical neoplasms (OANs) are rare adrenal cortex neoplasms with only 250 reported cases worldwide. We present a woman in her 30s with menometrorrhagia, weight gain and increasing abdominal girth who was found to have a large right adrenal mass on abdominal CT scan. Serum cortisol was not suppressed after 1 mg dexamethasone (31.5 µg/dL) and adrenocorticotrophic hormone was not detectable (<1.0 pg/mL). She underwent right adrenalectomy under glucocorticoid coverage. Hypertension, weight, visceral adiposity and menometrorrhagia improved postoperatively. Histopathology with immunohistochemistry showed OAN with undetermined malignant potential. These kinds of tumours can only be definitively diagnosed postsurgically using the Lin-Weiss-Bisceglia system. Although they have better prognosis compared with adrenocortical carcinomas and do not require chemotherapy, patients should be closely monitored to identify recurrence promptly.

Common Diagnostic Challenges and Pitfalls in Genitourinary Organs, With Emphasis on Immunohistochemical and Molecular Updates

CONTEXT.—

Lesions in the genitourinary (GU) organs, both benign and malignant, can demonstrate overlapping morphology, and practicing surgical pathologists should be aware of these potential pitfalls and consider a broad differential diagnosis for each specific type of lesion involving the GU organs. The following summary of the contents presented at the 6th Annual Chinese American Pathologists Association (CAPA) Diagnostic Course (October 10-11, 2020), supplemented with relevant literature review, exemplifies the common diagnostic challenges and pitfalls for mass lesions of the GU system of adults, including adrenal gland, with emphasis on immunohistochemical and molecular updates when relevant.

OBJECTIVE.—

To describe the common mass lesions in the GU system of adults, including adrenal gland, with emphasis on the diagnostic challenges and pitfalls that may arise in the pathologic assessment, and to highlight immunohistochemical workups and emerging molecular findings when relevant.

DATA SOURCES.—

The contents presented at the course and literature search comprise our data sources.

CONCLUSIONS.—

The diagnostic challenges and pitfalls that arise in the pathologic assessment of the mass lesions in the GU system of adults, including adrenal gland, are common. We summarize the contents presented at the course, supplemented with relevant literature review, and hope to provide a diagnostic framework to evaluate these lesions in routine clinical practice.

Stimulated Expression of CXCL12 in Adrenocortical Carcinoma by the PPARgamma Ligand Rosiglitazone Impairs Cancer Progression

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare malignancy with poor prognosis when metastatic and scarce treatment options in the advanced stages. In solid tumors, the chemokine CXCL12/CXCR4 axis is involved in the metastatic process. We demonstrated that the human adrenocortex expressed CXCL12 and its cognate receptors CXCR4 and CXCR7, not only in physiological conditions, but also in ACC, where the receptors’ expression was higher and the CXCL12 expression was lower than in the physiological conditions. In a small pilot cohort of 22 ACC patients, CXCL12 negatively correlated with tumor size, stage, Weiss score, necrosis, and mitotic activity. In a Kaplan–Meier analysis, the CXCL12 tumor expression significantly predicted disease-free, progression-free, and overall survival. In vitro treatment of the primary ACC H295R and of the metastatic MUC-1 cell line with the PPARγ-ligand rosiglitazone (RGZ) dose-dependently reduced proliferation, resulting in a significant increase in CXCL12 and a decrease in its receptors in the H295R cells only, with no effect on the MUC-1 levels. In ACC mouse xenografts, tumor growth was inhibited by the RGZ treatment before tumor development (prevention-setting) and once the tumor had grown (therapeutic-setting), similarly to mitotane (MTT). This inhibition was associated with a significant suppression of the tumor CXCR4/CXCR7 and the stimulation of human CXCL12 expression. Tumor growth correlated inversely with CXCL12 and positively with CXCR4 expression, suggesting that local CXCL12 may impair the primary tumor cell response to the ligand gradient that may contribute to driving the tumor progression. These findings indicate that CXCL12/CXCR4 may constitute a potential target for anti-cancer agents such as rosiglitazone in the treatment of ACC.

Adrenocortical Carcinoma in Childhood: A Systematic Review

Adrenocortical tumors are rare in children. This systematic review summarizes the published evidence on pediatric adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) to provide a basis for a better understanding of the disease, investigate new molecular biomarkers and therapeutic targets, and define which patients may benefit from a more aggressive therapeutic approach. We included 137 studies with 3680 ACC patients (~65% female) in our analysis. We found no randomized controlled trials, so this review mainly reflects retrospective data. Due to a specific mutation in the TP53 gene in ~80% of Brazilian patients, that cohort was analyzed separately from series from other countries. Hormone analysis was described in 2569 of the 2874 patients (89%). Most patients were diagnosed with localized disease, whereas 23% had metastasis at primary diagnosis. Only 72% of the patients achieved complete resection. In 334 children (23%), recurrent disease was reported: 81%-local recurrence, 19% (n = 65)-distant metastases at relapse. Patients < 4 years old had a different distribution of tumor stages and hormone activity and better overall survival (p < 0.001). Although therapeutic approaches are typically multimodal, no consensus is available on effective standard treatments for advanced ACC. Thus, knowledge regarding pediatric ACC is still scarce and international prospective studies are needed to implement standardized clinical stratifications and risk-adapted therapeutic strategies.

How to Differentiate Benign from Malignant Adrenocortical Tumors?

Simple Summary

Adrenocortical carcinoma is a rare cancer with a poor prognosis. Adrenal tumors are, however, commonly identified in clinical practice. Discrimination between benign and malignant adrenal tumors is of great importance to determine the appropriate treatment and follow-up strategy. This review summarizes the current diagnostic strategies and challenges to distinguish benign from malignant adrenal lesions. We will focus both on radiological and biochemical assessments, enabling diagnosis of the adrenal lesion preoperatively, and on histopathological and a wide variety of molecular assessments that can be done after surgical removal of the adrenal lesion. Furthermore, new non-invasive strategies such as liquid biopsies, in which blood samples are used to study circulating tumor cells, tumor DNA and microRNA, will be addressed in this review.

