Geniposide alleviates inflammation by suppressing MeCP2 in mice with carbon tetrachloride-induced acute liver injury and LPS-treated THP-1 cells

Immunomodulatory and osteogenic effects of chitosan-based injectable hydrogel with geniposide-loaded mesoporous bioactive glass

The immune response dominated by macrophages plays a pivotal role in the regeneration of bone tissue. In this work, an injectable temperature-responsive hydrogel composed of geniposide-loaded mesoporous bioactive glass, chitosan and β-glycerophosphate (G-M Gel) was prepared, showing robustly networks, uniform pore structure, excellent biocompatibility, immunomodulatory effect and osteogenic potential. In an inflammatory microenvironment elicited by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), the proportion of M1 and M2 macrophages measured by flow cytometry were 33.17 % and 2.07 %, respectively. After G-M Gel treatment, the proportion of M1 macrophages decreased to 14.4 %, while the proportion of M2 macrophages increased significantly to 16.2 %. LPS treated macrophage conditioned medium inhibited the expression of osteogenic related factors (OCN, OPN, Runx2), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and alizarin red S (ARS) in MC3T3-E1 cells. In contrast, LPS + G-M Gel treated macrophage conditioned medium significantly increased the expression of osteogenic related factors, ALP and ARS. These results demonstrated that G-M Gel can augment bone formation by promoting the polarization of M2 macrophages, showing great potential clinical application of G-M Gel in bone regeneration field.

Geniposide ameliorates bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice by inhibiting TGF-β/Smad and p38MAPK signaling pathways

Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is an interstitial lung disease characterized by inflammation and fibrotic changes, with an unknown cause. In the early stages of PF, severe inflammation leads to the destruction of lung tissue, followed by upregulation of fibrotic factors like Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) and connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), which disrupt normal tissue repair. Geniposide, a natural iridoid glycoside primarily derived from the fruits of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, possesses various pharmacological activities, including liver protection, choleretic effects, and anti-inflammatory properties. In this study, we investigated the effects of Geniposide on chronic inflammation and fibrosis induced by bleomycin (BLM) in mice with pulmonary fibrosis (PF). PF was induced by intratracheal instillation of bleomycin, and Geniposide(100/50/25mg•kg-1) was orally administered to the mice once a day until euthanasia(14 day/28 day). The Raw264.7 cell inflammation induced by LPS was used to evaluate the effect of Geniposide on the activation of macrophage. Our results demonstrated that Geniposide reduced lung coefficients, decreased the content of Hydroxyproline, and improved pathological changes in lung tissue. It also reduced the number of inflammatory cells and levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of bleomycin-induced PF mice. At the molecular level, Geniposide significantly down-regulated the expression of TGF-β1, Smad2/3, p38, and CTGF in lung tissues of PF mice induced by bleomycin. Molecular docking results revealed that Geniposide exhibited good binding activity with TGF-β1, Smad2, Smad3, and p38. In vitro study showed Geniposide directly inhibited the activation of macrophage induced by LPS. In conclusion, our findings suggest that Geniposide can ameliorate bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice by inhibiting the TGF-β/Smad and p38MAPK signaling pathways.

GENIPOSIDE IMPROVES CLP-INDUCED SEPSIS MODEL PROGNOSIS BY UPREGULATING PPARγ TO MODULATE MONOCYTE PHENOTYPE AND CYTOKINE NETWORK

ABSTRACT

Background : We explored the efficacy and main biological mechanism of geniposide intervention in sepsis. Methods : A sepsis model was established in male BALB/c mice through cecal ligation and puncture (CLP). Different doses of geniposide (20 or 40 mg/kg) were administered intravenously at 0 and/or 24 h after CLP surgery. The survival rate of different groups was observed. In addition, the expression levels of CD16 and major histocompatibility complex class II in monocytes were assessed using flow cytometry. The concentrations of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10 in the serum were measured by ELISA. We also observed the biological effects of geniposide on CD16 and MHC-II expression levels in RAW264.7 cells, as well as the secretion of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10 in the LPS-induced RAW264.7 cell model. The PPARγ levels were determined using western blot analysis. Results : Intravenous administration of 40 mg/kg of geniposide at 0 h after CLP significantly improved the survival outcomes in the septic mouse model, with no significant benefits from low dosing (20 mg/kg) or delayed administration (24 h). The effective dose of geniposide significantly decreased the serum cytokine TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10 concentrations in septic mice ( P < 0.05). Notably, in vitro assays showed that geniposide specifically increased the IL-10 level. Geniposide significantly reduced the CD16 expression ( P < 0.05) and increased MHC-II expression in monocytes ( P < 0.05). In addition, geniposide elevated the PPARγ level in monocytes ( P < 0.05). Conclusions : High-dose early-stage geniposide administration significantly improved the survival rate in a CLP mouse sepsis model by modulating the monocyte phenotype and regulating the cytokine network (IL-6/IL-10 levels). The pharmacological mechanism of geniposide action might be exerted primarily through PPARγ upregulation.

