Structural analysis of chordae tendineae in degenerative disease of the mitral valve

Genome-wide analysis of RNA-binding proteins co-expression with alternative splicing events in mitral valve prolapse

Objectives

We investigated the role and molecular mechanisms of RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) and their regulated alternative splicing events (RASEs) in the pathogenesis of mitral valve prolapse (MVP).

Methods

For RNA extraction, we obtained peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from five patients with MVP, with or without chordae tendineae rupture, and five healthy individuals. High-throughput sequencing was used for RNA sequencing (RNA-seq). Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) analysis, alternative splicing (AS) analysis, functional enrichment analysis, co-expression of RBPs, and alternative splicing events (ASEs) analysis were conducted.

Results

The MVP patients exhibited 306 up-regulated genes and 198 down-regulated genes. All down- and up-regulated genes were enriched in both Gene Ontology (GO) terms and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways. Furthermore, MVP was closely associated with the top 10 enriched terms and pathways. In MVP patients, 2,288 RASEs were found to be significantly different, and four suitable RASEs (CARD11 A3ss, RBM5 ES, NCF1 A5SS, and DAXX A3ss) were tested. We identified 13 RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) from the DEGs and screened out four RBPs (ZFP36, HSPA1A, TRIM21, and P2RX7). We selected four RASEs based on the co-expression analyses of RBPs and RASEs, including exon skipping (ES) of DEDD2, alternative 3' splice site (A3SS) of ETV6, mutually exclusive 3'UTRs (3pMXE) of TNFAIP8L2, and A3SS of HLA-B. Furthermore, the selected four RBPs and four RASEs were validated by reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and showed high consistency with RNA sequencing (RNA-seq).

Conclusion

Dysregulated RBPs and their associated RASEs may play regulatory roles in MVP development and may therefore be used as therapeutic targets in the future.

Shannon entropy as a reliable score to diagnose human fibroelastic degenerative mitral chords: A micro-ct ex-vivo study

This paper is aimed at identifying by means of micro-CT the microstructural differences between normal and degenerative mitral marginal chordae tendineae. The control group is composed of 21 normal chords excised from 14 normal mitral valves from heart transplant recipients. The experimental group comprises 22 degenerative fibroelastic chords obtained at surgery from 11 pathological valves after mitral repair or replacement. In the control group the superficial endothelial cells and spongiosa layer remained intact, covering the wavy core collagen. In contrast, in the experimental group the collagen fibers were arranged as straightened thick bundles in a parallel configuration. 100 cross-sections were examined by micro-CT from each chord. Each image was randomized through the K-means machine learning algorithm and then, the global and local Shannon entropies were obtained. The optimum number of clusters, K, was estimated to maximize the differences between normal and degenerative chords in global and local Shannon entropy; the p-value after a nested ANOVA test was chosen as the parameter to be minimized. Optimum results were obtained with global Shannon entropy and 2≤K≤7, providing p < 0.01; for K=3, p = 2.86·10^-3. These findings open the door to novel perioperative diagnostic methods in order to avoid or reduce postoperative mitral valve regurgitation recurrences.

Mechanics and Microstructure of the Atrioventricular Heart Valve Chordae Tendineae: A Review

The atrioventricular heart valves (AHVs) are responsible for directing unidirectional blood flow through the heart by properly opening and closing the valve leaflets, which are supported in their function by the chordae tendineae and the papillary muscles. Specifically, the chordae tendineae are critical to distributing forces during systolic closure from the leaflets to the papillary muscles, preventing leaflet prolapse and consequent regurgitation. Current therapies for chordae failure have issues of disease recurrence or suboptimal treatment outcomes. To improve those therapies, researchers have sought to better understand the mechanics and microstructure of the chordae tendineae of the AHVs. The intricate structures of the chordae tendineae have become of increasing interest in recent literature, and there are several key findings that have not been comprehensively summarized in one review. Therefore, in this review paper, we will provide a summary of the current state of biomechanical and microstructural characterizations of the chordae tendineae, and also discuss perspectives for future studies that will aid in a better understanding of the tissue mechanics-microstructure linking of the AHVs' chordae tendineae, and thereby improve the therapeutics for heart valve diseases caused by chordae failures.

