Inhibiting c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK)-mediated apoptotic signaling pathway in PC12 cells by a polysaccharide (CCP) from Coptis chinensis against Amyloid-β (Aβ)-induced neurotoxicity

Current Status of Plant-Based Bioactive Compounds as Therapeutics in Alzheimer's Diseases

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common central neurodegenerative disease disorder characterized primarily by cognitive impairment and non-cognitive neuropsychiatric symptoms that significantly impact patients' daily lives and behavioral functioning. The pathogenesis of AD remains unclear and current Western medicines treatment are purely symptomatic, with a singular pathway, limited efficacy, and substantial toxicity and side effects. In recent years, as research into AD has deepened, there has been a gradual increase in the exploration and application of medicinal plants for the treatment of AD. Numerous studies have shown that medicinal plants and their active ingredients can potentially mitigate AD by regulating various molecular mechanisms, including the production and aggregation of pathological proteins, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, apoptosis, mitochondrial dysfunction, neurogenesis, neurotransmission, and the brain-gut microbiota axis. In this review, we analyzed the pathogenesis of AD and comprehensively summarized recent advancements in research on medicinal plants for the treatment of AD, along with their underlying mechanisms and clinical evidence. Ultimately, we aimed to provide a reference for further investigation into the specific mechanisms through which medicinal plants prevent and treat AD, as well as for the identification of efficacious active ingredients derived from medicinal plants.

Elucidation of the inhibitory effects of Jiedu Yizhi formula on neuronal apoptosis in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease based on network pharmacology and in vivo experiments

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate the mechanism of action of Jiedu Yizhi formula (JDYZF) in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD) through network pharmacology, molecular docking technology, and in vivo experiments.

METHOD

 The main active ingredients of seven herbs in the Chinese Medicine compound JDYZF were identified by searching the TCMSP database, PubChem database, CNKI, and other sources. Disease targets of AD were obtained from databases such as OMIM, TDD, DisGeNET, and DrugBank. A protein‒protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed using the STRING platform, and core targets were identified through topological analysis using Cytoscape software. Gene Ontology (GO) functional analysis and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis of the relevant targets were performed using the Metascape database. The main active ingredients of JDYZF and potential core targets were identified based on degree values. Molecular docking technology was used to verify the interactions between the main active ingredients and potential core targets. Furthermore, water maze tests and hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining of brain and liver tissues were performed to evaluate the effects of JDYZF on cognitive dysfunction in AD mice and neuronal damage in hippocampal brain tissue and to assess drug toxicity. PCR was performed to determine the expression levels of the apoptosis-related genes Bcl-2, Bax, and caspase-3 and to investigate the effect of JDYZF on hippocampal apoptosis in AD mice. Results. One hundred twelve core PPI target proteins, including CASP3, TP53, and VEGFA, were found between JDYZF and AD. The KEGG pathway enrichment analysis showed significant enrichment of the MAPK signaling pathway, PI3K/AKT signaling pathway and so on. Water maze tests revealed that the high-dose JDYZF treatment significantly improved the escape latency of AD model mice. The HE staining results showed that JDYZF exerted a protective effect on neuronal damage in the hippocampus of AD mice. JDYZF could upregulate the expression of the anti-apoptotic factor Bcl-2 while downregulating the expression of the proapoptotic factors Bax and caspase-3. Conclusion. JDYZF can improve the cognitive function of AD mice by suppressing cell apoptosis.

Detection of foodborne pathogens in contaminated food using nanomaterial-based electrochemical biosensors

Foodborne pathogens are a grave concern for the for food, medical, environmental, and economic sectors. Their ease of transmission and resistance to treatments, such as antimicrobial agents, make them an important challenge. Food tainted with these pathogens is swiftly rejected, and if ingested, can result in severe illnesses and even fatalities. This review provides and overview of the current status of various pathogens and their metabolites transmitted through food. Despite a plethora of studies on treatments to eradicate and inhibit these pathogens, their indiscriminate use can compromise the sensory properties of food and lead to contamination. Therefore, the study of detection methods such as electrochemical biosensors has been proposed, which are devices with advantages such as simplicity, fast response, and sensitivity. However, these biosensors may also present some limitations. In this regard, it has been reported that nanomaterials with high conductivity, surface-to-volume ratio, and robustness have been observed to improve the detection of foodborne pathogens or their metabolites. Therefore, in this work, we analyze the detection of pathogens transmitted through food and their metabolites using electrochemical biosensors based on nanomaterials.

