Vulvovaginal Candidiasis and Bacterial Vaginosis

Phenylacetic acid, an anti-vaginitis metabolite produced by the vaginal symbiotic bacterium Chryseobacterium gleum

The human microbiome contains genetic information that regulates metabolic processes in response to host health and disease. While acidic vaginal pH is maintained in normal conditions, the pH level increases in infectious vaginitis. We propose that this change in the vaginal environment triggers the biosynthesis of anti-vaginitis metabolites. Gene expression levels of Chryseobacterium gleum, a vaginal symbiotic bacterium, were found to be affected by pH changes. The distinctive difference in the metabolic profiles between two C. gleum cultures incubated under acidic and neutral pH conditions was suggested to be an anti-vaginitis molecule, which was identified as phenylacetic acid (PAA) by spectroscopic data analysis. The antimicrobial activity of PAA was evaluated in vitro, showing greater toxicity toward Gardnerella vaginalis and Candida albicans, two major vaginal pathogens, relative to commensal Lactobacillus spp. The activation of myeloperoxidase, prostaglandin E2, and nuclear factor-κB, and the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 were reduced by an intravaginal administration of PAA in the vaginitis mouse model. In addition, PAA displayed the downregulation of mast cell activation. Therefore, PAA was suggested to be a messenger molecule that mediates interactions between the human microbiome and vaginal health.

Molecular Identification of Fungal Species through Multiplex-qPCR to Determine Candidal Vulvovaginitis and Antifungal Susceptibility

Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) is a prevalent condition affecting women worldwide. This study aimed to develop a rapid qPCR assay for the accurate identification of VVC etiological agents and reduced azole susceptibility. One hundred and twenty nine vaginal samples from an outpatient clinic (Bilbao, Spain) were analyzed using culture-based methods and a multiplex qPCR targeting fungal species, which identified Candida albicans as the predominant species (94.2%). Antifungal susceptibility tests revealed reduced azole susceptibility in three (3.48%) isolates. Molecular analysis identified several mutations in genes associated with azole resistance as well as novel mutations in TAC1 and MRR1 genes. In conclusion, we developed a rapid multiplex qPCR assay that detects C. albicans in vulvovaginal specimens and reported new mutations in resistance-related genes that could contribute to azole resistance.

Treatment of Vulvovaginal Candidiasis-An Overview of Guidelines and the Latest Treatment Methods

Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) is a common condition associated with discomfort in affected women. Due to the presence of different forms of the disease, diverse treatment regimens are developed; the newest ones include oteseconazole and ibrexafungerp. Here, we focus on the most up-to-date recommendations regarding VVC treatment, as well as novel treatment options. Topical and oral azoles are the drugs of choice in uncomplicated mycosis. The efficacy of probiotics and substances such as TOL-463 and chlorhexidine is indicated as satisfactory; however, there are no relevant guidelines. Although the majority of researchers agree that the treatment of non-albicans VVC should be long-lasting, the recommendations are inconsistent. Another clinical problem is the treatment of VVC with azole intolerance or resistance, for which literature proposes the use of several drugs including oteseconazole, ibrexafungerp, and voriconazole. The treatment schedules for recurrent VVC include mainly fluconazole; however, alternative options such as immunotherapeutic vaccine (NDV-3A) or designed antimicrobial peptides (dAMPs) were also described. We also focused on VVC affecting pregnant women, which is a substantial challenge in clinical practice, also due to the heterogeneous relevant guidelines. Thus far, few precise recommendations are available in the literature. Future studies should focus on atypical VVC forms to elucidate the inconsistent findings.

Prevalence, Antifungal Susceptibility and Etiology of Vulvovaginal Candidiasis in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis and Meta-regression

Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) is a commonly occurring form of mucocutaneous candidiasis in women. The aim of this study was to comprehensively investigate the prevalence, antifungal susceptibility, and etiology of VVC in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). A search of studies was conducted in seven online databases and the reference lists of selected studies. Observational studies published between January 2000, to July 2021, that met the eligibility criteria were included. Meta-analyses with random and fixed-effects model, and subgroup analyses were performed using STATA 16.0. A total of 41 studies including 15 723 participants were included in the meta-analyses. The pooled prevalence of VVC was 33% (95% Confidence Interval (CI): 28 - 38%, I2 = 98%, p < 0.001). Pregnant women had 6% higher odds of having VVC compared to non-pregnant women (Odds Ratio (OR): 1.06, 95% CI: 0.99 - 1.13, p = 0.107). The odds of diagnosing VVC were 40% higher in symptomatic patients than general study population (OR: 1.4, 95% CI: 1.3 - 1.5, p < 0.0001). In 17 studies, a total of 2112 isolates of Candida species were reported: 1514 (71.7%) C. albicans, 510 (24.1%) non-albicans Candida (NAC) species and 88 (4.2%) unidentified Candida spp. Of the NAC species detected, C. glabrata (40.9%, n = 209), C. krusei (21.2%, n = 108) and C. tropicalis (22.7%, n = 116) were the most common. Resistance to fluconazole in C. albicans using disc diffusion methods ranged from 6.8% in Cameroon to 53.7% in Ethiopia. One-third of women in SSA have VVC, mainly caused by C. albicans. Data on the susceptibility of the Candida isolates to commonly used antifungal agents is limited and warrants further research.

Treatment for recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis (thrush)

BACKGROUND

Recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis (RVVC) affects up to 5% of women. No comprehensive systematic review of treatments for RVVC has been published.

OBJECTIVES

The primary objective was to assess the effectiveness and safety of pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments for RVVC. The secondary objective was to assess patient preference of treatment options.

SEARCH METHODS

We conducted electronic searches of bibliographic databases, including CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, and CINAHL (search date 6 October 2021). We also handsearched reference lists of identified trials and contacted authors of identified trials, experts in RVVC, and manufacturers of products for vulvovaginal candidiasis.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We considered all published and unpublished randomised controlled trials evaluating RVVC treatments for at least six months, in women with four or more symptomatic episodes of vulvovaginal candidiasis in the past year. We excluded women with immunosuppressive disorders or taking immunosuppressant medication. We included women with diabetes mellitus and pregnant women. Diagnosis of RVVC must have been confirmed by presence of symptoms and a positive culture and/or microscopy. We included all drug and non-drug therapies and partner treatment, assessing the following primary outcomes: • number of clinical recurrences per participant per year (recurrence defined as clinical signs and positive culture/microscopy); • proportion of participants with at least one clinical recurrence during the treatment and follow-up period; and • adverse events.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two authors independently reviewed titles and abstracts to identify eligible trials. Duplicate data extraction was completed independently by two authors. We assessed risk of bias as described in the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. We used the fixed-effects model for pooling and expressed the results as risk ratio (RR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Where important statistical heterogeneity was present we either did not pool data (I2 > 70%) or used a random-effects model (I2 40-70%). We used the GRADE tool to assess overall certainty of the evidence for the pooled primary outcomes.