A detailed mechanical and microstructural analysis of ovine tricuspid valve leaflets

The tricuspid valve ensures unidirectional blood flow from the right atrium to the right ventricle. The three tricuspid leaflets operate within a dynamic stress environment of shear, bending, tensile, and compressive forces, which is cyclically repeated nearly three billion times in a lifetime. Ostensibly, the microstructural and mechanical properties of the tricuspid leaflets have mechanobiologically evolved to optimally support their function under those forces. Yet, how the tricuspid leaflet microstructure determines its mechanical properties and whether this relationship differs between the three leaflets is unknown. Here we perform a microstructural and mechanical analysis in matched ovine tricuspid leaflet samples. We found that the microstructure and mechanical properties vary among the three tricuspid leaflets in sheep. Specifically, we found that tricuspid leaflet composition, collagen orientation, and valve cell nuclear morphology are spatially heterogeneous and vary across leaflet type. Furthermore, under biaxial tension, the leaflets' mechanical behaviors exhibited unequal degrees of mechanical anisotropy. Most importantly, we found that the septal leaflet was stiffer in the radial direction and not the circumferential direction as with the other two leaflets. The differences we observed in leaflet microstructure coincide with the varying biaxial mechanics among leaflets. Our results demonstrate the structure-function relationship for each leaflet in the tricuspid valve. We anticipate our results to be vital toward developing more accurate, leaflet-specific tricuspid valve computational models. Furthermore, our results may be clinically important, informing differential surgical treatments of the tricuspid valve leaflets. Finally, the identified structure-function relationships may provide insight into the homeostatic and remodeling potential of valvular cells in altered mechanical environments, such as in diseased or repaired tricuspid valves. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Our work is significant as we investigated the structure-function relationship of ovine tricuspid valve leaflets. This is important as tricuspid valves fail frequently and our current approach to repairing them is suboptimal. Specifically, we related the distribution of structural and cellular elements, such as collagen, glycosaminoglycans, and cell nuclei, to each leaflet's mechanical properties. We found that leaflets have different structures and that their mechanics differ. This may, in the future, inform leaflet-specific treatment strategies and help optimize surgical outcomes.

Fluoroquinolones and Aortic Diseases: Is There a Connection

Fluoroquinolones (FQs) are one of the most commonly prescribed classes of antibiotics. Their high tissue distribution and broad-spectrum antibacterial coverage make their use very attractive in numerous infectious diseases. Although generally well tolerated, FQs have been associated with different adverse effects including dysglycemia and arrhythmias. FQs have been also associated with a series of adverse effects related to collagen degradation, such as Achilles tendon rupture and retinal detachment. Recently, an association between consumption of FQs and increased risk of aortic aneurysm and dissection has been proposed. This article reviews the pathogenesis of thoracic aortic diseases, the molecular mechanism of FQ-associated collagen toxicity, and the possible contribution of FQs to aortic diseases.

Identification of Human Pathological Mitral Chordae Tendineae Using Polarization-sensitive Optical Coherence Tomography

Defects of the mitral valve complex imply heart malfunction. The chordae tendineae (CTs) are tendinous strands connecting the mitral and tricuspid valve leaflets to the papillary muscles. These CTs are composed of organized, wavy collagen bundles, making them a strongly birefringent material. Disorder of the collagen structure due to different diseases (rheumatic, degenerative) implies the loss or reduction of tissue birefringence able to be characterized with Polarization Sensitive Optical Coherence Tomography (PS-OCT). PS-OCT is used to discriminate healthy from diseased chords, as the latter must be excised and replaced in clinical conventional interventions. PS-OCT allows to quantify birefringence reduction in human CTs affected by degenerative and rheumatic pathologies. This tissue optical property is proposed as a diagnostic marker for the identification of degradation of tendinous chords to guide intraoperative mitral valve surgery.