Abstract

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare cancer with a poor prognosis. Adrenal incidentalomas are, however, commonly identified in clinical practice. Discrimination between benign and malignant adrenal tumors is of great importance considering the large differences in clinical behavior requiring different strategies. Diagnosis of ACC starts with a thorough physical examination, biochemical evaluation, and imaging. Computed tomography is the first-level imaging modality in adrenal tumors, with tumor size and Hounsfield units being important features for determining malignancy. New developments include the use of urine metabolomics, also enabling discrimination of ACC from adenomas preoperatively. Postoperatively, the Weiss score is used for diagnosis of ACC, consisting of nine histopathological criteria. Due to known limitations as interobserver variability and lack of accuracy in borderline cases, much effort has been put into new tools to diagnose ACC. Novel developments vary from immunohistochemical markers and pathological scores, to markers at the level of DNA, methylome, chromosome, or microRNA. Molecular studies have provided insights into the most promising and most frequent alterations in ACC. The use of liquid biopsies for diagnosis of ACC is studied, although in a small number of patients, requiring further investigation. In this review, current diagnostic modalities and challenges in ACC will be addressed.

Clinical Outcomes of Children With Adrenocortical Carcinoma in the Context of Germline TP53 Status

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare, aggressive malignancy of the adrenal cortex. This study characterizes a single-institution cohort of children treated for ACC, and explores the relationship between clinical outcomes of ACC and germline TP53 mutation status. We performed a retrospective chart review of 23 consecutive pediatric patients with ACC treated at The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada, between 1977 and 2017. Clinical, biochemical, radiologic, pathologic, and genetic data were collected for each patient. ACC diagnosis followed a bimodal age distribution of 0 to 6 (n=17) and 12+ (n=6) years, with a female:male ratio of 3.6:1. Ten of 20 patients tested for germline TP53 status carried a pathogenic (9) or likely pathogenic (1) variant, including all but 1 male patient. Only 3 patients died of ACC-related causes, each 5 months post-diagnosis. When treated with resection and combination chemotherapy, carriers of germline TP53 mutations may respond more favorably than their wild-type counterparts. In addition, the survival of patients reported in our cohort with high-stage ACC was appreciably greater than previously described (100.0% for stage II, 50.0% for stage III, and 42.9% for stage IV), favoring aggressive intervention in these patient populations.

Virilising adrenocortical carcinoma

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare malignancy, with an estimated annual incidence of 0.7-2 cases per million and a median overall survival of 3-4 years. Hormone-secreting ACCs represent most cases; of these, only a small minority presents with virilisation alone. Early diagnosis is key to increase the chances of a better outcome. Here, we report a case of a 41-year-old woman who presented with menstrual irregularities, hirsutism and virilising symptoms, associated with abdominal discomfort and constitutional symptoms. On physical examination, there was a palpable mass in the right upper quadrant. Laboratory workup revealed elevated serum androgens. The imaging study showed a 163×110×122 cm right adrenal mass with features consistent with ACC and suggested potential hepatic invasion. Our patient underwent surgical resection, and the histopathological findings confirmed the diagnosis. She was referred to a specialised centre for follow-up and adjuvant therapy.

The Role of Immunohistochemical Markers for the Diagnosis and Prognosis of Adrenocortical Neoplasms

Adrenal cortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare cancer with poor prognosis that needs to be distinguished from adrenocortical adenomas (ACAs). Although, the recently developed transcriptome analysis seems to be a reliable tool for the differential diagnosis of adrenocortical neoplasms, it is not widely available in clinical practice. We aim to evaluate histological and immunohistochemical markers for the distinction of ACCs from ACAs along with assessing their prognostic role. Clinical data were retrospectively analyzed from 37 patients; 24 archived, formalin-fixed, and paraffin-embedded ACC samples underwent histochemical analysis of reticulin and immunohistochemical analysis of p27, p53, Ki-67 markers and were compared with 13 ACA samples. Weiss and Helsinki scores were also considered. Kaplan-Meier and univariate Cox regression methods were implemented to identify prognostic effects. Altered reticulin pattern, Ki-67% labelling index and overexpression of p53 protein were found to be useful histopathological markers for distinguishing ACAs from ACCs. Among the studied markers, only pathological p53 nuclear protein expression was found to reach statistically significant association with poor survival and development of metastases, although in a small series of patients. In conclusion, altered reticulin pattern and p53/Ki-67 expression are useful markers for distinguishing ACCs from ACAs. Immunohistopathology alone cannot discriminate ACCs with different prognosis and it should be combined with morphological criteria and transcriptome analysis.

Distinguishing pheochromocytoma from adrenal adenoma by using modified computed tomography criteria

PURPOSE

To investigate the performance of modified criteria to distinguish pheochromocytoma from adrenal adenoma by using adrenal protocol computed tomography (CT).

METHODS

We retrospectively included consecutive 199 patients who underwent adrenal CT and surgically proven pheochromocytoma (n = 66) or adenoma (n = 133). Two independent radiologists analyzed two CT criteria for pheochromocytoma. Conventional criteria were as follows: (a) lesion attenuation on unenhanced CT > 10 Hounsfield unit (HU); (b) absolute percentage washout < 60%; and (c) relative percentage washout < 40%. Modified criteria were as follows: (a) conventional criteria or (b) one of the following findings: (i) lesion attenuation on unenhanced CT ≥ 40 HU, (ii) 1-min enhanced CT ≥ 160 HU, (iii) 15-min enhanced CT ≥ 70 HU, , or (iv) intralesional cystic degeneration seen on both 1-min and 15-min enhanced CT. We analyzed area under the curve (AUC) and inter-reader agreement.

RESULTS

Proportion of pheochromocytoma was 33.2% (66/199). AUC of modified criteria was consistently higher than that of conventional criteria for distinguishing pheochromocytoma from adenoma (reader 1, 0.864 versus 0.746 for raw data set and 0.865 versus 0.746 for internal validation set; reader 2, 0.872 versus 0.758 for raw data set and 0.872 versus 0.757 for internal validation set) (p < 0.05 for all comparisons). Inter-reader agreement was excellent in interpreting any criteria (weighted kappa > 0.800).