MAIN RESULTS

Studies: Twenty-three studies involving 2212 women aged 17 to 67 years met the inclusion criteria. Most studies excluded pregnant women and women with diabetes or immunosuppression. The predominant species found on culture at study entry was Candida albicans. Overall, the included studies were small (<100 participants). Six studies compared antifungal treatment with placebo (607 participants); four studies compared oral versus topical antifungals (543 participants); one study compared different oral antifungals (45 participants); two studies compared different dosing regimens for antifungals (100 participants); one study compared two different dosing regimens of the same topical agent (23 participants); one study compared short versus longer treatment duration (26 participants); two studies assessed the effect of partner treatment (98 participants); one study compared a complementary treatment (Lactobacillus vaginal tablets and probiotic oral tablets) with placebo (34 participants); three studies compared complementary medicine with antifungals (354 participants); two studies compared 'dermasilk' briefs with cotton briefs (130 participants); one study examined Lactobacillus vaccination versus heliotherapy versus ciclopyroxolamine (90 participants); one study compared CAM treatments to an antifungal treatment combined with CAM treatments (68 participants). We did not find any studies comparing different topical antifungals. Nine studies reported industry funding, three were funded by an independent source and eleven did not report their funding source. Risk of bias: Overall, the risk of bias was high or unclear due to insufficient blinding of allocation and participants and poor reporting. Primary outcomes: Meta-analyses comparing drug treatments (oral and topical) with placebo or no treatment showed there may be a clinically relevant reduction in clinical recurrence at 6 months (RR 0.36, 95% CI 0.21 to 0.63; number needed to treat for an additional beneficial outcome (NNTB) = 2; participants = 607; studies = 6; I² = 82%; low-certainty evidence) and 12 months (RR 0.80, 95% CI 0.72 to 0.89; NNTB = 6; participants = 585; studies = 6; I² = 21%; low-certainty evidence). No study reported on the number of clinical recurrences per participant per year. We are very uncertain whether oral drug treatment compared to topical treatment increases the risk of clinical recurrence at 6 months (RR 1.66, 95% CI 0.83 to 3.31; participants = 206; studies = 3; I² = 0%; very low-certainty evidence) and reduces the risk of clinical recurrence at 12 months (RR 0.95, 95% CI 0.71 to 1.27; participants = 206; studies = 3; I² = 10%; very low-certainty evidence). No study reported on the number of clinical recurrences per participant per year. Adverse events were scarce across both treatment and control groups in both comparisons. The reporting of adverse events varied amongst studies, was generally of very low quality and could not be pooled. Overall the adverse event rate was low for both placebo and treatment arms and ranged from less than 5% to no side effects or complications.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

In women with RVVC, treatment with oral or topical antifungals may reduce symptomatic clinical recurrences when compared to placebo or no treatment. We were unable to find clear differences between different treatment options (e.g. oral versus topical treatment, different doses and durations). These findings are not applicable to pregnant or immunocompromised women and women with diabetes as the studies did not include or report on them. More research is needed to determine the optimal medication, dose and frequency.

Vulvovaginal candidiasis in Iran: A systematic review and meta-analysis on the epidemiology, clinical manifestations, demographic characteristics, risk factors, etiologic agents and laboratory diagnosis

Vulvovaginal candidiasis is a global issue of concern due to its association with economic costs, sexually transmitted infections, and ascending genital tract diseases. This infection affects 75% of women on at least one occasion over a lifetime. The present systematic review and meta-analysis is the first to determine the prevalence of vulvovaginal candidiasis in Iranian women. We searched national (SID, IranDoc, Iranmedex, and Magiran) and international (PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and web of science) databases for studies published between May 2000 until May 2020 reporting the epidemiologic features of vulvovaginal candidiasis in Iranian women. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were defined to select eligible studies. Data were extracted and presented according to PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines. The results of the meta-analysis were visualized as a forest plot representing the prevalence estimates of each study. Heterogeneity was also analyzed using the I², and Chi² statistics. The literature search revealed 1929 studies, of which 39 studies met the eligibility criteria, consisting of 10536 women with vulvovaginal symptoms from 24 different cities covering all parts of Iran. The city with the highest number of studies was Tehran (5/39). The overall prevalence of vulvovaginal candidiasis among Iranian women was 47% (95% CI, 0/38-0/55%) and Candida albicans was the most prevalent etiologic agent. The use of oral contraceptive pills (OCPs) was the predominant risk factor for developing vulvovaginal candidiasis and vaginal cheese-like discharges were the predominant clinical manifestation in Iranian women suffering from vulvovaginal candidiasis. The 25-34-year-old age group has the highest prevalence. A high level of I² (I² = 98.7%, P = 0.000) and Chi² (Chi² = 2993.57, P < 0.001) was obtained among studies, which provides evidence of notable heterogeneity between studies. The present meta-analysis revealed a high prevalence of vulvovaginal candidiasis in Iranian women. Given that this infection is associated with the enhanced susceptibility to sexually transmitted diseases (HIV, chlamydia, genital herpes, genital warts, gonorrhea, hepatitis, syphilis, and trichomoniasis) and also is related to the increased probability of preterm birth, congenital cutaneous candidiasis, preterm labor, and infertility, taking preventive measures such as awareness of patients as well as monitoring and controlling of the syndrome are essential.