Polysaccharides from Basella alba Protect Post-Mitotic Neurons against Cell Cycle Re-Entry and Apoptosis Induced by the Amyloid-Beta Peptide by Blocking Sonic Hedgehog Expression

The amyloid-beta peptide (Aβ) is the neurotoxic component in senile plaques of Alzheimer's disease (AD) brains. Previously we have reported that Aβ toxicity is mediated by the induction of sonic hedgehog (SHH) to trigger cell cycle re-entry (CCR) and apoptosis in post-mitotic neurons. Basella alba is a vegetable whose polysaccharides carry immunomodulatory and anti-cancer actions, but their protective effects against neurodegeneration have never been reported. Herein, we tested whether polysaccharides derived from Basella alba (PPV-6) may inhibit Aβ toxicity and explored its underlying mechanisms. In differentiated rat cortical neurons, Aβ25-35 reduced cell viability, damaged neuronal structure, and compromised mitochondrial bioenergetic functions, all of which were recovered by PPV-6. Immunocytochemistry and western blotting revealed that Aβ25-35-mediated induction of cell cycle markers including cyclin D1, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), and histone H3 phosphorylated at Ser-10 (p-Histone H3) in differentiated neurons was all suppressed by PPV-6, along with mitigation of caspase-3 cleavage. Further studies revealed that PPV-6 inhibited Aβ25-35 induction of SHH; indeed, PPV-6 was capable of suppressing neuronal CCR and apoptosis triggered by the exogenous N-terminal fragment of sonic hedgehog (SHH-N). Our findings demonstrated that, in the fully differentiated neurons, PPV-6 exerts protective actions against Aβ neurotoxicity via the downregulation of SHH to suppress neuronal CCR and apoptosis.

Mechanisms and structure-activity relationships of polysaccharides in the intervention of Alzheimer's disease: A review

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a complex neurodegenerative disease. Despite several decades of research, the development of effective treatments and responses for Alzheimer's disease remains elusive. The utilization of polysaccharides for Alzheimer's disease became more popular due to their beneficial characteristics, notably their multi-target activity and low toxicity. This review mainly focuses on the researches of recent 5 years in the regulation of AD by naturally derived polysaccharides, systematically lists the possible intervention pathways of polysaccharides from different mechanisms, and explores the structure-activity relationship between polysaccharide structural activities, so as to provide references for the intervention and treatment of AD by polysaccharides.

Coptis Chinensis Franch: Substance Basis, Mechanism of Action and Quality Control Standard Revealed Based on the Q-marker Concept and New Strategy of Systemic Pharmacology and Biosynthesis Research

Coptis chinensis Franch. (Ranunculaceae, Coptis), a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) with thousands of years of clinical use history, also a natural medicine available in many countries, has wide pharmacological mechanisms and significant bioactivity according to its traditional efficacy combined with modern scientific research. The quality marker (Q-marker) of C. chinensis Franch. is predicted in this paper based on the chemical composition and pharmacological effects of the plant, as well as the current system pharmacology, plant relatedness, biosynthetic pathways and quantitative analysis of multi-components (QAMS). Natural medicine has the advantage of being multi-component, multi-pathway and multi-target. However, there are few reports on safety evaluation. This review predicts the Q-marker of C. chinensis, the safety and efficacy of C. chinensis is provided. Studies from 1975 to 2023 were reviewed from PubMed, Elsevier, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, SpringerLink, and Google Scholar. Alkaloids and organic acids are the two main component categories of Q-Markers. The specific alkaloids identified through predictive results include berberine, coptisine, palmatine, epiberberine, jatrorrhizine, columbamine, and berberrubine. Quinic acid and malic acid, due to their influence on the content of alkaloids and their ability to aid in identifying the active components of C. chinensis, are also considered Q-markers. The research strategy of "exploring chemical components, exploring pharmacological activities, constructing pharmacological mechanism network and locating biosynthetic pathways" was used to accurately screen the quality markers of C. chinensis in this review and summarise the quality evaluation methods and criteria. In addition, we updated the biosynthetic pathway of C. chinensis and refined the specific synthetic pathways of jatrorrhizine (quality markers) and epiberberine (quality markers). Finally, we summarised the quality evaluation methods of C. chinensis, which provide an important reference for resource evaluation and provide a key reference for the discovery of new functional chemical entities for natural medicines.