CONCLUSION

Our modified criteria seem to improve diagnostic performance of adrenal CT in distinguishing pheochromocytoma from adrenal adenoma.

Cumulative GRAS Score as a Predictor of Survival After Resection for Adrenocortical Carcinoma: Analysis From the U.S. Adrenocortical Carcinoma Database

BACKGROUND

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare but aggressive malignancy, and many prognostic factors that influence survival remain undefined. Individually, the GRAS (Grade, Resection status, Age, and Symptoms of hormone hypersecretion) parameters have demonstrated their prognostic value in ACC. This study aimed to assess the value of a cumulative GRAS score as a prognostic indicator after ACC resection.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study of adult patients who underwent surgical resection for ACC between 1993 and 2014 was performed using the United States Adrenocortical Carcinoma Group (US-ACCG) database. A sum GRAS score was calculated for each patient by adding one point each when the criteria were met for tumor grade (Weiss criteria ≥ 3 or Ki67 ≥ 20%), resection status (micro- or macroscopically positive margin), age (≥ 50 years), and preoperative symptoms of hormone hypersecretion (present). Overall survival (OS) and disease-free survival (DFS) by cumulative GRAS score were analyzed by the Kaplan-Meier method and log-rank test.

RESULTS

Of the 265 patients in the US-ACCG database, 243 (92%) had sufficient data available to calculate a cumulative GRAS score and were included in this analysis. The 265 patients comprised 23 patients (10%) with a GRAS of 0, 52 patients (21%) with a GRAS of 1, 92 patients (38%) with a GRAS of 2, 63 patients (26%) with a GRAS of 3, and 13 patients (5%) with a GRAS of 4. An increasing GRAS score was associated with shortened OS (p < 0.01) and DFS (p < 0.01) after index resection.

CONCLUSION

In this retrospective analysis, the cumulative GRAS score effectively stratified OS and DFS after index resection for ACC. Further prospective analysis is required to validate the cumulative GRAS score as a prognostic indicator for clinical use.

Low Protein Expression of both ATRX and ZNRF3 as Novel Negative Prognostic Markers of Adult Adrenocortical Carcinoma

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare malignancy that is associated with a dismal prognosis. Pan-genomic studies have demonstrated the involvement of ATRX and ZNRF3 genes in adrenocortical tumorigenesis. Our aims were to evaluate the protein expression of ATRX and ZNRF3 in a cohort of 82 adults with ACC and to establish their prognostic value. Two pathologists analyzed immuno-stained slides of a tissue microarray. The low protein expression of ATRX and ZNRF3 was associated with a decrease in overall survival (OS) (p = 0.045, p = 0.012, respectively). The Cox regression for ATRX protein expression of >1.5 showed a hazard ratio (HR) for OS of 0.521 (95% CI 0.273-0.997; p = 0.049) when compared with ≤1.5; for ZNRF3 expression >2, the HR for OS was 0.441 (95% CI, 0.229-0.852; p = 0.015) when compared with ≤2. High ATRX and ZNRF3 protein expressions were associated with optimistic recurrence-free survival (RFS) (p = 0.027 and p = 0.005, respectively). The Cox regression of RFS showed an HR of 0.332 (95%CI, 0.111-0.932) for ATRX expression >2.7 (p = 0.037), and an HR of 0.333 (95%CI, 0.140-0.790) for ZNRF3 expression >2 (p = 0.013). In conclusion, low protein expression of ATRX and ZNRF3 are negative prognostic markers of ACC; however, different cohorts should be evaluated to validate these findings.

Prognostic and Monitoring Value of Circulating Tumor Cells in Adrenocortical Carcinoma: A Preliminary Monocentric Study

Simple Summary

Carcinoma of the cortical region of the adrenal (ACC) is a rare and aggressive cancer often with poor prognosis and limited therapies. For these reasons, tumor markers for early diagnosis and monitoring the therapy and tumor evolution are required. This paper demonstrates in a cohort of 19 patients affected by ACC, that in a simple blood draw (liquid biopsy), different cells associated with the tumor can be found in samples taken before and after surgery. Among them, the number of circulating tumor cells in blood samples taken before surgery can be predictive of the patients’ survival and tumor recurrence, thus contributing valuable information on the tumor, which may contribute to improve patient management and follow up. Further studies on larger cohorts of ACC patients are required to validate this novel finding.

Abstract

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC), a rare and aggressive neoplasia, presents poor prognosis when metastatic at diagnosis and limited therapies are available. Specific and sensitive markers for early diagnosis and a monitoring system of therapy and tumor evolution are urgently needed. The liquid biopsy represents a source of tumor material within a minimally invasive blood draw that allows the recovery of circulating tumor cells (CTCs). CTCs have been recently shown to be detectable in ACC. In the present paper, we evaluated the prognostic value of CTCs obtained by size-filtration in a small pilot cohort of 19 ACC patients. We found CTCs in 68% of pre-surgery and in 38% of post-surgery blood samples. In addition, CTC clusters (CTMs) and cancer associated macrophages (CAMLs) were detectable in some ACC patients. The median number of CTCs significantly decreased after the mass removal. Finally, stratifying patients in high and low pre-surgery CTC number groups, assuming the 75th percentile CTC value as cut-off, CTCs significantly predicted patients’ overall survival (log rank = 0.005), also in a multivariate analysis adjusted for age and tumor stage. In conclusion, though preliminary and performed in a small cohort of patients, our study suggests that CTC number may represent a promising marker for prognosis and disease monitoring in ACC.