Gardenia (Gardenia jasminoides Ellis) fruit: a critical review of its functional nutrients, processing methods, health-promoting effects, comprehensive application and future tendencies

Gardenia fruit (GF) is the mature fruit of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, boasting a rich array of nutrients and phytochemicals. Over time, GF has been extensively utilized in both food and medicinal contexts. In recent years, numerous studies have delved into the chemical constituents of GF and their associated pharmacological activities, encompassing its phytochemical composition and health-promoting properties. This review aims to provide a critical and comprehensive summary of GF research, covering nutrient content, extraction technologies, and potential health benefits, offering new avenues for future investigations and highlighting its potential as an innovative food resource. Additionally, the review proposes novel industrial applications for GF, such as utilizing gardenia yellow/red/blue pigments in the food industry and incorporating it with other herbs in traditional Chinese medicine. By addressing current challenges in developing GF-related products, this work provides insights for potential applications in the cosmetics, food, and health products industries. Notably, there is a need for the development of more efficient extraction methods to harness the nutritional components of GF fully. Further research is needed to understand the specific molecular mechanisms underlying its bioactivities. Exploring advanced processing techniques to create innovative GF-derived products will show great promise for the future.

Hedgehog signaling in tissue homeostasis, cancers, and targeted therapies

The past decade has seen significant advances in our understanding of Hedgehog (HH) signaling pathway in various biological events. HH signaling pathway exerts its biological effects through a complex signaling cascade involved with primary cilium. HH signaling pathway has important functions in embryonic development and tissue homeostasis. It plays a central role in the regulation of the proliferation and differentiation of adult stem cells. Importantly, it has become increasingly clear that HH signaling pathway is associated with increased cancer prevalence, malignant progression, poor prognosis and even increased mortality. Understanding the integrative nature of HH signaling pathway has opened up the potential for new therapeutic targets for cancer. A variety of drugs have been developed, including small molecule inhibitors, natural compounds, and long non-coding RNA (LncRNA), some of which are approved for clinical use. This review outlines recent discoveries of HH signaling in tissue homeostasis and cancer and discusses how these advances are paving the way for the development of new biologically based therapies for cancer. Furthermore, we address status quo and limitations of targeted therapies of HH signaling pathway. Insights from this review will help readers understand the function of HH signaling in homeostasis and cancer, as well as opportunities and challenges of therapeutic targets for cancer.

Network pharmacology-based analysis on geniposide, a component of gardenia jasminoides, beneficial effects to alleviate LPS-induced immune stress in piglets

Geniposide is the main medicinal component of Gardenia jasminoides, and its content is approximately 3-8% depending on its origin. Geniposide is a class of cyclic enol ether terpene glucoside compounds with strong antioxidant, free radical quenching and cancer-inhibiting activities. Many studies have reported that geniposide has hepatoprotective, cholestatic, neuroprotective, blood sugar and blood lipid regulation, soft tissue damage treatment, antithrombotic, antitumor and other effects. As a traditional Chinese medicine, gardenia, whether used as gardenia alone, as the monomer geniposide or as the effective part of cyclic either terpenoids, has been reported to have anti-inflammatory effects when used in the right amounts. Recent studies have found that geniposide has important roles in pharmacological activities such as anti-inflammation activity, inhibition of the NF-κB/IκB pathway, and cell adhesion molecule production. In this study, we predicted the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects of geniposide in piglets through network pharmacology based on the LPS-induced inflammatory response-regulated signaling pathway. The effects of geniposide on changes in inflammatory pathways and cytokine levels in the lymphocytes of inflammation-stressed piglets were investigated using in vivo and in vitro models of piglet lipopolysaccharide-induced oxidative stress. Network pharmacology identified 23 target genes, of which the main pathways of action were lipid and atherosclerosis, fluid shear stress and atherosclerosis, and Yersinia infection. The main relevant target genes were VEGFA, ROCK2, NOS3, and CCL2. Validation experiments showed that the interventional effects of geniposide reduced the relative expression of NF-κB pathway proteins and genes, restored the expression of COX-2 genes to normal levels, and increased the relative expression of tight junction proteins and genes in IPEC-J2 cells. This indicates that the addition of geniposide can alleviate inflammation and improve the level of cellular tight junctions.