Polysaccharides: potential bioactive macromolecules for Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the leading causes of death and disability. AD is a devastating disease that has caused an overwhelming burden. However, no disease-modified treatment was discovered. The approval of sodium oligomannate (GV-971) in mild-moderate AD patients has attracted great attention to investigate the role of saccharides in AD. Therefore, summarizing and explaining the role of saccharides in AD is urgent and promising. Recent studies showed that polysaccharides (PSs) potentially benefit AD in vitro and in vivo. PSs could alleviate the pathological damage and improve cognitive symptoms via (1) antagonizing the toxicity of abnormal amyloid-beta and tau proteins; (2) attenuating oxidative stress and proinflammation; (3) rebuilding neuroplasticity. PSs exhibit one-multiple pathological hits of AD. However, a thorough chemical investigation is needed for further study.

Protective Effects and Mechanisms of Pectolinarin against H2O2-Induced Oxidative Stress in SH-SY5Y Neuronal Cells

This study aims to investigate the protective effects and mechanisms of pectolinarin against oxidative stress-induced cell damage in SH-SY5Y cells. Neurodegenerative diseases-such as Alzheimer's disease-are potentially associated with oxidative stress, which causes excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that damage DNA and proteins in neuronal cells. The results of this study demonstrate that pectolinarin can scavenge hydroxyl and nitric oxide radicals in a concentration-dependent manner. Moreover, pectolinarin significantly increased cell viability while reducing ROS production and LDH release in the hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-induced control group. Additionally, Pectolinarin recovered protein expression from H2O2-altered levels back to close-to-normal SH-SY5Y cell levels for components of the oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis pathways-such as nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), kelch-like ECH-associated protein (Keap1), anti-heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), B-cell lympho-ma-2 (Bcl-2) protein, and Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax). These findings suggest that pectolinarin has the potential to be used as a plant material for functional foods to be applied in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, by mitigating oxidative stress-induced damage to neuronal cells.

Jiedu Yizhi Formula Improves Cognitive Function by Regulating the Gut Dysbiosis and TLR4/NF-κB Signaling Pathway

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to explore the neuroprotective mechanism of JDYZF in treating AD from the perspective of inflammation and intestinal microflora.

METHODS

A total of 24 APP/PS1 mice were randomly divided into four groups: model (n = 6), JDYZF low-dose (n = 6), JDYZF high-dose (n = 6), and positive drug (n = 6), six C57 mice were used as the control group. The body weights and diets of all mice were examined daily. After 8 weeks of administration, the learning and memory of mice were evaluated by the Morris water maze test. The histopathological changes of hippocampus, liver and kidney in mice were observed by HE staining after being euthanized. The expression of p-tau in hippocampus tissue was detected by immunohistochemistry. After that, 16S rDNA sequencing was used to investigate the relationship between JDYZF and intestinal microbiota. Finally, a comparison of TLR4, p65, p-p65, iκB, p-iκB, and IL-1β protein expression in the hippocampus tissue of mice in each group was measured by Western blot.

RESULTS

The results showed that APP/PS1 mice taking JDYZF orally were generally in good condition. Compared with the control group, JDYZF significantly improved learning and memory ability in ethology. Histology showed that JDYZF improved the hippocampal structure of mice and inhibited the deposition of p-tau. JDYZF treatment could regulate the gut microbiota of APP/PS1 mice by increasing the richness of Lachnospiraceae, Ruminococcaceae, and Actinobacteria and reducing that of Alistipes and Muribaculaceae. It also significantly inhibited the activation of the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway in the brain. In addition, no obvious toxic reactions were found in the liver and kidney of APP/PS1 mice after taking JDYZF for 8 weeks.

CONCLUSION

The findings revealed that JDYZF improved cognitive ability and alleviated the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway in APP/PS1 mice, and the modulating the gut microbiota presented here may help illuminate its activation mechanism.