Chlorhexidine, clotrimazole, metronidazole and combination therapy in the treatment of vaginal infections

This was a clinical trial study that aimed to investigate the efficacy of vaginal chlorhexidine gel in the treatment of vulvovaginal candidiasis, bacterial vaginosis, and nonspecific vaginitis. The study population included patients who complained of vaginal discharge and presented to our University Gynecology Clinic. The data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software. The student t-test and Mann-Whitney U test were used to analyze the quantitative and ordinal data, respectively. In order to analyze the qualitative data, the Chi-square or Fischer's exact tests were used. The mean satisfaction score in the vulvovaginal candidiasis patients who received chlorhexiine vaginal gel was 9.06 and 8.29 in the patients who received clotrimazole vaginal cream. The Mann-Whitney test did not show a statistically significant difference between mean scores of VAS in these two groups with vulvovaginal candidiasis (P=0.027). Among the patients with bacterial vaginosis, the mean satisfaction score was 8.91 in the chlorhexidine vaginal gel group and 8.72 in the metronidazole tablet group (P=0.607). In the nonspecific vaginitis group, the mean satisfaction score was 8.83 in the chlorhexidine vaginal gel group and 9.17 in the combination group (metronidazole + clotrimazole vaginal cream)(P=0.401). The highest mean visual analog scale score (VAS) score was documented in the combination therapy group. We found that chlorhexidine vaginal gel is a more effective method for the treatment and improvement of vaginal infections. The benefits of chlorhexidine gel have a positive therapeutic effect as a single drug in nonspecific vaginitis, rather than simultaneous administration of two agents.

Risk Factors Associated with Prevalence of Candida albicans, Gardnerella vaginalis, and Trichomonas vaginalis among Women at the District Hospital of Dschang, West Region, Cameroon

Background

Vaginal or genitourinary infections are a major cause of morbidity, sterility, and increase in the vulnerability to cancers and HIV/AIDS infection. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of vaginal infections of C. albicans, G. vaginalis, and T. vaginalis among women in the locality of Dschang, West Region of Cameroon.

Method

A prospective study was carried out in the District Hospital of Dschang. After obtaining informed consent, one thousand and one (1001) samples of vaginal swabs were collected. Biological diagnosis was carried out on fresh samples, Gram stained, and then cultivated in Sabouraud agar in a Petri dish, in order to isolate and identify the various infectious agents.

Results

Five hundred and twenty-five (525) women were diagnosed positive, hosting at least one of these microorganisms, making an overall prevalence of 52.44%. Two hundred and fifty-six (256) women (25.57%) were infected with C. albicans, and 171 (17.08%) with G. vaginalis. Ninety-five (9.49%) were infected with both C. albicans and G. vaginalis, 2 (0.20%) with C. albicans and T. vaginalis, and 1 (0.1%) with G. vaginalis and T. vaginalis.

Conclusion

Drastic measures should be taken in order to improve life styles to regress the frequency of these infections. Results obtained in this study, will help to educate and shed more light on the prevalence of vaginal infections in the West Region of Cameroon.

Effectiveness of an educational intervention on vulvo-vaginal discharge for family healthcare workers: A nonrandomized controlled trial

Women's delay in seeking medical advice for abnormal vaginal discharge can cause serious effects such as infertility, ectopic pregnancy, and advanced cervical cancer. Family healthcare workers are in a unique position to help in the promotion of vaginal health. A nonrandomized controlled trial was conducted among a sample of family healthcare workers in the intervention (n = 37) and a control (n = 37) group to assess the effectiveness of an educational intervention, which was a 2-day intensive workshop combining reading materials. Data were analyzed using SPSS software (version 20), and the effectiveness of the intervention was determined using a mixed between-within subjects analysis of variance. The total knowledge and attitude scores were significantly greater for family healthcare workers in the intervention group immediately and at 3 and 6 months after the educational intervention, compared to the control group. A substantial main effect was observed concerning the time, showing an increase in family healthcare workers' knowledge and attitude scores across the four time periods. A statistically significant difference in the median overall health education competency score across the two groups was also observed. The mean score differences in all sub-competencies in health education were significantly higher among the intervention group, compared to the control group between second postintervention and the baseline. The educational intervention had revealed successful and sustainable improvements in family healthcare workers' knowledge, attitude on vaginal discharge, and health education competency. This can be implemented as an in-service program for family healthcare workers to improve health education practices.

Carveoylphenols and Their Antifungal Potential against Pathogenic Yeasts

Candida is a genus of yeasts and is the most common cause of fungal infections worldwide. However, only a few antifungal drugs are currently available for the treatment of Candida infections. In the last decade, terpenophenols have attracted much attention because they often possess a variety of biological activities. In the search for new antifungals, eight carveoylphenols were synthesized and characterized by spectroscopic analysis. By using the broth microdilution assay, the compounds were evaluated for antifungal activities in vitro against four human pathogenic yeast, and structure–activity relationships (SAR) were derived. Noteworthy, in this preliminary study, compounds 5 and 6, have shown a significant reduction in the growth of all Candida strains tested. Starting from these preliminary results, we have designed the second generation of analogous in this class, and further studies are in progress in our laboratories.

Antifungal susceptibilities, in vitro production of virulence factors and activities of ceragenins against Candida spp. isolated from vulvovaginal candidiasis

Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) is the second most common cause of vaginitis after bacterial vaginosis, affecting millions of women worldwide every year. Candida albicans is the most frequent agent of VVC followed by other species of Candida such as C. glabrata and C. parapsilosis. Out of a total of 100 clinical isolates of Candida spp. obtained from patients diagnosed with VVC, 84 were identified as C. albicans, while the remaining isolates were identified as non--albicans Candida strains. Phospholipases and proteinases were produced by a majority of the C. albicans strains and esterases and hemolysins a minority of these strains. Among the non-C. albicans strains, only a few of the strains produced these proteins. Nearly all of the isolates formed biofilms. Our results showed that the butoconazole, clotrimazole, and fluconazole were active against C. albicans and less so against the non-albicans Candida strains. The MIC90 of amphotericin B and nystatins were 2 and 4 μg/ml, respectively, against either C. albicans or non-albicans Candida spp. Representative ceragenins (CSA-13, CSA-131, and CSA-138), developed as mimics of endogenous antimicrobial peptides, were active against fluconazole-resistant strains, both alone and in combination with fluconazole. These results suggest the potential use of ceragenins in treating VVC, including infections caused by fluconazole-resistant isolates.