Data set for reporting of carcinoma of the adrenal cortex: explanations and recommendations of the guidelines from the International Collaboration on Cancer Reporting

Complete resection of adrenal cortical carcinoma (ACC) with or without adjuvant therapy offers the best outcome. Recurrence is common, and in individual cases, the long-term outcome is difficult to predict, making it challenging to personalize treatment options. Current risk stratification approaches are based on clinical and conventional surgical pathology assessment. Rigorous and uniform pathological assessment may improve care for individual patients and facilitate multi-institutional collaborative studies. The International Collaboration on Cancer Reporting (ICCR) convened an expert panel to review ACC pathology reporting. Consensus recommendations were made based on the most recent literature and expert opinion. The data set comprises 23 core (required) items. The core pathological features include the following: diagnosis as per the current World Health Organization classification, specimen integrity, greatest dimension, weight, extent of invasion, architecture, percentage of lipid-rich cells, capsular invasion, lymphatic invasion, vascular invasion, atypical mitotic figures, coagulative necrosis, nuclear grade, mitotic count, Ki-67 proliferative index, margin status, lymph node status, and pathological stage. Tumors were dichotomized into low-grade (<20 mitoses per 10 mm²) and high-grade (>20 mitoses per 10 mm²) ones. Additional noncore elements that may be useful in individual cases included several multifactorial risk assessment systems (Weiss, modified Weiss, Lin-Weiss-Bisceglia, reticulin, Helsinki, and Armed Forces Institute of Pathology scores/algorithms). This data set is now available through the ICCR website with the hope of better standardizing pathological assessment of these relatively rare but important malignancies.

Development and Internal Validation of a Multivariable Prediction Model for Adrenocortical-Carcinoma-Specific Mortality

Simple Summary

Adrenocortical carcinoma is a rare and aggressive cancer. Great variability in clinical course is observed, ranging from patients with extreme long survival to aggressive tumors with prompt fatal outcome. This heterogeneity in survival makes it complicated to tailor treatment strategies for an individual patient. Therefore we sought to identify prognostic factors associated with ACC specific mortality. We analyzed the data of 160 ACC patients and developed a clinical prediction model including age, modified European Network for the Study of Adrenal Tumors (mENSAT) stage, and radical resection. This easy-to-use prediction model for ACC-specific mortality has the potential to guide clinical decision making if externally validated.

Abstract

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) has an incidence of about 1.0 per million per year. In general, survival of patients with ACC is limited. Predicting survival outcome at time of diagnosis is a clinical challenge. The aim of this study was to develop and internally validate a clinical prediction model for ACC-specific mortality. Data for this retrospective cohort study were obtained from the nine centers of the Dutch Adrenal Network (DAN). Patients who presented with ACC between 1 January 2004 and 31 October 2013 were included. We used multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression to compute the coefficients for the prediction model. Backward stepwise elimination was performed to derive a more parsimonious model. The performance of the initial prediction model was quantified by measures of model fit, discriminative ability, and calibration. We undertook an internal validation step to counteract the possible overfitting of our model. A total of 160 patients were included in the cohort. The median survival time was 35 months, and interquartile range (IQR) 50.7 months. The multivariable modeling yielded a prediction model that included age, modified European Network for the Study of Adrenal Tumors (mENSAT) stage, and radical resection. The c-statistic was 0.77 (95% Confidence Interval: 0.72, 0.81), indicating good predictive performance. We developed a clinical prediction model for ACC-specific mortality. ACC mortality can be estimated using a relatively simple clinical prediction model with good discriminative ability and calibration.

[Cushing's syndrome due to bilateral oncocytic adrenal tumor]

Cushing&rsquo;s syndrome accounts for approximately 20&ndash;30% of endogenous hypercortisolism cases, and adrenal involvement can be either unilateral or bilateral. Cushing&rsquo;s syndrome due to bilateral adrenal tumors is extremely rare. Adrenal oncocytomas are another rare cause of endogenous hypercortisolism: about 13 cases are described in the literature. Oncocytomas are rare epithelial neoplasms, characterized by abnormally excessive accumulation of defective mitochondria in the cytoplasm of cells, and make up 1.8% of all adrenal neoplasms. We describe a 58-year old patient with Cushing&rsquo;s syndrome and bilateral adrenal tumors. Multispiral computed tomography of the adrenals showed signs suspicious of lipid-poor atypical adenomas or malignant tumors. Surgical treatment was the method of choice, and the larger tumor was excised first. Due to the absence of remission of endogenous hypercortisolism the excision of the second tumor was performed. Morphological and immunohistochemical examination confirmed the diagnosis of bilateral oncocytic adrenocortical tumors with uncertain malignant potential. Cases of bilateral hormone-producing adrenal oncocytomas have not been described in the literature.

Adrenocortical neoplasm of uncertain malignant potential with a myelolipomatous component

Macroscopic fat inside an adrenal lesion on CT is pathognomonic for myelolipoma, a benign neoplasm. Without macroscopic fat, it can be difficult to discern the nature of an indeterminate adrenal mass on imaging. One possible diagnosis for an indeterminate lesion without macroscopic fat is an adrenal oncocytic neoplasm (AON). Despite its typical benign presentation cases of malignant AON have been reported. Patients with malignant AON are often not surgical candidates and survival for unresected disease is 20%-35%. We present the third report of an AON of uncertain malignant potential (AONUMP) associated with a macroscopic fatty component with the largest reported size and longest duration of follow-up in the literature. This report details diagnostic and therapeutic challenges posed by AONUMP. This case highlights how pathognomonic radiographical findings associated with benign myelolipoma might mask rare, potentially malignant, lipomatous tumours.

Adrenal Tumors in Children: Spectrum of Presentation and Surgical Approach in a Tertiary Care Institute

Context: Adrenal tumors can arise either from cortex or from medulla; both the regions being structurally and functionally different. Current knowledge on childhood adrenocortical tumors (ACTs), the management approach, and the outcome is limited due to limited number of cases and studies. Neuroblastoma is a neoplasm of the neural crest origin and 50% arise from adrenal medulla. Pheochromocytoma (PCC) is an exciting and rare neoplasm in childhood. Aims: To evaluate the clinical presentation, spectrum of pathology, and management of adrenal tumors in children. Subjects and Methods: The study was conducted in a tertiary care pediatric institute over 5 years on children with intra-abdominal solid tumors. Adrenal tumors were diagnosed on radiological studies and postoperatively confirmed by histopathology. Results: Sixty-three patients were operated for intra-abdominal solid tumors, and Wilms tumor (39) was the most common finding. Of 11 cases of adrenal tumors confirmed by histopathology, eight were adrenal neuroblastoma, one 14-month-old female baby was detected as PCC, while two female children presented with the features of Cushing syndrome and virilization at the age of 3 and 7 years. Postoperatively, one of them was found to be adrenal adenoma and one was found to be adrenocortical carcinoma. Conclusions: ACTs are rare and potentially fatal in childhood. Complete surgical resection is the mainstay of therapy in adrenal tumors and is curative for associated hypertension. Neuroblastoma was the third common intra-abdominal solid tumor after Wilms tumor and retroperitoneal teratoma. The patient with PCC contributed to “Rule of 10s” because of the absence of hypertension and childhood occurrence.