New insights into mitral heart valve prolapse after chordae rupture through fluid-structure interaction computational modeling

Mitral valve (MV) dynamics depends on a force balance across the mitral leaflets, the chordae tendineae, the mitral annulus, the papillary muscles and the adjacent ventricular wall. Chordae rupture disrupts the link between the MV and the left ventricle (LV), causing mitral regurgitation (MR), the most common valvular disease. In this study, a fluid-structure interaction (FSI) modeling framework is implemented to investigate the impact of chordae rupture on the left heart (LH) dynamics and severity of MR. A control and seven chordae rupture LH models were developed to simulate a pathological process in which minimal chordae rupture precedes more extensive chordae rupture. Different non-eccentric and eccentric regurgitant jets were identified during systole. Cardiac efficiency was evaluated by the ratio of external stroke work. MV structural results showed that basal/strut chordae were the major load-bearing chordae. An increased number of ruptured chordae resulted in reduced basal/strut tension, but increased marginal/intermediate load. Chordae rupture in a specific scallop did not necessarily involve an increase in the stress of the entire prolapsed leaflet. This work represents a further step towards patient-specific modeling of pathological LH dynamics, and has the potential to improve our understanding of the biomechanical mechanisms and treatment of primary MR.

Pressure-induced microstructural changes in porcine tricuspid valve leaflets

Quantifying mechanically-induced changes in the tricuspid valve extracellular matrix (ECM) structural components, e.g. collagen fiber spread and distribution, is important as it determines the overall macro-scale tissue responses and subsequently its function/malfunction in physiological/pathophysiological states. For example, functional tricuspid regurgitation, a common tricuspid valve disorder, could be caused by elevated right ventricular pressure due to pulmonary hypertension. In such patients, the geometry and the normal function of valve leaflets alter due to chronic pressure overload, which could cause remodeling responses in the ECM and change its structural components. To understand such a relation, we developed an experimental setup and measured alteration of leaflet microstructure in response to pressure increase in porcine tricuspid valves using the small angle light scattering technique. The anisotropy index, a measure of the fiber spread and distribution, was obtained and averaged for each region of the anterior, posterior, and septal leaflet using four averaging methods. The average anisotropy indices (mean ± standard error) in the belly region of the anterior, posterior, and septal leaflets of non-pressurized valves were found to be 12 ± 2%, 21 ± 3% and 12 ± 1%, respectively. For the pressurized valve, the average values of the anisotropy index in the belly region of the anterior, posterior, and septal leaflets were 56 ± 5%, 39 ± 7% and 32 ± 5%, respectively. Overall, the average anisotropy index was found to be higher for all leaflets in the pressurized valves as compared to the non-pressurized valves, indicating that the ECM fibers became more aligned in response to an increased ventricular pressure.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

Mechanics plays a critical role in development, regeneration, and remodeling of tissues. In the current study, we have conducted experiments to examine how increasing the ventricular pressure leads to realignment of protein fibers comprising the extracellular matrix (ECM) of the tricuspid valve leaflets. Like many other tissues, in cardiac valves, cell-matrix interactions and gene expressions are heavily influenced by changes in the mechanical microenvironment at the ECM/cellular level. We believe that our study will help us better understand how abnormal increases in the right ventricular pressure (due to pulmonary hypertension) could change the structural architecture of tricuspid valve leaflets and subsequently the mechanical microenvironment at the ECM/cellular level.

Stabilized Collagen and Elastin-Based Scaffolds for Mitral Valve Tissue Engineering