An Update on the Roles of Non-albicans Candida Species in Vulvovaginitis

Candida species are one of the commonest causes of vaginitis in healthy women of reproductive age. Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) is characterized by vulvovaginal itching, redness and discharge. Candida albicans, which is a common genito-urinary tract commensal, has been the prominent species and remains the most common fungal agent isolated from clinical samples of patients diagnosed with VVC. In recent times, however, there has been a notable shift in the etiology of candidiasis with non-albicans Candida (NAC) species gaining prominence. The NAC species now account for approximately 10% to as high as 45% of VVC cases in some studies. This is associated with treatment challenges and a slightly different clinical picture. NAC species vaginitis is milder in presentation, often occur in patients with underlying chronic medical conditions and symptoms tend to be more recurrent or chronic compared with C. albicans vaginitis. C. glabrata is the most common cause of NAC-VVC. C. tropicalis, C. krusei, C. parapsilosis, and C. guilliermondii are the other commonly implicated species. Treatment failure is common in NAC-VVC, since some of these species are intrinsically resistant or show low susceptibilities to commonly used antifungal agents. This article reviews the etiology, pathogenesis, clinical features, diagnosis, and management of NAC vulvovaginitis.

Sexually Transmitted Infection Review for the Acute Care Pharmacist

PURPOSE

Review selected sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and treatment recommendations for pharmacists and providers practicing in the acute care setting.

SUMMARY

In 2015, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) published an updated guideline on the treatment of STIs with an emphasis on prevention and new diagnostic strategies to combat the growing problem of STIs in the United States. Despite this guidance, the incidence of infection has continued to grow. In October 2016, an in-depth analysis reported that 20 million new infections occur annually in the United States. With this growing burden of disease, it is pertinent that health-care providers optimize their treatment strategies to improve upon the management of STIs. Focusing on identification of asymptomatic- and symptomatic-infected persons, treatment, education, effective follow-up, and counseling for patients and sexual partners, emergency medicine pharmacists and providers can help minimize the negative long-term health consequences of STIs.

CONCLUSION

In the emergency department setting, clinical pharmacists and providers can play a crucial role in preventing and treating STIs and should continue to expand and keep current their knowledge of this topic.

Vaginitis: Beyond the Basics

Vaginal complaints are one of the most common reasons women seek the advice of a health care provider. Uncomplicated infections such as vulvovaginal candidiasis, bacterial vaginosis, or trichomoniasis are easy to diagnose and treat. However, about 8% of patients will have a more complicated course with failure to respond to treatment or rapid recurrence of symptoms. Understanding the need for a methodical, diagnostic approach to help these women with recurrent or refractory cases of vaginal symptoms will aid the clinician achieve successful patient outcomes.

Probiotics for vulvovaginal candidiasis in non-pregnant women

BACKGROUND

Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) is estimated to be the second most common form of infection after bacterial vaginosis. The ability of probiotics in maintaining and recovering the normal vaginal microbiota, and their potential ability to resist Candidas give rise to the concept of using probiotics for the treatment of VVC.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effectiveness and safety of probiotics for the treatment of vulvovaginal candidiasis in non-pregnant women.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the following databases to October 2017: Sexually Transmitted Infections Cochrane Review Group's Specialized Register, CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase and eight other databases. We searched in following international resources: World Health Organization International Clinical Trials Registry Platform, ClinicalTrials.gov, Web of Science and OpenGrey. We checked specialty journals, reference lists of published articles and conference proceedings. We collected information from pharmaceutical companies and experts in the field.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomized controlled trials (RCT) using probiotics, alone or as adjuvants to conventional antifungal drugs, to treat VVC in non-pregnant women. Trials recruiting women with recurrent VVC, coinfection with other vulvovaginal infections, diabetes mellitus, immunosuppressive disorders or taking immunosuppressant medication were ineligible for inclusion. Probiotics were included if they were made from single or multiple species and in any preparation type/dosage/route of administration.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently assessed trials for eligibility and quality and extracted data. We resolved any disagreements through consensus. The quality of the evidence was assessed using the GRADE approach.

MAIN RESULTS

Ten RCTs (1656 participants) met our inclusion criteria, and pharmaceutical industry funded none of these trials. All trials used probiotics as adjuvant therapy to antifungal drugs. Probiotics increased the rate of short-term clinical cure (risk ratio (RR) 1.14, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.05 to 1.24, 695 participants, 5 studies, low quality evidence) and mycological cure (RR 1.06, 95% CI 1.02 to 1.10, 969 participants, 7 studies, low quality evidence) and decreased relapse rate at one month (RR 0.34, 95% CI 0.17 to 0.68, 388 participants, 3 studies, very low quality evidence). However, this effect did not translate into a higher frequency of long-term clinical cure (one month after treatment: RR 1.07, 95% CI 0.86 to 1.33, 172 participants, 1 study, very low quality evidence; three months after treatment: RR 1.30, 95% CI 1.00 to 1.70, 172 participants, one study, very low quality evidence) or mycological cure (one month after treatment: RR 1.26, 95% CI 0.93 to 1.71, 627 participants, 3 studies, very low quality evidence; three months after treatment: RR 1.16, 95% CI 1.00 to 1.35, 172 participants, one study, very low quality evidence). Probiotics use did not increase the frequency of serious (RR 0.80, 95% CI 0.22 to 2.94; 440 participants, 2 studies, low quality evidence). We found no eligible RCTs for outcomes as time to first relapse, need for additional treatment at the end of therapy, patient satisfaction and cost effectiveness.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Low and very low quality evidence shows that, compared with conventional treatment, the use of probiotics as an adjuvant therapy could increases the rate of short-term clinical and mycological cure and decrease the relapse rate at one month but this did not translate into a higher frequency of long-term clinical or mycological cure. Probiotics use does not seem to increase the frequency of serious or non-serious adverse events. There is a need for well-designed RCTs with standardized methodologies, longer follow-up and larger sample size.

Inflammatory cells in liquid-based cytology smears classified as bacterial vaginosis

BACKGROUND

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) remains an enigmatic question. The term "osis" instead of "itis" is used because commonly, there are no inflammatory process associated with BV. However, leukocytes are often observed in it.

METHODS

In a transversal study, we evaluated 1178 cases with diagnosis of BV by liquid-based cytology (more than 20% of clue cells), attended in general gynecologic private clinic. Depending of the presence of more than five leukocytes on average per field in immersion objective (1000×), the cases were divided in two groups: few or no leukocytes (< 5 leukocytes per field) (BV) and with leukocytes (≥ 5 leukocytes per field) (BV-L). The Fisher exact and Student t tests was applied to a confidence interval of 95%. The project was approved by the Ethic Committee of Federal University of Ceará, Brazil.