Adrenal cortical carcinoma: pathology, genomics, prognosis, imaging features, and mimics with impact on management

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare tumor with a poor prognosis. Most tumors are either metastatic or locally invasive at the time of diagnosis. Differentiation between ACC and other adrenal masses depends on clinical, biochemical, and imaging factors. This review will discuss the genetics, pathological, and imaging feature of ACC.

Prognostic significance of immunohistochemical markers in adrenocortical carcinoma

Background: To present basic demographic and clinical characteristics of patients with adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC), to determine the overall survival rate and to analyze the results of immunohistochemical staining and its correlation with the length of survival.Material and methods: The study was conducted during the period between 1996 and 2010 and included 30 patients with ACC. Immunohistochemical staining (MMP9, melan A, inhibin, caltretinin, D2-40, synaptophysin and Ki-67) was performed.Results: ACC was diagnosed in 19 females and 11 men (1.7:1). The average age was 50.1 years. The median tumor size was 10 cm, the median weight 400 g. Majority of subjects had positive immunohistochemical staining for the markers of interest. Patients with any negative staining had shorter cancer-specific survival than ones with positive staining. According to the log-rank test results as well as according to the results of the univariate Cox analysis, negative staining for inhibin, D2-40 and synaptophysin and Ki-67 expression ≥7% were associated with poorer prognosis.Conclusions: The results of our study suggest that the absence of staining for some immunohistochemical markers and increased expression of Ki-67 are associated with a poorer prognosis and shorter survival of patients with ACC. Immunohistochemical markers may serve as a prognostic factor for ACC.

The Efficacy of Mitotane in Human Primary Adrenocortical Carcinoma Cultures

CONTEXT

Patients with adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) often fail mitotane treatment and deal with severe toxicity, marking the relevance of predictive parameters for treatment outcome.

OBJECTIVE

Determine the effects of mitotane in primary ACC cultures, and correlate sensitivity with patient and tumor characteristics.

METHODS

In 32 primary ACC cultures, the effects of mitotane on cell growth and cortisol production were determined. RRM1, SOAT1, and CYP2W1 expression were assessed using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

The median percentage cell amount inhibition in primary ACC cultures at 50 µM mitotane was 57%. Seven patients were classified as nonresponders, 14 as partial responders, and 11 as responders. The mean median effective concentration (EC50) value of mitotane for inhibition of cell amount in responders was 14.2 µM (95% CI, 11.3-17.9), in partial responders 41.6 µM (95% CI, 33.5-51.8), and could not be calculated in nonresponders. The percentage cortisol-producing ACC was 14%, 43%, and 73% for nonresponders, partial responders, and responders (P = 0.068). Mitotane inhibited cortisol production with a mean EC50 of 1.4 µM (95% CI, 0.9-2.1), which was considerably lower than the EC50 on cell growth. RRM1, SOAT1, and CYP2W1 expression levels were not predictive for mitotane sensitivity in vitro.

CONCLUSION

Direct antitumor effects of mitotane on human primary ACC cultures are highly variable between patients, reflecting heterogeneous responses in patients. Cortisol was inhibited at lower concentrations, compared with its effect on cell amount. Cortisol secretion by ACC might be associated with enhanced mitotane sensitivity due to increased direct antitumor effects of mitotane.

Extrahepatic Fat-Containing Lesions of the Abdomen and Pelvis: An Organ-Based Approach to Differential Diagnoses

The presence of intralesional fat provides an invaluable tool for narrowing the differential diagnosis for both benign and malignant neoplasms of the abdomen and pelvis. The ability to characterize intralesional fat is further expanded by the ability of magnetic resonance imaging to detect small quantities (intravoxel) of fat. While the presence of intralesional fat can help to provide a relatively narrow set of diagnostic possibilities, depending on the type of fat (macroscopic vs intravoxel) that is present and the organ of origin, radiologists must be aware of uncommon mimickers of pathology, both benign and malignant.

The Adipose Stem Cell as a Novel Metabolic Actor in Adrenocortical Carcinoma Progression: Evidence from an In Vitro Tumor Microenvironment Crosstalk Model

Metabolic interplay between the tumor microenvironment and cancer cells is a potential target for novel anti-cancer approaches. Among stromal components, adipocytes and adipose precursors have been shown to actively participate in tumor progression in several solid malignancies. In adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC), a rare endocrine neoplasia with a poor prognosis, cancer cells often infiltrate the fat mass surrounding the adrenal organ, enabling possible crosstalk with the adipose cells. Here, by using an in vitro co-culture system, we show that the interaction between adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) and the adrenocortical cancer cell line H295R leads to metabolic and functional reprogramming of both cell types: cancer cells limit differentiation and increase proliferation of ASCs, which in turn support tumor growth and invasion. This effect associates with a shift from the paracrine cancer-promoting IGF2 axis towards an ASC-associated leptin axis, along with a shift in the SDF-1 axis towards CXCR7 expression in H295R cells. In conclusion, our findings suggest that adipose precursors, as pivotal components of the ACC microenvironment, promote cancer cell reprogramming and invasion, opening new perspectives for the development of more effective therapeutic approaches.