There is a significant clinical need for new approaches to treatment of mitral valve disease. The aim of this study was to develop a tissue-engineered mitral valve scaffold possessing appropriate composition and structure to ensure ideal characteristics of mitral valves, such as large orifice, rapid opening and closure, maintenance of mitral annulus-papillary muscle continuity, in vivo biocompatibility and extended durability. An extracellular matrix-based scaffold was generated, based on the native porcine mitral valve as starting material and a technique for porcine cell removal without causing damage to the matrix components. To stabilize these structures and slow down their degradation, acellular scaffolds were treated with penta-galloyl glucose (PGG), a well-characterized polyphenol with high affinity for collagen and elastin. Biaxial mechanical testing presented similar characteristics for the PGG-treated scaffolds compared to fresh tissues. The extracellular matrix components, crucial for maintaining the valve shape and function, were well preserved in leaflets, and in chordae, as shown by their resistance to collagenase and elastin. When extracted with strong detergents, the PGG-treated scaffolds released a reduced amount of soluble matrix peptides, compared to untreated scaffolds; this correlated with diminished activation of fibroblasts seeded on scaffolds treated with PGG. Cell-seeded scaffolds conditioned for 5 weeks in a valve bioreactor showed good cell viability. Finally, rat subdermal implantation studies showed that PGG-treated mitral valve scaffolds were biocompatible, nonimmunogenic, noninflammatory, and noncalcifying. In conclusion, a biocompatible mitral valve scaffold was developed, which preserved the biochemical composition and structural integrity of the valve, essential for its highly dynamic mechanical demands, and its biologic durability.

Characterization of biomechanical properties of aged human and ovine mitral valve chordae tendineae

The mitral valve (MV) is a highly complex cardiac valve consisting of an annulus, anterior and posterior leaflets, chordae tendineae (chords) and two papillary muscles. The chordae tendineae mechanics play a pivotal role in proper MV function: the chords help maintain proper leaflet coaptation and rupture of the chordae tendineae due to disease or aging can lead to mitral valve insufficiency. Therefore, the aim of this study was to characterize the mechanical properties of aged human and ovine mitral chordae tendineae. The human and ovine chordal specimens were categorized by insertion location (i.e., marginal, basal and strut) and leaflet type (i.e., anterior and posterior). The results show that human and ovine chords of differing types vary largely in size but do not have significantly different elastic and failure properties. The excess fibrous tissue layers surrounding the central core of human chords added thickness to the chords but did not contribute to the overall strength of the chords. In general, the thinner marginal chords were stiffer than the thicker basal and strut chords, and the anterior chords were stiffer and weaker than the posterior chords. The human chords of all types were significantly stiffer than the corresponding ovine chords and exhibited much lower failure strains. These findings can be explained by the diminished crimp pattern of collagen fibers of the human mitral chords observed histologically. Moreover, the mechanical testing data was modeled with the nonlinear hyperelastic Ogden strain energy function to facilitate accurate computational modeling of the human MV.

Characterisation of the fatigue life, dynamic creep and modes of damage accumulation within mitral valve chordae tendineae

Mitral valve prolapse is often caused by either elongated or ruptured chordae tendineae (CT). In many cases, rupture is spontaneous, meaning there is no underlying cause. We hypothesised that spontaneous rupture may be due to mechanical fatigue. To investigate this hypothesis, we tested porcine marginal CT: in uniaxial tension, and in fatigue at a range of peak stresses (n=12 at 15, 10 and 7.5MPa respectively, n=6 at 5MPa). The rupture surfaces of failed CT were observed histologically, under polarised light microscopy, and SEM. The cycles to failure for 15, 10, 7.5 and 5 MPa peak stresses were: (average±SD): 5077±4366, 49513±56414, 99927±108908, 197099±69103. A Weibull plot was constructed and from this, the number of cycles at 50% probability of failure was established in order to approximate the fatigue life, which was found to be 2.43MPa at 10 million cycles. The rate of creep increases exponentially with increasing peak stress. Under histological examination it was observed that CT which have been fatigued at low stress partially lose their organised collagen structure and can sustain micro-cracks that can be linked to increases in the creep rate. Furthermore our SEM images closely matched descriptions from the literature of spontaneous in vivo rupture. In conclusion, we believe that the mechanical test results we present strongly suggest that spontaneous chordal rupture and chordal elongation in vivo can be caused by mechanical fatigue.