4,8-dicarboxyl-8,9-iridoid-1-glycoside Promotes Neural Stem Cell Differentiation Through MeCP2

Background

Borojó (Borojoa patinoi Cuatrec) fruit has recently been shown to have a variety of health benefit, but the mechanisms have been little studied. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of 4,8-dicarboxyl-8,9-iridoid-1-glycoside (388) on proliferation and differentiation of embryonic neural stem cells (NSCs).

Methods

NSCs were treated with 388 and stem cell differentiation was determined by western blotting and immunofluorescence staining. The role of MeCP2 in 388-mediated embryonic NSCs differentiation was examined.

Results

The results showed that in the presence of mitogen when NSCs proliferated and maintained their multipotency, treatment with 388 did not affect the viability of NSCs. Following mitogen withdrawal to initiate NSC differentiation, treatment with 388 at the doses of 10 and 50 μg/mL significantly increased neural differentiation in both cortex and spinal cord-derived culture. 388 also significantly up-regulated MeCP2 expression. The expression of the neuronal and oligodendrocytic markers was enhanced after addition of 388 in the differentiation culture. However, knockdown of MeCP2 results in inhibition of NSC differentiation, and the pro-differentiation effect of 388 was mostly abolished.

Conclusions

This study confirmed that 388 stimulates differentiation of NSCs and identifies its mechanism of action by upregulating MeCP2.

Essential Oils of Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis and Gardenia jasminoides f. longicarpa Z.W. Xie & M. Okada Flowers: Chemical Characterization and Assessment of Anti-Inflammatory Effects in Alveolar Macrophage

Alveolar macrophage is the predominant cell type in the lung and is thought to be the major target for anti-inflammatory therapy in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Aromatherapy using natural essential oils with anti-inflammatory effects for inhalable administration is a potential complementary and alternative therapy for COPD treatment. The Gardenia jasminoides flower is famous for its fragrance in East Asia and is used for treating colds and lung problems in folk medicine. Therefore, in the present study, flower essential oils from two main medicinal gardenia varieties (G. jasminoides J. Ellis and G. jasminoides f. longicarpa Z.W. Xie & M. Okada) were extracted by hydro-distillation, and their chemical components were analyzed by GC-MS. The anti-inflammatory effects of the two essential oils and their main ingredients were further studied on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced models in murine alveolar macrophages (MH-S). The results indicated that the chemical constituents of the two gardenia varieties were quite different. Alcohol accounted for 53.8% of the G. jasminoides essential oil, followed by terpenes (16.01%). Terpenes accounted for 34.32% of the G. jasminoides f. longicarpa essential oil, followed by alcohols (19.6%) and esters (13.85%). Both the two gardenia essential oils inhibited the LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO) release and reduced the production of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) in the MH-S cells. Linalool and α-farnesene dose-dependently reduced the NO release in the MH-S cells. Linalool and α-farnesene did not affect the PGE2 production but regulated the expression of TNF- α. In addition to linalool and α-farnesene, other components in the gardenia flower essential oils appeared to be able to act as anti-inflammatory agents and influence the PGE2 pathway.

MiR-199-3p Suppressed Inflammatory Response by Targeting MECP2 to Alleviate TRX-Induced PHN in Mice

Varicella zoster virus–induced postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) can be alleviated by limited medications with serious side effects. This study aims to investigate the underlying molecular mechanism of miR-199-3p in mediating PHN in mice. 293T cells were transfected with miR-199-3p vectors (mimic/inhibitor). The target relationship between miR-199-3p and MECP2 was confirmed using luciferase reporter assay. PHN mouse model was established by TRX injection. Animal behaviors were evaluated using Hargreaves test and Von Frey test. Western blot was used for protein analysis, and quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction was performed for messenger RNA quantification. Serum levels of inflammatory mediators were determined using ELISA. Paw withdrawal latency (PWL) and mechanical withdrawal threshold (MWT) were decreased in resiniferatoxin-induced PHN mice. Downregulated miR-199-3p and upregulated MECP2 were found in PHN mice. Upregulated miR-199-3p increased PWL and MWT, but inhibited MECP2 in PHN mice. Besides, increased miR-199-3p suppressed proinflammatory indicators and activated anti-inflammatory mediators. It also found that MECP2 was the target of miR-199-3p. Further study showed miR-199-3p enhanced PWL and MWT, and supported inflammatory response via targeting MECP2. miR-199-3p regulated inflammation by targeting MECP2 to alleviate TRX-induced PHN in mice.