RESULTS

The age between the groups was the only different socio-demographic variable. The assessment of vaginal discharge aspect had no characteristic aspect. Colposcopy findings suggesting colpitis and ectopy were more frequent in the group of BV-L, 7.1% and 6.9%, respectively. The study of the microbiology demonstrated in the BV-L group, more frequently co-occurrence of Candida sp (15.1%) than in BV group (1.5%) (P < .0001). The cellular atypia was present more frequently in the BV-L (9.6%) than in BV (5.7%) (P = .0116).

CONCLUSION

The presence of leukocytes in BV (or BV-L) may suggest a mixed infection, ectopy influencing the vaginal milieu and even epithelial atypia.

Recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis

PURPOSE

Recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis (RVVC), multiple episodes of vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC; vaginal yeast infection) within a 12-month period, adversely affects quality of life, mental health, and sexual activity. Diagnosis is not straightforward, as VVC is defined by the combination of often nonspecific vaginal symptoms and the presence of yeast-which is a common vaginal commensal. Estimating the incidence and prevalence is challenging: most VVC is diagnosed and treated empirically, the availability for purchase of effective therapies over the counter enables self-diagnosis and treatment, and the duration of the relatively benign VVC symptoms is short, introducing errors into any estimates relying on medical records or patient recall.

METHODS

We evaluate current estimates of VVC and RVVC and provide new prevalence estimates using data from a 2011 seven-country (n = 7345) internet panel survey on VVC conducted by Ipsos Health (https://www.ipsos.com/en). We also evaluate information on VVC-associated visits using the National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey.

RESULTS

The estimated probability of VVC by age 50 varied widely by country (from 23% to 49%, mean 39%), as did the estimated probability of RVVC after VVC (from 14% to 28%, mean 23%).

CONCLUSIONS

However estimated, the probability of RVVC was high suggesting RVVC is a common condition.

Chitosan-Based Nanomedicine to Fight Genital Candida Infections: Chitosomes

Vaginal infections are associated with high recurrence, which is often due to a lack of efficient treatment of complex vaginal infections comprised of several types of pathogens, especially fungi and bacteria. Chitosan, a mucoadhesive polymer with known antifungal effect, could offer a great improvement in vaginal therapy; the chitosan-based nanosystem could both provide antifungal effects and simultaneously deliver antibacterial drugs. We prepared chitosan-containing liposomes, chitosomes, where chitosan is both embedded in liposomes and surface-available as a coating layer. For antimicrobial activity, we entrapped metronidazole as a model drug. To prove that mucoadhesivness alone is not sufficient for successful delivery, we used Carbopol-containing liposomes as a control. All vesicles were characterized for their size, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, and in vitro drug release. Chitosan-containing liposomes were able to assure the prolonged release of metronidazole. Their antifungal activity was evaluated in a C. albicans model; chitosan-containing liposomes exhibited a potent ability to inhibit the growth of C. albicans. The presence of chitosan was crucial for the system’s antifungal activity. The antifungal efficacy of chitosomes combined with antibacterial potential of the entrapped metronidazole could offer improved efficacy in the treatment of mixed/complex vaginal infections.

Probiotic Properties of Lactobacillus crispatus 2,029: Homeostatic Interaction with Cervicovaginal Epithelial Cells and Antagonistic Activity to Genitourinary Pathogens

Lactobacillus crispatus 2029 isolated upon investigation of vaginal lactobacilli of healthy women of reproductive age was selected as a probiotic candidate. The aim of the present study was elucidation of the role of L. crispatus 2029 in resistance of the female reproductive tract to genitourinary pathogens using cervicovaginal epithelial model. Lactobacillus crispatus 2029 has surface layers (S-layers), which completely surround cells as the outermost component of their envelope. S-layers are responsible for the adhesion of lactobacilli on the surface of cervicovaginal epithelial cells. Study of interactions between L. crispatus 2029 and a type IV collagen, a major molecular component of epithelial cell extracellular matrix, showed that 125I-labeled type IV collagen binds to lactobacilli with high affinity (Kd = (8.0 ± 0.7) × 10(-10) M). Lactobacillus crispatus 2029 consistently colonized epithelial cells. There were no toxicity, epithelial damage and apoptosis after 24 h of colonization. Electronic microscope images demonstrated intimate association between L. crispatus 2029 and epithelial cells. Upon binding to epithelial cells, lactobacilli were recognized by toll-like 2/6 receptors. Lactobacillus crispatus induced NF-κB activation in epithelial cells and did not induce expression of innate immunity mediators IL-8, IL-1β, IL-1α and TNF-α. Lactobacillus crispatus 2029 inhibited IL-8 production in epithelial cells induced by MALP-2 and increased production of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-6, maintaining the homeostasis of female reproductive tract. Lactobacillus crispatus 2029 produced H2O2 and provided wide spectrum of antagonistic activity increasing colonization resistance to urinary tract infections by bacterial vaginosis and vulvovaginal candidiasis associated agents.

Management of persistent vaginitis

With vaginitis remaining a common condition that leads women to seek care, it is not surprising that some women develop chronic vulvovaginal problems that are difficult to diagnose and treat. With a differential diagnosis that encompasses vulvar disorders and infectious and noninfectious causes of vaginitis, accurate diagnosis is the cornerstone of choosing effective therapy. Evaluation should include a symptom-specific history, careful vulvar and vaginal examination, and office-based tests (vaginal pH, amine test, saline and 10% potassium hydroxide microscopy). Ancillary tests, especially yeast culture with speciation, are frequently crucial to obtaining a correct diagnosis. A heavy but normal physiologic discharge can be determined by excluding other causes. With vulvovaginal candidiasis, differentiating between Candida albicans and non-albicans Candida infection has important treatment ramifications. Most patients with C albicans infections can be successfully treated with maintenance antifungal therapy, usually with fluconazole. Although many non-albicans Candida, particularly Candida glabrata, may at times be innocent bystanders, vaginal boric acid therapy is an effective first choice for many true non-albicans Candida infections. Recurrent bacterial vaginosis, a difficult therapeutic challenge, can often be controlled with maintenance therapy. Multiple options, especially high-dose tinidazole, have been used for metronidazole-resistant trichomoniasis. With the aging of the U.S. population, atrophic vaginitis and desquamative inflammatory vaginitis, both associated with hypoestrogenism, are encountered frequently in women with persistent vaginitis.