Update on new trend and progress of the mechanism of polysaccharides in the intervention of Alzheimer's disease, based on the new understanding of relevant theories: A review

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a neurodegenerative disease with insidious onset and progressive progression, is the main type of dementia. Currently, there is no specific cure for the disease. At the same time, a series of drug developments based on the classic theory, the Aβ cascade hypothesis, have not completed phase III clinical trials, challenging the hypothesis. Polysaccharides obtained from natural products can be used in the treatment of AD, which has attracted academic attention due to its advantages of multi-target, multi-channel, no or modest side effects. The TCM syndrome type of AD is mainly "qi and blood deficiency, kidney essence deficiency", and the medicine is mainly used to replenish qi and blood, kidney and bone marrow. Thus, there has been extensive and in-depth research on polysaccharides obtained from tonic Chinese herbal medicine in China. Based on this background, this paper evaluated the effects and mechanisms of natural polysaccharides on AD by combing and screening English and related literature in recent 5 years and summarized the extraction process and structure-activity relationship of polysaccharides.

Rhein Ameliorates Cognitive Impairment in an APP/PS1 Transgenic Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease by Relieving Oxidative Stress through Activating the SIRT1/PGC-1α Pathway

Mitochondrial oxidative stress plays an important role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Recently, antioxidant therapy has been considered an effective strategy for the treatment of AD. Our previous work discovered that rhein relieved mitochondrial oxidative stress in β-amyloid (Aβ) oligomer-induced primary neurons by improving the sirtuin 1 (SIRT1)/peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha- (PGC-1α-) regulated mitochondrial biogenesis. While encouraging results have been provided, mechanisms underlying the beneficial effect of rhein on AD are yet to be elucidated in vivo. In this study, we evaluated the therapeutic effect of rhein on an APP/PS1 transgenic (APP/PS1) mouse model of AD and explored its antioxidant mechanisms. As a result, rhein significantly reduced Aβ burden and neuroinflammation and eventually ameliorated cognitive impairment in APP/PS1 mice. Moreover, rhein reversed oxidative stress in the brain of APP/PS1 mice and protected neurons from oxidative stress-associated apoptosis. Further study revealed that rhein promoted mitochondrial biogenesis against oxidative stress by upregulating SIRT1 and its downstream PGC-1α as well as nuclear respiratory factor 1. Improved mitochondrial biogenesis not only increased the activity of superoxide dismutase to scavenge excess reactive oxygen species (ROS) but also repaired mitochondria by mitochondrial fusion to inhibit the production of ROS from the electron transport chain. Notably, the exposure of rhein in the brain analyzed by tissue distribution study indicated that rhein could permeate into the brain to exert its therapeutic effects. In conclusion, these findings drive rhein to serve as a promising therapeutic antioxidant for the treatment of AD. Our research highlights the therapeutic efficacy for AD through regulating mitochondrial biogenesis via the SIRT1/PGC-1α pathway.

Yeast β-glucan with different degrees of oxidation: Capability of adsorbing lead ions and protective effect against lead-induced PC12 cytotoxicity

This study investigated the adsorption behavior of Pb²⁺ by three different oxidized yeast β-glucans (OYG) and their effect on lead-induced PC12 cytotoxicity. The analysis revealed that the adsorption kinetics conformed to pseudo-first-order model and the adsorption capacities for Pb²⁺ (36.50, 41.61 and 50.31 μg/mg for OYG1-3) showed a positive correlation with oxidation degree (15.2%, 47.3% and 71.2% for OYG1-3). Additionally, the lead adsorption by OYGs showed an endothermic process and the adsorption capacity increased with the increasing Pb²⁺ concentration in the aqueous phase. Then, it was found that OYGs were biocompatible and could increase cell viability from 60% to 80% during lead stress. Nuclear staining revealed an inhibitory effect of OYGs on cell apoptosis, with the best performance for OYG3. Furthermore, OYGs could significantly suppress lead-induced production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) in PC12 cells. Specifically, when being supplemented with 20 μg/mL OYG3, the increase of fluorescence intensity caused by the production of ROS and NO in PC12 cells were significantly alleviated from 2.65 and 2.6 to 1.23 and 1.35-fold, respectively. Our findings indicate that OYGs could adsorb lead effectively and protect PC12 cells from lead-induced cytotoxicity.