Methyl-CpG binding protein 2 is associated with the prognosis and mortality of elderly patients with hip fractures

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the expression level and clinical significance of Methyl-CpG binding Protein 2 (MECP2) in elderly patients with hip fractures.

METHODS

This prospective observational study included 367 elderly patients with hip fractures between April 2016 and December 2018. All the patients were treated with internal fixation or joint replacement. In addition, 50 healthy elderly individuals were enrolled as healthy controls. The serum levels of MECP2 and inflammatory factors Interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)-α was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Data on patients' basic characteristics and postoperative complications were collected. The Harris score was used to assess hip function at 1-month, 3-months, and 6-months after surgery. Patient quality of life was measured using the Barthel Index (BI) score 3-months after surgery. The 1-year mortality was analyzed using the Kaplan-Meier curve, and logical regression was used to analyze the risk factors for mortality.

RESULTS

No significant differences were observed in the basic clinical characteristics of all patients. The serum MECP2 levels were remarkably high in patients with hip fractures and negatively correlated with serum IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α levels. Patients with higher MECP2 predicted higher dynamic Harris scores, lower postoperative complications, lower 1-year mortality, and higher BI scores. Logical regression showed that age was the only independent risk factor for postoperative 1-year mortality in elderly patients with hip fractures.

CONCLUSION

Lower MECP2 predicted poor prognosis and higher 1-year mortality in elderly patients with hip fractures.

Metabolomics based comprehensive investigation of Gardeniae Fructus induced hepatotoxicity

Gardeniae Fructus (Zhizi in Chinese, ZZ in brief), a commonly used herbal medicine, has aroused wide concern for hepatotoxicity, but the mechanism remains to be investigated. This study was aimed at investigating the mechanism of ZZ-induced liver injury in vivo and in vitro based on metabolomics and evaluating the hepatotoxicity prediction ability of the in vitro model. SD rats were administered with extracted ZZ and HepG2 cells were treated with genipin, the major hepatotoxic metabolite of ZZ. Liver, plasma, intracellular and extracellular samples were obtained for metabolomics analysis. As a result, ZZ caused plasma biochemical and liver histopathological alterations in rats, and induced purine and amino acid metabolism disorder in the liver and pyrimidine, primary bile acids, amino acid metabolism and pantothenate and CoA biosynthesis disorder in the plasma. Pyrimidine, purine, amino acid metabolism and pantothenate and CoA biosynthesis were also found to be disturbed in the genipin-treated HepG2 cells, which exhibited similarity with the result in vivo. This study comprehensively illustrates the underlying mechanism involved in ZZ-related hepatotoxicity from the aspect of metabolome, and provides evidence that identifying hepatotoxicity can be achieved in cells, representing a non-animal alternative for systemic toxicology.

Geniposide suppresses liver injury in a mouse model of DDC-induced sclerosing cholangitis

Sclerosing cholangitis, characterized by biliary inflammation, fibrosis, and stricturing, remains one of the most challenging conditions of clinical hepatology. Geniposide (GE) has anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, and cholagogic effects. Whether GE provides inhibition on the development of sclerosing cholangitis is unknown. Here, we investigated the role of GE in a mouse model in which mice were fed with 3,5-diethoxycarbonyl-1,4-dihydrocollidine (DDC) for 4 weeks to induce sclerosing cholangitis. The results demonstrated that the increased hepatic gene expressions of pro-inflammatory (IL-6, VCAM-1, MCP-1, and F4/80) and profibrogenic markers (Col1α1, Col1α2, TGF-β, and α-SMA) in DDC feeding mice were reversed after treatment with GE. GE also suppressed expressions of CK19 and Ki67 in DDC-fed mice, suggesting that GE could ameliorate DDC-induced hepatocytes and cholangiocytes proliferation. In addition, GE significantly increased bile acids (BAs) secretion in bile, which correlated with induced expressions of hepatic FXR, BAs secretion transporters (BSEP, MRP2, MDR1, and MDR2), and reduced CYP7A1 mRNA expression. Furthermore, higher expressions of ileal FXR-FGF15 signaling and reduced ASBT were also observed after GE treatment. Taken together, these data showed that GE could modulate inflammation, fibrosis, and BAs homeostasis in DDC-fed mice, which lead to efficiently delay the progression of sclerosing cholangitis.