Myxomatous mitral valve disease bench to bedside: LDL-density-pressure regulates Lrp5

The myxomatous mitral valve is the most common form of valvular heart disease. The pathologic presentation of myxomatous mitral valve disease varies between valve thickness, degree of leaflet prolapse and the presence or absence of flail leaflets. Recent molecular biology studies have confirmed that the myxomatous changes in mitral valve prolapse equals a cartilage phenotype, which is regulated by the Lrp5 receptor. Clinically, echocardiography defines the valve pathology to determine the surgical approach to valve repair or replacement. Furthermore, the timing of surgical valve repair is controversial and is the subject of a current multicenter trial. The results will resolve the timing of whether watchful waiting versus early surgical valve repair decreases morbidity and mortality of this disease process. This review will summarize the current understanding of the cellular and hemodynamic mechanisms of myxomatous mitral valve disease, which may have future implications in the targeted therapy of this disease process.

Acute rupture of chordae tendineae of the mitral valve in infants: a nationwide survey in Japan exploring a new syndrome

BACKGROUND

Recently, infant cases of acute heart failure attributable to rupture of the mitral chordae tendineae have been reported. However, little is known about the pathogenesis and clinical course of this condition.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Ninety-five children with rupture of mitral chordae tendineae were identified in nationwide surveys of Japan diagnosed from 1995 to 2013. The clinical manifestations, management strategies, and prognosis were investigated. Eighty-one (85%) patients were between 4 and 6 months (median, 5 months) of age. In 63 (66%) patients, rupture occurred during the spring or summer. The underlying conditions before rupture included Kawasaki disease (10 cases), maternally derived anti-SSA antibodies (2 cases), and infective endocarditis (1 case). Surgery was performed in 80 patients (94 operations), and the final operations included plasty of mitral chordae in 52 cases and mechanical valve replacement in 26 cases. The histopathologic examinations of the mitral valves and chordae (n=28) revealed inflammatory reactions with predominant mononuclear cell infiltration in 18 cases (64%) and increased fibrous and myxoid tissue in 11 cases (39%), suggesting that nonbacterial infectious or autoimmune endocarditis and myxoid changes are involved in the pathogenesis. Eight patients (8.4%) died before (n=6) and shortly after (n=2) the operation, and significant neurological complications persisted in 10 cases (11%).

CONCLUSIONS

Acute heart failure attributable to rupture of the mitral chordae tendineae in infants is a unique disease resulting from diverse causes. This condition should be recognized as a significant cardiovascular disorder that may cause sudden onset of cardiogenic shock and death in infants.

Mitral tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 2 is associated with mitral valve surgery outcome

Background

Matrix metalloproteinases play a role in regulating cardiac remodeling. We previously reported an association between tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 2 (TIMP-2) expression and mitral valve (MV) disease. However, the determinants and prognostic value of mitral TIMP2 after MV surgery are unknown.

Methods

This retrospective study of 164 patients after MV surgery in a tertiary medical center in Taiwan assessed mitral TIMP2 on a semiquantitative scale (0–2) by immunohistochemical staining. The primary endpoints were the composite of cardiovascular death and heart failure admission.

Results

Mean age was 50.4±13.7 years. After a mean follow-up period of 101±59 months, primary endpoints had occurred in 25 (15.2%) subjects. Patients with and without primary endpoint events significantly differed in terms of age (56.6±14.4 vs. 49.2±13.4 years, respectively; p = 0.013) and left ventricular end-systolic diameter (LVESD) (39.7±8.2 vs. 35.5±7.5 mm, p = 0.010) at surgery. The TIMP2 had a significant dose-dependent association with development of a primary endpoint (p = 0.002). Kaplan–Meier analysis showed that TIMP2 expression has a significant positive association with primary endpoint-free survival (log-rank test; p = 0.004). Cox regression analysis showed that independent predictors of primary endpoints were TIMP2 (hazard ratio [HR] 0.28; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.12–0.65; p = 0.003), age (HR 1.05; 95% CI 1.02–1.09; p = 0.003) and LVESD (HR 1.05; 95% CI 1.01–1.10; p = 0.020).

Conclusions

The lack of mitral TIMP2 expression is associated with increases in cardiovascular death and heart failure following MV surgery.