Jiedu-Yizhi Formula Improves Cognitive Impairment in an Aβ 25-35-Induced Rat Model of Alzheimer's Disease by Inhibiting Pyroptosis

Jiedu-Yizhi formula (JDYZF) is prescribed for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and was created by Jixue Ren, a master of traditional Chinese medicine, based on the "marrow deficiency and toxin damage" theory. In our clinic, this formula has been used for the treatment of AD for many years and has achieved good results. However, the mechanism by which JDYZF improves cognitive impairment has not been determined. In this study, we confirmed that orally administered JDYZF reversed the cognitive deficits in an Aβ _25-35-induced rat model, increased the number of neurons in the hippocampal CA1 area, improved their structure, decreased the deposition of β-amyloid (Aβ), reduced the expression of proteins related to the NLRP3/Caspase-1/GSDMD and LPS/Caspase-11/GSDMD pyroptosis pathways, and reduced the levels of interleukin 1β (IL-1β) and IL-18, thereby inhibiting the inflammatory response. In addition, JDYZF exerted no hepatotoxicity in rats. In short, these results provide scientific support for the clinical use of JDYZF to improve the cognitive function of patients with AD.

Neuroprotective effects of naturally sourced bioactive polysaccharides: an update

Polysaccharides are macromolecular complexes that have various biological activities. In vivo and in vitro studies have shown that polysaccharides play neuroprotective roles through multiple mechanisms; consequently, they have potential in the prevention and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. This paper summarizes related research published during 2015-2020 and reviews advances in the understanding of the neuroprotective effects of bioactive polysaccharides. This review focuses on 15 bioactive polysaccharides from plants and fungi that have neuroprotective properties against oxidative stress, apoptosis, neuroinflammation, and excitatory amino acid toxicity mainly through the regulation of nuclear factor kappa-B, phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase/protein kinase B, mitogen-activated protein kinase, nuclear factor-E2-related factor 2/ hemeoxygenase-1, c-jun N-terminal kinase, protein kinase B-mammalian target of rapamycin, and reactive oxygen species-nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain, leucine-rich repeat and pyrin domain-containing 3 signaling pathways. Natural bioactive polysaccharides have potential in the prevention and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases because of their advantageous characteristics, including multi-targeting, low toxicity, and synergistic effects. However, most of the recent related research has focused on cell and animal models. Future randomized clinical trials involving large sample sizes are needed to validate the therapeutic benefits of these neuroprotective polysaccharides in patients having neurodegenerative diseases.

Chinese Herbal Medicine Adjusting Brain Microenvironment via Mediating Central Nervous System Lymphatic Drainage in Alzheimer's Disease

Due to its complex pathogenesis and lack of effective therapeutic methods, Alzheimer's disease (AD) has become a severe public health problem worldwide. Recent studies have discovered the function of central nervous system lymphatic drainage, which provides a new strategy for the treatment of AD. Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) has been considered as a cure for AD for hundreds of years in China, and its effect on scavenging β-amyloid protein in the brain of AD patients has been confirmed. In this review, the mechanism of central nervous system lymphatic drainage and the regulatory functions of CHM on correlation factors were briefly summarized. The advances in our understanding regarding the treatment of AD via regulating the central lymphatic system with CHM will promote the clinical application of CHM in AD patients and the discovery of new therapeutic drugs.

Scientometric Analysis of Medicinal and Edible Plant Coptis

Objective: A scientometric analysis to obtain knowledge mapping of Coptis revealed the current research situation, knowledge base and research hotspots in Coptis research. Methods: Coptis-related documents published from 1987 to 2020 were selected through the Web of Science Core Collection. CiteSpace, VOSviewer and Microsoft Excel were used to construct knowledge maps of the Coptis research field. Results: A total of 367 documents and their references were analyzed. These papers were primarily published in mainland China (214), followed by Japan (57) and South Korea (52), and they each formed respective cooperation networks. The document co-citation analysis suggested that the identification of Coptis Salisb. species, the production of alkaloids, and the mechanisms of action of these alkaloids formed the knowledge bases in this field. A keyword analysis further revealed that the research hotspots were primarily concentrated in three fields of research involving berberine, Coptis chinensis Franch, and Coptis japonica (Thunb) Makino. Oxidative stress, rat plasma (for the determination of plasma alkaloid contents), and Alzheimer's disease are recent research hotspots associated with Coptis. Conclusion: Coptis research was mainly distributed in three countries: China, Japan, and South Korea. Researchers were concerned with the identification of Coptis species, the production of Coptis alkaloids, and the efficacy and pharmacological mechanism of the constituent alkaloids. In addition, the anti-oxidative stress, pharmacokinetics, and Alzheimer's disease treatment of Coptis are new hotspots in this field. This study provides a reference for Coptis researchers.