Diverse Pharmacological Activities and Potential Medicinal Benefits of Geniposide

Geniposide is a well-known iridoid glycoside compound and is an essential component of a wide variety of traditional phytomedicines, for example, Gardenia jasminoides Elli (Zhizi in Chinese), Eucommia ulmoides Oliv. (Duzhong in Chinese), Rehmannia glutinosa Libosch. (Dihuang in Chinese), and Achyranthes bidentata Bl. (Niuxi in Chinese). It is also the main bioactive component of Gardeniae Fructus, the dried ripe fruit of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis. Increasing pharmacological evidence supports multiple medicinal properties of geniposide including neuroprotective, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antidepressant-like, cardioprotective, antioxidant, immune-regulatory, antithrombotic, and antitumoral effects. It has been proposed that geniposide may be a drug or lead compound for the prophylaxis and treatment of several diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, diabetes and diabetic complications, ischemia and reperfusion injury, and hepatic disorders. The aim of the present review is to give a comprehensive summary and analysis of the pharmacological properties of geniposide, supporting its use as a medicinal agent.

Geniposide and Chlorogenic Acid Combination Ameliorates Non-alcoholic Steatohepatitis Involving the Protection on the Gut Barrier Function in Mouse Induced by High-Fat Diet

Gut-liver axis is increasingly recognized to be involved in the pathogenesis and progression of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). The gut microbiota and intestinal permeability have been demonstrated to be the key players in the gut-liver cross talk in NAFLD. Geniposide and chlorogenic acid (GC) combination is derived from a traditional Chinese medicine, Qushi Huayu Decoction (QHD), which has been used in clinic for NAFLD treatment for decades in China and validated in multiple animal models of NAFLD. GC combination previously has been demonstrated to treat NAFLD via modulation on the gut microbiota composition. In the present study, the effects of GC combination on gut barrier function in NAFLD were evaluated, and QHD and sodium butyrate (NaB), the intestinal mucosa protectant, were used as positive control. The therapeutic effect of GC combination on NAFLD were confirmed by amelioration on non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) induced by high-fat diet (HFD) in mouse, which was comparable to that of QHD. Simultaneously, GC combination was found to reduce the signaling of gut-derived lipopolysaccharide (LPS) including hepatic LPS binding protein, Toll like receptor 4, interleukin-1β, tumor necrosis factor –α, and Kupffer cells infiltration. Furthermore, GC combination reduced LPS and D-lactate in plasma, restoring the colonic tight junction (TJ) expression and inhibited colonic TJs disassembly by down-regulation on RhoA/ROCK signaling in NASH induced by HFD. On the other hand, NASH was also alleviated in NaB group. The results of the present study suggested the important role of protection on gut barrier function in NAFLD treatment, which contributed to the therapeutic effects of GC combination on NASH.

Development and Application of an UHPLC-MS/MS Method for Comparative Pharmacokinetic Study of Eight Major Bioactive Components from Yin Chen Hao Tang in Normal and Acute Liver Injured Rats

Yin Chen Hao Tang (YCHT) is one of the most famous hepatoprotective herbal formulas in China, but its pharmacokinetic investigation in model rats has been rarely conducted. In this study, the hepatic injury model was caused by intraperitoneal injections of carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄), and YCHT was orally administered to the model and normal rats. An ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) method was established to analyze the plasma pharmacokinetics of eight major bioactive ingredients from YCHT in both the normal and liver injured rats. The calibration curves presented good linearity (r > 0.9981) in the concentration range. The relative standard deviation (RSD%) of inter- and intraday precision was within 9.55%, and the accuracy (RE%) ranged from -10.72% to 2.46%. The extraction recovery, matrix effect, and stability were demonstrated to be within acceptable ranges. The lower limit of detection (LLOD) and lower limit of quantitation (LLOQ) were around 0.1 ng/mL and 0.5 ng/mL, respectively, which were much lower than those in other related researches. Results reveal that there are significant differences in the pharmacokinetics of scoparone, geniposide, rhein, aloe-emodin, physcion, and chrysophanol in hepatic injured rats as compared to those in control except for scopoletin and emodin. Our experimental results provide a meaningful reference for the clinical dosage of YCHT in treating liver disorders, and the improvement of LLOD and LLOQ can also broaden the range of our method's application, which is very suitable for quantitating these eight compounds with low levels.