The Prognostic Role of CD8+ T Lymphocytes in Childhood Adrenocortical Carcinomas Compared to Ki-67, PD-1, PD-L1, and the Weiss Score

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare disease among children. Our goal was to identify prognostic biomarkers in 48 primary ACCs from children (2.83 ± 2.3 y; mean age ± SD) by evaluating the tumor stage and outcome for an age of diagnosis before or after 3 years, and association with ACC cluster of differentiation 8 positive (CD8⁺) cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CD8⁺-CTL) and Ki-67 immunohistochemical expression (IHC). Programmed death 1(PD-1)/Programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) immunohistochemistry (IHC) in ACC was analyzed in a second, partially overlapping cohort (N = 19) with a similar mean age. All patients and control children were carriers of the germline TP53 R337H mutation. Survival without recurrence for less than 3 years and death unrelated to disease were excluded. Higher counts of CD8⁺-CTL were associated with patients diagnosed with ACC at a younger age and stage I, whereas a higher percentage of the Ki-67 labeling index (LI) and Weiss scores did not differentiate disease free survival (DFS) in children younger than 3 years old. No PD-1 staining was observed, whereas weakly PD-L1-positive immune cells were found in 4/19 (21%) of the ACC samples studied. A high CD8⁺-CTL count in ACC of surviving children is compelling evidence of an immune response against the disease. A better understanding of the options for enhancement of targets for CD8⁺ T cell recognition may provide insights for future pre-clinical studies.

Stathmin 1 is highly expressed and associated with survival outcome in malignant adrenocortical tumours

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is an aggressive endocrine cancer with few molecular predictors of malignancy and survival, especially in paediatric patients. Stathmin 1 (STMN1) regulates microtubule dynamics and has been involved in the malignant phenotype of cancer cells. Recently, it was reported that STMN1 is highly expressed in ACC patients, and STMN1 silencing reduces the clonogenicity and migration of ACC cell lines. However, the prognostic significance of STMN1 and its therapeutic potential remain undefined in ACC. In the present study, STMN1 mRNA levels were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in ACC patients, especially in an advanced stage, and correlated with BUB1B and PINK1 expression, the prognostic-related genes in ACC. In paediatric tumours, high STMN1 expression was observed in both adrenocortical carcinoma and adrenocortical adenoma patients. Among the adult malignant tumours, STMN1 level was an independent predictor of survival outcomes (overall survival: hazard ratio = 6.08, p = 0.002; disease-free survival: hazard ratio = 4.65, p < 0.0001). Paclitaxel, a microtubule-stabilizing drug, reduces the activation of STMN1 and significantly decreases cell migration and invasion in ACC cell lines and ACC cells from secondary cell culture (all p < 0.0001). In summary, STMN1 expression may be of great value to clinical and pathological findings in therapeutic trials and deserves future studies in ACC.

Diagnosis and Treatment of Adrenocortical Oncocytoma: Case Report of Five Cases and Review of the Literature

Objective: To investigate the diagnosis and treatment of adrenocortical oncocytoma, and have a literature of review.

Materials and Methods: The clinical data of 5 cases of adrenocortical oncocytoma treated in our hospital was retrospectively analyzed. The clinical manifestations, imaging examination, endocrine examination, and pathological results were analyzed respectively.

Results: Oncocytic adrenocortical neoplasms are extremely rare. Oncocytic adrenocortical neoplasms are usually discovered incidentally, only the tumors with endocrine function could exhibit specific manifestations. No specific imageological features of oncocytic adrenocortical neoplasms have been found.

Conclusions: The diagnosis of adrenocortical oncocytoma mainly depends on the pathological examination. Surgical resection is the main treatment method.

Fascin-1 Is a Novel Prognostic Biomarker Associated With Tumor Invasiveness in Adrenocortical Carcinoma

CONTEXT

Novel tumor markers are urgently needed to better stratify adrenocortical cancer (ACC) patients and improve therapies for this aggressive neoplasm.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the diagnostic and prognostic value of the actin-bundling protein fascin-1 (FSCN1) in adrenocortical tumors.

DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS

A local series of 37 malignant/37 benign adrenocortical tumors at Careggi University Hospital and two independent validation ACC cohorts (Cochin, TCGA) from the European Network for the Study of Adrenal Tumors were studied.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

FSCN1 expression was quantified by immunohistochemistry, Western blot and quantitative RT-PCR in ACC specimens; overall and disease-free survival associated with FSCN1 expression were assessed by Kaplan-Meier analysis and compared with that of Ki67 labeling index and tumor stage.

RESULTS

Despite the low diagnostic power, in the Florence ACC series, FSCN1 immunohistochemical detection appeared as an independent prognostic factor, also refining results obtained with staging and Ki67 labeling index. The robust prognostic power of FSCN1 levels was further confirmed in two independent ACC cohorts. A positive correlation was found between FSCN1 and steroidogenic factor-1 (SF-1), with a substantially higher expression of both factors in ACCs at advanced stages and with at least one of the three Weiss score parameters associated with invasiveness. Moreover, we demonstrated FSCN1 role in promoting cell invasion in a human ACC cell line only in the case of increased SF-1 dosage.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings show that FSCN1 is a novel independent prognostic marker in ACC and may serve as a potential therapeutic target to block tumor spread.

Gonadotropin-dependent pubertal disorders are common in patients with virilizing adrenocortical tumors in childhood

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the impact of early exposure to androgen excess on gonadotropin-dependent puberty (GDP) and final height (FH) of patients with androgen-secreting adrenocortical tumors (ACT) in childhood.

METHODS

Retrospective cohort study. Occurrence of GDP and achievement of FH were evaluated. Central precocious puberty (CPP) and early fast puberty (EFP) were considered pubertal disorders. Patients with normal puberty and pubertal disorders were compared.

RESULTS

The study included 63 patients (44F), followed in a single institution from 1975 until 2017. At diagnosis of ACT, median age was 25.8 months; duration of signs, 6 months; stature SDS, 0.5 (-3.6 to 3.9) and bone age advancement, 14.7 months (-27.9 to 85.4). To date, 37 patients developed GDP: 26 had normal puberty; one, precocious thelarche; seven, CPP and three, EFP. GnRHa effectively treated CPP/EFP. Tall stature and older age at diagnosis of ACT were associated with risk of CPP alone (RR 4.17 (95% CI 1.17-14.80)) and CPP/EFP (RR 3.0 (95% CI 1.04-8.65)). Recurrence/metastasis during follow-up were associated with risk of CPP alone (RR 4.17 (95% CI 1.17-14.80)) and CPP/EFP (RR 3.0 (95% CI 1.12-8.02)). Among the 19 patients that reached FH, stature SDS dropped from 1.4 to -0.02 since diagnosis of ACT (P = 0.01). Seventeen achieved normal FH. There was no difference in FH SDS between patients with normal puberty and pubertal disorders (P = 0.75).