Prevalence of bacterial vaginosis and Candida among postmenopausal women in the United States

OBJECTIVES

To describe the prevalence of bacterial vaginosis (BV) and Candida among community-dwelling postmenopausal women in the United States and determine their change with age, using estimates based on Waves 1 and 2 of the National Social Life, Health and Aging Project (NSHAP).

METHOD

Self-administered vaginal swabs were collected in-home from women aged 57-85 (n = 1,016) in Wave 1 and again 5 years later in Wave 2 (n = 883). Gram-stained specimens were evaluated for BV using the Nugent score as well as presence of Candida.

RESULTS

BV was prevalent in 23% and 38% of postmenopausal women in Waves 1 and 2 and increased with age. Women initially categorized with BV in Wave 1 were more than 10 times as likely to be categorized with BV in Wave 2, relative risk ratio (RRR) = 10.5; 95% confidence interval (CI) (4.45-24.7); p < .001, whereas women initially categorized as intermediate in Wave 1 were five times more likely to have a BV categorization, RRR = 5.0; 95% CI (2.56-9.75); p < .001. Although the presence of Candida was similar in both waves (6% and 5%), its relationship with age only became evident in Wave 2, with odds of detecting Candida decreasing by 7% with each year of age, OR = 0.93, 95% CI (0.88, 0.98); p = .010.

DISCUSSION

In Wave 2, the prevalence of BV was higher and increased with age while the prevalence of Candida was low and declined with age. A 5-year age increase contributed to the prevalence change across waves. Methods refinements in Wave 2 improved the detection of BV and Candida and clarified their relationship with age.

Safety and efficacy of an intravaginal prebiotic gel in the prevention of recurrent bacterial vaginosis: a randomized double-blind study

Objective. This study was performed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of a prebiotic treatment in the balance recovery of the vaginal flora in subjects previously treated for bacterial vaginosis (BV). Study Design. A randomized trial was carried out on 42 subjects with an active prebiotic group compared to a placebo group. The main evaluation criterion was the quantification of the vaginal flora measured by the Nugent score. Secondary criteria included vaginal pH and BV recurrence. Results. After 8 days of treatment, all subjects who received the prebiotic had a normal Nugent score, whereas 33% of the subjects treated with placebo had an intermediate or positive Nugent score. After 16 days of application, a normal Nugent score was maintained in all subjects treated with the prebiotic, whereas in the placebo group 24% of the subjects still had an elevated Nugent score. Moreover, the maintenance of (or reversion to) a normal flora was associated with the maintenance of (or reversion to) physiological pH values. Conclusions. The intravaginal gel treatment improves the recovery of a normal vaginal flora after the treatment of a BV episode, which should warrant a reduction in the risk of further recurrences.

Practices of Lebanese gynecologists regarding treatment of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis

Background:

A review of the literature clearly indicates the absence of one set of guideline in the treatment of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. In Lebanon, as physicians are trained in European or American schools of medicine, locally or abroad, they may be approaching the issue of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis using various methods.

Aims:

A national survey was conducted among Lebanese gynecologists to assess therapeutic protocols most commonly adopted to treat recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis.

Material and Methods:

All obstetricians-gynecologists registered with the Order of Physicians were targeted. Bivariate analyses, comparing groups with specific prescription preferences, were tested using relevant statistical tests. All variables with significant bivariate associations with the outcomes were initially planned for a multivariate regression analysis to assess their interactive effects.

Results:

The study confirms that different approaches are used to treat recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. Most gynecologists (70%) recommended fluconazole 150 mg as first-line treatment. Fluconazole alone was significantly preferred by North American trained physicians, whereas European trained ones preferred to prescribe it in combination. However different dosage regimens were used with duration of treatment ranging from 2 to 4 weeks, with or without maintenance.

Conclusions:

The study revealed large diversity in prescription pattern, closely related to the specialization background of the physician. There is a need to generate evidence to establish national guidelines.

Vaginal use of Ibuprofen isobutanolammonium (ginenorm): efficacy, tolerability, and pharmacokinetic data: a review of available data

Vaginal infection and inflammation with or without vulvar involvement are very common gynecologicaly clinical conditions associated with morbidity and reduced quality of life. Vaginal infections are commonly treated with causal antimicrobial treatments. In addition to specific antimicrobial treatment, anti-inflammatory therapy, both systemic or topical (vaginal douche), could be useful in the integrated treatment approach of these conditions reducing symptoms and speeding up the recovery in vulvovaginitis. Ibuprofen is a well-known effective and well-tolerated anti-COX (anti-COX1 and COX2) compound. In addition, several in vitro studies suggest that Ibuprofen shares antimicrobial and antifungal activities. Ibuprofen isobutanolammonium (Ib-isb) (Ginenorm) is a soluble salt from formulation suitable for external and intravaginal use. This salt completely dissociates in aqueous solution. Ib-isob is available in sachet and vaginal douche pharmaceutical formulations. Clinical efficacy of Ib-isob has been documented in 10 clinical studies (6 controlled and 4 open trials) which have enrolled in total 399 women with vulvovaginitis. The six controlled clinical trials were performed both versus placebo (2 studies) or versus active comparators such as benzydamine. In these studied, Ib-Isb has been used in general for 7 consecutive days with a twice application daily regimen at the dose of 1 g per application. Topical application of Ib-isob induced a marked and rapid reduction in signs (erythema, oedema) and symptoms (itching and burning sensation) of vulvovaginitis. In head-to-head studies carried out in comparison with other topical products, Ib-isob induced a more rapid reduction in both subjective and objective symptoms. In particular a remarkable significant improvement of all the symptoms has been observed in the group of patients treated with Ib-isob in comparison with women receiving benzydamine. The clinical data available for Ib-isob confirm that this salt, specifically developed for gynecological use, is effective and well tolerated in vulvovaginal inflammation conditions. Efficacy of Ib-isob was greater in comparison with commonly used products. Ibuprofen-isob may be considered a useful and effective tool for the topical treatment of nonspecific vaginal diseases.