ErbB4 mediates amyloid β-induced neurotoxicity through JNK/tau pathway activation: Implications for Alzheimer's disease

Accumulation of amyloid β (Aβ) in the brain is a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). We previously showed that ErbB4 in parvalbumin (PV)-positive interneurons was associated with Aβ-induced cognitive deficits; however, the underlying mechanism remains undetermined. Here we found that specific deletion of ErbB4 in PV neurons significantly attenuated oligomeric Aβ-induced neuronal toxicity and inhibited Aβ-induced decreases of PSD95 and synaptophysin. Moreover, specific ablation of ErbB4 in PV neurons altered activity-related protein c-Fos and decreased hippocampal PV neurons, especially in the dentate gyrus (DG) of hAPP-J20 mice. Furthermore, c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), a protein downstream of ErbB4, was activated by Aβ but not ErbB4's ligand neuregulin 1 (NRG1) β1, suggesting different downstream pathways for Aβ and NRG1β1. JNK phosphorylation was inhibited by the ErbB4 inhibitor AG1478 and by pretreatment with NRG1β1. More importantly, siRNA knockdown of ErbB4 decreased JNK phosphorylation and expression, tau phosphorylation at Ser396 and Thr 205, and Bax expression. Therefore, ErbB4 might mediate Aβ-induced neuropathology through the JNK/tau pathway and represent a potential therapeutic target in patients with AD.

Neuroprotective effects of Fomes officinalis Ames polysaccharides on Aβ25-35-induced cytotoxicity in PC12 cells through suppression of mitochondria-mediated apoptotic pathway

Aggregation of Aβ is a pathological hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The purpose of this study was to identify the protective roles of different polysaccharide components in Fomes officinalis Ames polysaccharides (FOAPs) against Aβ_25-35-induced neurotoxicity in PC12 cells. Different doses of FOAPs components (i.e. FOAPs-a and FOAPs-b) were added to PC12 cells about 2 h before β-amyloid protein fragment 25-35 (Aβ_25-35) exposure. The AD cellular model of PC12 cells was established using Aβ_25-35. Then the PC12 cells were divided into 9 groups including: control group, Donepezil hydrochloride (DHCL) group, model group treated using 40 μM Aβ_25-35, followed by FOAPs-a and FOAPs-b interference (50, 100 and 200 μg/mL). The mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS), ATP, superoxide dismutase (SOD), malondialdehyde (MDA), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) were determined by commercial kits. The Cytochrome C, Bcl-2 and Bax expressions in the mitochondria and cytosol was determined by using Western blot analysis. FOAPs-a and FOAPs-b could significantly inhibit the LDH release, MDA level and the over accumulation of ROS induced by Aβ_25-35 in PC12 cells in a dose-dependent manner. They could also effectively prevent Aβ_25-35-stimulated cytotoxicity, which involved in attenuating cell apoptosis, increasing the ratio of Bcl-2/Bax and inhibiting Cytochrome C release from mitochondria to cytosol in PC12 cells. Moreover, FOAPs-a and FOAPs-b significantly alleviated mitochondrial dysfunction by regulating the MMP, as well as promoting the mitochondrial ATP synthesis. FOAPs-a and FOAPs-b played neuroprotective roles against Aβ_25-35-induced cytotoxicity in PC12 cells through suppressing the mitochondria-mediated apoptotic pathway.

Network Pharmacology Study of Heat-Clearing and Detoxifying Traditional Chinese Medicine for Alzheimer's Disease

This study aims to explore the possible homologous mechanism of 7 frequently-used herbs for heat-clearing and detoxification in traditional Chinese medicine (HDTCM) for treating Alzheimer's disease (AD), one of the most common types of dementia, based on network pharmacology. Herbs that satisfied the criteria of containing chlorogenic acid, relating to AD and aligning with HDTCM, were simultaneously collected to determine whether they have anti-AD effect based on a survey of the literature. Herb-ingredient-target-disease networks were constructed by collecting information from the TCMSP and GeneCards public databases. The common targets of the herbs and AD were identified for conducting a Gene Ontology (GO) analyses and a Reactome pathway enrichment analysis. The results showed that PTGS1, IL-6, CASP3, and VEGFA were the predicted key gene targets. The IL-4 and IL-13 signaling pathway, the ESR-mediated signaling pathway, and the extranuclear estrogen signaling pathway were the significant pathways associated with the 7 herbs. This study revealed that the analogous anti-AD mechanism of the 7 herbs of HDTCM may be associated with anti-inflammation, which is a common effect of the chlorogenic acid and quercetin components.