CONCLUSIONS

Gonadotropin-dependent pubertal disorders are common in patients with androgen-secreting ACT in childhood. FH is usually not impaired. The study reinforces the importance of close follow-up after surgery to identify and treat consequences of early exposure to androgen excess.

Ectopic adrenal adenoma causing gross hematuria: Steroidogenic enzyme profiling and literature review

Introduction

Aberrant cortical adrenal tissues are not generally identified in adults. Herein, we present a very rare case of an ectopic adrenal tumor located in the renal hilum that caused gross hematuria.

Case presentation

A 33‐year‐old man suddenly presented with asymptomatic gross hematuria. Abdominal computed tomography revealed a 35‐mm mass in the left renal hilum encroaching the renal vein. Following the surgical removal with frozen section of the mass, his gross hematuria immediately improved. Pathological analysis of the specimen revealed the features adrenal adenoma. Immunohistochemical staining for key steroidogenic enzymes confirmed the adrenocortical origin without excessive hormone production.

Conclusion

This is the first case of an ectopic adrenocortical adenoma in the renal hilum that caused gross hematuria without hormonal symptoms.

Adrenocortical carcinoma in patients with MEN1: a kindred report and review of the literature

Objective Up to 40% of multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1) patients may have adrenal cortical tumors. However, adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is rare. The clinical manifestations, prevalence, inheritance and prognosis of ACC associated with MEN1 remain unclear. Here we report the clinical manifestations and prevalence of ACC in patients with MEN1. Design and methods A retrospective analysis of ACC associated with MEN1 patients at a single tertiary care center from December 2001 to June 2017. Genetic analysis of MEN1 and other ACC associated genes, loss of heterozygosity (LOH) of MEN1 locus, immunohistochemistry staining of menin, P53 and β-catenin in ACC tissue were performed. Results Two related patients had ACC associated with MEN1. The father had ENSAT stage IV tumor with excessive production of cortisol; the daughter had nonfunctional ENSAT stage I tumor. Both patients carried novel germline heterozygous mutation (c.400_401insC) of MEN1. The wild-type MEN1 allele was lost in the resected ACC tissue from the daughter with no menin staining. The ACC tissue had nuclear β-catenin staining, with heterozygous CTNNB1 mutation of 357del24 and P53 staining in only 20% cells. Conclusions ACC associated with MEN1 is rare and may occur in familial aggregates.

MDR1 inhibition increases sensitivity to doxorubicin and etoposide in adrenocortical cancer

Chemotherapy for adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) has limited efficacy and is accompanied by severe toxicity. This lack of effectiveness has been associated with high tumoral levels of the multidrug resistance (MDR) pump P-glycoprotein (P-gp), encoded by the MDR1 gene. In this study, effects of P-gp inhibition on the sensitivity of ACC cells to cytotoxic drugs were evaluated. MDR1 mRNA and P-gp expression were determined in human adrenal tissues and cell lines. H295R, HAC15 and SW13 cells were treated with mitotane, doxorubicin, etoposide, cisplatin and streptozotocin, with or without the P-gp inhibitors verapamil and tariquidar. Cell growth and surviving fraction of colonies were assessed. MDR1 mRNA and P-gp protein expression were lower in ACCs than in adrenocortical adenomas (P < 0.0001; P < 0.01, respectively). MDR1 and P-gp expression were positively correlated in ACC (P < 0.0001, ρ = 0.723). Mitotane, doxorubicin, cisplatin and etoposide dose dependently inhibited cell growth in H295R, HAC15 and SW13. Tariquidar, and in H295R also verapamil, increased the response of HAC15 and H295R to doxorubicin (6.3- and 7.5-fold EC50 decrease in H295R, respectively; all P < 0.0001). Sensitivity to etoposide was increased in H295R and HAC15 by verapamil and tariquidar (all P < 0.0001). Findings were confirmed when assessing colony formation. We show that cytotoxic drugs, except streptozotocin, used for ACC treatment, inhibit ACC cell growth and colony formation at clinically achievable concentrations. P-gp inhibition increases sensitivity to doxorubicin and etoposide, suggesting that MDR1 is involved in sensitivity to these drugs and could be a potential target for cytotoxic treatment improvement in ACC.

CARCINOMA ADRENAL EM CRIANÇAS: ESTUDO LONGITUDINAL EM MINAS GERAIS, BRASIL

Objective:

To analyze clinical, laboratory and histopathological features and the path to diagnosis establishment and treatment of patients with adrenal carcinoma (AC).

Methods:

Retrospective study with 13 patients assisted at the pediatric oncology service of Hospital das Clínicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil, between 2004 and 2015.

Results:

Age at diagnosis ranged from 1.0 to 14.8 years (median: 2.0 years). Manifestations of hypercortisolism were identified in all cases and virilization in all girls. All patients met the Weiss criteria to AC histopathological diagnosis. Immunohistochemistry was performed in 61.5% of the cases. Most patients had stage I disease (76.9%). All subjects were submitted to total tumor resection. Two patients (stages III and IV disease) received chemotherapy associated to mitotane. The only death case was that of a patient with stage IV disease. The probability of overall survival for the entire group up to 5.0 years was 92.3±7.4%. The median time between the onset of symptoms and diagnosis was 9.5 months, and 6.0 months between first visit and start of treatment.

Conclusions:

Low age at diagnosis, predominance of cases with localized disease and complete tumor resection - with only one case of tumor capsule rupture - can possibly explain the favorable evolution of the studied population. The long period between onset of symptoms and diagnosis highlights the importance of training pediatricians for early recognition of AC signs and symptoms.