Antiseptics and disinfectants for the treatment of bacterial vaginosis: a systematic review

Background

The study objective was to assess the available data on efficacy and tolerability of antiseptics and disinfectants in treating bacterial vaginosis (BV).

Methods

A systematic search was conducted by consulting PubMed (1966-2010), CINAHL (1982-2010), IPA (1970-2010), and the Cochrane CENTRAL databases. Clinical trials were searched for by the generic names of all antiseptics and disinfectants listed in the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) Classification System under the code D08A. Clinical trials were considered eligible if the efficacy of antiseptics and disinfectants in the treatment of BV was assessed in comparison to placebo or standard antibiotic treatment with metronidazole or clindamycin and if diagnosis of BV relied on standard criteria such as Amsel’s and Nugent’s criteria.

Results

A total of 262 articles were found, of which 15 reports on clinical trials were assessed. Of these, four randomised controlled trials (RCTs) were withheld from analysis. Reasons for exclusion were primarily the lack of standard criteria to diagnose BV or to assess cure, and control treatment not involving placebo or standard antibiotic treatment. Risk of bias for the included studies was assessed with the Cochrane Collaboration’s tool for assessing risk of bias. Three studies showed non-inferiority of chlorhexidine and polyhexamethylene biguanide compared to metronidazole or clindamycin. One RCT found that a single vaginal douche with hydrogen peroxide was slightly, though significantly less effective than a single oral dose of metronidazole.

Conclusion

The use of antiseptics and disinfectants for the treatment of BV has been poorly studied and most studies are somehow methodologically flawed. There is insufficient evidence at present to advocate the use of these agents, although some studies suggest that some antiseptics may have equal efficacy compared to clindamycin or metronidazole. Further study is warranted with special regard to the long-term efficacy and safety of antiseptics and disinfectants for vaginal use.

Identification of immune cells by flow cytometry in vaginal lavages from women with vulvovaginitis and normal microflora

PROBLEM

  The extent of the vaginal immune response is not fully determined. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the vaginal immune cells from women with vulvovaginitis (VV).

METHOD OF STUDY

A total of 142 volunteers diagnosed with bacterial vaginosis (BV), vulvovaginal candidiasis (VC), and BV associated with VC or normal microflora were sampled to evaluate the immune cells by flow cytometry. The immune cells were obtained by vaginal lavage and labeled with fluorochrome-conjugated monoclonal antibodies to identify neutrophil granulocytes, macrophages, CD4(+) and CD8(+) T lymphocytes, B lymphocytes, and NK lymphocytes.

RESULTS

Neutrophil granulocytes were present in 84.6% of samples among the leukocyte populations. Considering samples in which neutrophils were present, the mean percentage of neutrophil granulocytes was significantly higher in women with VC than BV and normal microflora and was significantly lower in women with BV than normal microflora. Macrophages and lymphocytes were present in a lower percentage of samples. The mean percentage of CD4(+) T lymphocytes in vaginal lavages was significantly higher in VC and BV compared with women with normal microflora.

CONCLUSIONS

Neutrophils were the predominant leukocytes and were associated with VC and inversely with BV. CD4(+) T lymphocytes were associated with both VC and BV.

Use of cervicovaginal fluid for the identification of biomarkers for pathologies of the female genital tract

Cervicovaginal fluid has an important function in the homeostasis and immunity of the lower female genital tract. Analysis of the cervicovaginal fluid proteome may therefore yield important information about the pathogenesis of numerous gynecological pathologies. Additionally, cervicovaginal fluid has great potential as a source of biomarkers for these conditions.

This review provides a detailed discussion about the human cervicovaginal proteome and the proteomics studies performed to characterize this biological fluid. Furthermore, infection-correlated pathological conditions of the female genital tract are discussed for which cervicovaginal fluid has been used in order to identify potential biomarkers. Recent years, numerous studies have analyzed cervicovaginal fluid samples utilizing antibody-based technologies, such as ELISA or Western blotting, to identify biomarkers for preterm birth, premature preterm rupture of membranes, bacterial vaginosis and cervical cancer. The present article will discuss the importance of proteomic technologies as alternative techniques to gain additional meaningful information about these conditions. In addition, the review focuses on recent proteomic studies on cervicovaginal fluid samples for the identification of potential biomarkers. We conclude that the use of proteomic technology for analysis of human cervicovaginal fluid samples is promising and may lead to the discovery of new biomarkers which can improve disease prevention and therapy development.

Personal hygienic behaviors and bacterial vaginosis

BACKGROUND

Vaginal douching is consistently associated with bacterial vaginosis (BV), but whether it is a cause or result of BV remains unknown. The association between BV and other feminine hygienic behaviors is less studied; if BV symptoms caused behavior change then all hygiene behaviors might be more common among women with BV. Lack of association between nondouching hygiene behavior and BV would argue against reverse causation.

METHODS

In the Longitudinal Study of Vaginal Flora 3620 women had 13,517 visits where BV (Nugent score) was assessed. Associations between hygienic behavior and BV were assessed by Poisson regression.

RESULTS

After adjusting for demographic and sexual behavior factors, neither type of underwear (nylon vs. cotton prevalence ratio (PR) 1.05, 95% CI: 0.97-1.13), menstrual protection (tampons vs. pads; PR: 1.04, 95% CI: 0.95-1.12; pads and tampons vs. pads 1.00, 95% CI: 0.92-1.07), use of pads or panty liners when not menstruating (PR: 0.99, 95% CI: 0.95-1.05), nor weekly or greater use of hygiene spray (PR: 1.01, 95% CI: 0.94-1.09), powder (PR: 1.02, 95% CI: 0.96-1.07) or towlettes (PR: 1.03, 95% CI: 0.94-1.13) were strongly associated with BV. PR for daily versus less than daily bathing and showering were 1.06 (95% CI: 1.02-1.12) and 1.04 (95% CI: 1.00-1.09). Douching remained associated with BV (PR for weekly or greater vs. never 1.17, 95% CI: 1.09-1.26) and was not substantially impacted by adjustment for other hygienic behavior.

CONCLUSIONS

Douching, but not other feminine hygiene behaviors, is significantly associated with BV, providing additional evidence that douching may be causally associated with BV and is not simply a response to BV symptoms.