Plant-Derived Anticancer Agents: Lessons from the Pharmacology of Geniposide and Its Aglycone, Genipin

For centuries, plants have been exploited by mankind as sources of numerous cancer chemotherapeutic agents. Good examples of anticancer compounds of clinical significance today include the taxanes (e.g., taxol), vincristine, vinblastine, and the podophyllotoxin analogues that all trace their origin to higher plants. While all these drugs, along with the various other available therapeutic options, brought some relief in cancer management, a real breakthrough or cure has not yet been achieved. This critical review is a reflection on the lessons learnt from decades of research on the iridoid glycoside geniposide and its aglycone, genipin, which are currently used as gold standard reference compounds in cancer studies. Their effects on tumour development (carcinogenesis), cancer cell survival, and death, with particular emphasis on their mechanisms of actions, are discussed. Particular attention is also given to mechanisms related to the dual pro-oxidant and antioxidant effects of these compounds, the mitochondrial mechanism of cancer cell killing through reactive oxygen species (ROS), including that generated through the uncoupling protein-2 (UCP-2), the inflammatory mechanism, and cell cycle regulation. The implications of various studies for the evaluation of glycosidic and aglycone forms of natural products in vitro and in vivo through pharmacokinetic scrutiny are also addressed.

Mechanistic insights into geniposide regulation of bile salt export pump (BSEP) expression

Geniposide (GE) is a major component isolated from Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, which has been used to treat cholestasis liver diseases. Our previous study has shown that GE could notably increase mRNA and protein expressions of BSEP in cholestatic rats. BSEP plays a critical role in maintenance of the enterohepatic circulation of bile acids. BSEP could be regulated by the transactivation pathway of farnesoid X receptor (FXR) and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor (Nrf2). Here the mechanisms for BSEP regulation by GE were investigated. GE induced the mRNA levels of BSEP in HepG2 cells and cholestatic mice, and knockdown of FXR and Nrf2 reduced the mRNA expression of BSEP at varying degrees after treatment of GE. FXR acts as the major regulator of BSEP transcription. The involvement of FXR regulated BSEP expression by GE was further investigated. An enhancement was observed in FXR-dependent BSEP promoter activation using luciferase assay. ChIP assay further confirmed the interaction between FXR and BSEP after GE treatment. Using siRNA and ChIP assays, we demonstrated that peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor γ co-activator-1α (PGC-1α) and co-activator-associated arginine methyltransferase 1 (CARM1) were predominantly recruited to the BSEP promoter upon FXR activation by GE. In conclusion, GE regulated the expression of BSEP through FXR and Nrf2 signaling pathway. The FXR transactivation pathway was enhanced by increasing recruitment of coactivators PGC-1α and CARM1 upon GE treatment, coupled with an increased binding of FXR to the BSEP promoter.

PGC-1α and CARM1 interact with FXR to increase FXR-dependent BSEP expression upon GE treatment.

Dissect new mechanistic insights for geniposide efficacy on the hepatoprotection using multiomics approach

A multi-omics approach could yield in-depth mechanistic insights. Here, we performed an integrated analysis of miRNAome, proteome and metabolome, aimed to investigate the underlying mechanism of active product geniposide in ethanol-induced apoptosis. We found that integrative meta-analysis identified 28 miRNAs, 20 proteins and 7 metabolites significantly differentially expressed, respectively. Further analysis identified geniposide extensively regulated multiple metabolism pathways and the most important related pathway was citrate cycle (TCA cycle). In addition, geniposide can improve energy metabolism benefits using the Extracellular Flux Analyzer. Of particular significance, miR-144-5p exhibits a high positive correlation with oxoglutaric acid, isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) 1 and 2 that involved in the TCA cycle. Furthermore,we discovered that miR-144-5p regulates TCA cycle metabolism through IDH1 and IDH2. Collectively, we describe for the first time the hepatoprotective effect of geniposide decreased miR-144-5p level, capable of regulating TCA cycle by directly targeting IDH1 and IDH2 and promoting functional consequences in cells. Integrating metabolomics, miRNAomics and proteomics approach and thereby analyzing microRNAs and proteins as well as metabolites can give valuable information about the functional regulation pattern and action mechanism of natural products.