Primary malignant tumors of the adrenal glands

Malignancy must be considered in the management of adrenal lesions, including those incidentally identified on imaging studies. Adrenocortical carcinomas (ACCs) are rare tumors with an estimated annual incidence of 0.7-2 cases per year and a worldwide prevalence of 4-12 cases per million/year. However, a much higher incidence of these tumors (>15 times) has been demonstrated in south and southeastern Brazil. Most ACCs cause hypersecretion of steroids including glucocorticoids and androgens. ACC patients have a very poor prognosis with a 5-year overall survival (OS) below 30% in most series. Pheochromocytoma or paraganglioma (PPGL) is a metabolically active tumor originating from the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla. The incidence of PPGL is 0.2 to 0.9 cases per 100,000 individuals per year. Pheochromocytomas are present in approximately 4-7% of patients with adrenal incidentalomas. Classically, PPGL manifests as paroxysmal attacks of the following 4 symptoms: headaches, diaphoresis, palpitations, and severe hypertensive episodes. The diagnosis of malignant PPGL relies on the presence of local invasion or metastasis. In this review, we present the clinical and biochemical characteristics and pathogenesis of malignant primary lesions that affect the cortex and medulla of human adrenal glands.

The human adrenal cortex: growth control and disorders

This review summarizes key knowledge regarding the development, growth, and growth disorders of the adrenal cortex from a molecular perspective. The adrenal gland consists of two distinct regions: the cortex and the medulla. During embryological development and transition to the adult adrenal gland, the adrenal cortex acquires three different structural and functional zones. Significant progress has been made in understanding the signaling and molecules involved during adrenal cortex zonation. Equally significant is the knowledge obtained regarding the action of peptide factors involved in the maintenance of zonation of the adrenal cortex, such as peptides derived from proopiomelanocortin processing, adrenocorticotropin and N-terminal proopiomelanocortin. Findings regarding the development, maintenance and growth of the adrenal cortex and the molecular factors involved has improved the scientific understanding of disorders that affect adrenal cortex growth. Hypoplasia, hyperplasia and adrenocortical tumors, including adult and pediatric adrenocortical adenomas and carcinomas, are described together with findings regarding molecular and pathway alterations. Comprehensive genomic analyses of adrenocortical tumors have shown gene expression profiles associated with malignancy as well as methylation alterations and the involvement of miRNAs. These findings provide a new perspective on the diagnosis, therapeutic possibilities and prognosis of adrenocortical disorders.

Detailed genomic characterization identifies high heterogeneity and histotype-specific genomic profiles in adrenocortical carcinomas

Molecular characterization of adrenocortical carcinoma has been recently established, but the correlation between molecular profiles and clinical and pathological characteristics is still poorly defined with no data available about genetic heterogeneity along disease progression. In this scenario, a detailed molecular profile was correlated with clinical and pathological characteristics in adrenocortical carcinoma patients to identify potentially novel biomarkers. Targeted next-generation sequencing and copy number variation analyses for 18 most frequently altered genes in adrenocortical carcinoma were assessed on 62 adult cases (including 10 with matched primary and metastatic/recurrence samples) and results correlated with major clinical and pathological characteristics of tumors. A total of 433 somatic deleterious genetic alterations (328 gene mutations and 105 copy number variations) were identified in 57/62 cases, five resulted wild type for all genes tested. TERT, CDK4, ZNRF3,and RB1 were altered in more than 30% of cases. Among histological variants genotypes were significantly different. Lowest mutation burden was found in the oncocytic type (p = 0.006), whereas the highest with a prevalence of RB1 (p = 0.001) and CDK4 (p = 0.002) was found in the conventional and myxoid ones, respectively. None of the 10 cases with matched samples showed a stable genotype along tumor progression, although allelic frequencies or percentages of altered nuclei at fluorescence in situ hybridization were in most cases similar among different tumor samples for genes that were stable along tumor progression. Among individual genes, an altered p53/Rb1 pathway was the strongest adverse molecular signature, being associated with high Ki-67 index, high tumor stage, aggressive disease status, and shorter disease-free survival. The genomic signature in adrenocortical carcinoma is changing along tumor progression and is associated with specific clinical and pathological features, including histological variant and prognosis.

MECHANISMS OF ENDOCRINOLOGY: Cell cycle regulation in adrenocortical carcinoma

Adrenocortical carcinomas (ACCs) are rather rare endocrine tumors that often have a poor prognosis. The reduced survival rate associated with these tumors is due to their aggressive biological behavior, combined with the scarcity of effective treatment options that are currently available. The recent identification of the genomic alterations present in ACC have provided further molecular mechanisms to develop consistent strategies for the diagnosis, prevention of progression and treatment of advanced ACCs. Taken together, molecular and genomic advances could be leading the way to develop personalized medicine in ACCs similarly to similar developments in lung or breast cancers. In this review, we focused our attention to systematically compile and summarize the alterations in the cell cycle regulation that were described so far in ACC as they are known to play a crucial role in cell differentiation and growth. We have divided the analysis according to the major transition phases of the cell cycle, G1 to S and G2 to M. We have analyzed the most extensively studied checkpoints: the p53/Rb1 pathway, CDC2/cyclin B and topoisomerases (TOPs). We reached the conclusion that the most important alterations having a potential application in clinical practice are the ones related to p53/Rb1 and TOP 2. We also present a brief description of on-going clinical trials based on molecular alterations in ACC. The drugs have targeted the insulin-like growth factor receptor 1, TOP 2, polo-like kinase1, cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors, p53 reactivation and CDC25.

Epigenetic dysregulation in adrenocortical carcinoma, a systematic review of the literature

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare and aggressive endocrine malignancy with a poor prognosis. Diagnosis and treatment of this tumor remains challenging. The Weiss score, the current gold standard for the histopathological diagnosis of ACC, lacks diagnostic accuracy of borderline tumors (Weiss score 2 or 3) and is subject to inter observer variability. Furthermore, adjuvant and palliative systemic therapy have limited effect and no proven overall survival benefit. A better insight in the molecular background of ACC might identify markers that improve diagnostic accuracy, predict treatment response or even provide novel therapeutic targets. This systematic review of the literature aims to provide an overview of alterations in DNA methylation, histone modifications and their potential clinical relevance in ACC.