The epidemiology of bacterial vaginosis in relation to sexual behaviour

BACKGROUND

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) has been most consistently linked to sexual behaviour, and the epidemiological profile of BV mirrors that of established sexually transmitted infections (STIs). It remains a matter of debate however whether BV pathogenesis does actually involve sexual transmission of pathogenic micro-organisms from men to women. We therefore made a critical appraisal of the literature on BV in relation to sexual behaviour.

DISCUSSION

G. vaginalis carriage and BV occurs rarely with children, but has been observed among adolescent, even sexually non-experienced girls, contradicting that sexual transmission is a necessary prerequisite to disease acquisition. G. vaginalis carriage is enhanced by penetrative sexual contact but also by non-penetrative digito-genital contact and oral sex, again indicating that sex per se, but not necessarily coital transmission is involved. Several observations also point at female-to-male rather than at male-to-female transmission of G. vaginalis, presumably explaining the high concordance rates of G. vaginalis carriage among couples. Male antibiotic treatment has not been found to protect against BV, condom use is slightly protective, whereas male circumcision might protect against BV. BV is also common among women-who-have-sex-with-women and this relates at least in part to non-coital sexual behaviours. Though male-to-female transmission cannot be ruled out, overall there is little evidence that BV acts as an STD. Rather, we suggest BV may be considered a sexually enhanced disease (SED), with frequency of intercourse being a critical factor. This may relate to two distinct pathogenetic mechanisms: (1) in case of unprotected intercourse alkalinisation of the vaginal niche enhances a shift from lactobacilli-dominated microflora to a BV-like type of microflora and (2) in case of unprotected and protected intercourse mechanical transfer of perineal enteric bacteria is enhanced by coitus. A similar mechanism of mechanical transfer may explain the consistent link between non-coital sexual acts and BV. Similar observations supporting the SED pathogenetic model have been made for vaginal candidiasis and for urinary tract infection.

SUMMARY

Though male-to-female transmission cannot be ruled out, overall there is incomplete evidence that BV acts as an STI. We believe however that BV may be considered a sexually enhanced disease, with frequency of intercourse being a critical factor.

Prevalence of clue cells suggestive for Gardnerella vaginalis in population-based cervical screening in the public versus private health care in Maringá, Paraná, Brazil

OBJECTIVES

To determine the prevalence of clue cells suggestive for Gardnerella vaginalis in population-based cervical screening in the public (SUS) versus private (RP) health care utilization in Maringá, Paraná, Brazil.

METHODS

A retrospective study on the results of 133,966 cytology examinations of patients from the Brazilian Public Health System-SUS (better socio-economic status-SES) and from the Private Network-RP (low SES) done by the Souza Anatomy Laboratory in Maringá, Brazil, from 2004 to 2007.

RESULTS

In patients using the SUS, the prevalence of clue cells was 6.75% (n = 3,573), higher (p < 0.05) than for RP users (3.53%, n = 2,813). The clue cells predominated in age range of the 20-49 years from the SUS and RP (p > 0.05). In both the populations, the prevalence and age range did not vary among the 4 years (p > 0.05) and the prevalence declines in age above 45 years (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of clue cells was low and stable in both populations in the 4 years, indicating equilibrium in terms of numbers of bacterial vaginosis (BV) in this localization. The results indicate that SES may influence the epidemiology of BV and that the prevalence declines expressively in older women.

Glycerol monolaurate inhibits Candida and Gardnerella vaginalis in vitro and in vivo but not Lactobacillus

We investigated the effects of glycerol monolaurate (GML) on Lactobacillus, Candida, and Gardnerella vaginalis human vaginal microflora. Our previous work demonstrated that 6 months of GML treatment vaginally does not alter lactobacillus counts in monkeys. Candida and G. vaginalis are commonly associated with vaginal infections in women, many becoming chronic or recurrent. In vitro growth inhibition studies determined the effects of GML (0 to 500 microg/ml) against multiple Candida species and G. vaginalis. A randomized, double-blind study investigated the effects of GML on vaginal microflora Lactobacillus, Candida, and G. vaginalis in colonized or infected women (n=36). Women self-administered intravaginal gels containing 0% (n=14), 0.5% (n=13), or 5% (n=9) GML every 12 h for 2 days. Vaginal swabs were collected before and immediately after the first gel administration and 12 h after the final gel administration. Swabs were tested for Lactobacillus, Candida, G. vaginalis, and GML. In vitro GML concentrations of 500 microg/ml were candicidal for all species tested, while a concentration of 10 microg/ml was bactericidal for G. vaginalis. Control and GML gels applied vaginally in women did not alter vaginal pH or Lactobacillus counts. Control gels reduced G. vaginalis counts but not Candida counts, whereas GML gels reduced both Candida and G. vaginalis. No adverse events were reported by participating women. GML is antimicrobial for Candida and G. vaginalis in vitro. Vaginal GML gels in women do not affect Lactobacillus negatively but significantly reduce Candida and G. vaginalis.

Biosynthesis and degradation of H2O2 by vaginal lactobacilli

Hydrogen peroxide production by vaginal lactobacilli represents one of the most important defense mechanisms against vaginal colonization by undesirable microorganisms. To quantify the ability of a collection of 45 vaginal Lactobacillus strains to generate H(2)O(2), we first compared three published colorimetric methods. It was found that the use of DA-64 as a substrate rendered the highest sensitivity, while tetramethyl-benzidine (TMB) maintained its linearity from nanomolar to millimolar H(2)O(2) concentrations. Generation of H(2)O(2) was found to be especially common and strong for L. jensenii strains, while it was variable among L. crispatus and L. gasseri strains. Biosynthesis of H(2)O(2) only occurred upon agitation of the cultures, but the H(2)O(2)-producing machinery was already present in them before aeration started. Calcium, magnesium, manganese, and zinc ions did not affect H(2)O(2) production, while Cu(2+) inhibited the growth of Lactobacillus jensenii CECT 4306, which was chosen as a model strain. Cultures with Fe(3+), hemin, and hemoglobin did not accumulate H(2)O(2). Fe(3+) activated an extracellular peroxidase that destroyed the H(2)O(2) being produced by the cultures. This protected the lactobacilli against its antimicrobial effect. The production of the enzyme appears to be constitutive, the Fe(3+) ions being a necessary cofactor of the reaction.