MECP2 expression in gastric cancer and its correlation with clinical pathological parameters

This study is to investigate the expression of methyl CpG binding protein 2 (MECP2) in gastric cancer (GC) and its clinical significance.Expression of MECP2 was analyzed in 69 cases of GC tissues and 12 paracancerous tissues, either by qRT-PCR at the mRNA level or by Western blot and immunochemistry at the protein level. The correlation of MECP2 expression with clinicopathological parameters was analyzed in the 69 GC patients, and validated in data from the TCGA database. The effect of MECP2 expression on survival was also investigated.MECP2 was significantly increased at both mRNA and protein levels in GC compared with paracancerous tissues. MECP2 positive expression was significantly correlated with the TNM stages, histological types, and lymph node metastasis status, but was not correlated with sex or age. Significantly shorter overall survival and disease-free survival was observed in MECP2 positive GC cases compared with the MECP2 negative cases. Univariate and multivariate analyses showed that gender, histological type, lymph node metastasis, and MECP2 expression were independent prognostic factors of GC.The dysregulated expression of MECP2 in GC and its correlation to clinicopathological parameters indicate that MECP2 may regulate the development of GC.

Administration of geniposide ameliorates dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis in mice via inhibition of inflammation and mucosal damage

Ulcerative colitis (UC), an idiopathic inflammatory bowel disease, not only affects millions of patients worldwide, but also increases the risk of colon cancer. Geniposide is an iridoid glycoside and has many biological activities such as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant. However, its protective efficacy and mechanism of action against UC are still unclear. In this study, we aimed to investigate the protective effects and mechanisms of geniposide on dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced experimental colitis in mice. The results revealed that geniposide alleviated body weight loss, disease activity index, colon length shortening and colonic pathological damage induced by DSS. Geniposide significantly suppressed pro-inflammatory cytokines by regulating NF-κB and PPARγ pathways in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, geniposide also significantly regulated the expressions of ZO-1 and occludin in DSS-induced experimental colitis in mice and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-triggered inflammation in Caco-2 cells. These findings indicated that geniposide may be a new natural chemopreventive agent to combat UC.

Geniposide demonstrates anti-inflammatory and antiviral activity against pandemic A/Jiangsu/1/2009 (H1N1) influenza virus infection in vitro and in vivo

BACKGROUND

Influenza A viruses (IAVs) have been a great threat to human health for centuries, without effective control. Geniposide, a main iridoid glycoside compound extracted from Gardenia jasminoides Ellis fruit, possesses various biological activities including anti-inflammation and anti-virus.

METHODS

Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells were infected with pandemic A/Jiangsu/1/2009 (H1N1) influenza virus in vitro. Cytotoxicity and antiviral activity of geniposide were estimated by MTT assay. The influenza respiratory tract infection murine model was established by intranasal instillation of pandemic A/Jiangsu/1/2009 (H1N1) influenza virus. One day after infection, the mice were administered with geniposide (5, 10 or 20 mg/kg/day) or the neuraminidase inhibitor (NAI) peramivir (30 mg/kg/day). Body weight, survival time, viral titre and lung index of the mice were measured. The sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to examine levels of inflammatory cytokines.

RESULTS

The data showed that geniposide had little cytotoxicity on MDCK cells and protected them from pandemic A/Jiangsu/1/2009 (H1N1) influenza virus-induced cell injury. In the infected mice, geniposide treatment significantly restored the body weights, decreased the mortality, alleviated viral titres and virus-induced lung lesions. Geniposide substantially inhibited the virus-induced alveolar wall changes, alveolar haemorrhage and neutrophil-infiltration in lung tissues. Levels of inflammatory mediators, including tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interferon-γ (IFN-γ), interleukin (IL)-4, IL-6 and IL-10 were also markedly altered after treatment with geniposide.

CONCLUSIONS

Our investigation suggested that geniposide effectively inhibited cell damage mediated by pandemic A/Jiangsu/1/2009 (H1N1) influenza virus and mitigated virus-induced acute inflammation.

Chemistry and bioactivity of Gardenia jasminoides

Gardenia jasminoides, grown in multiple regions in China, was commonly used as a natural yellow dye but has been one of the popular traditional Chinese medicines since the discovery of its biological property a few decades ago. It has been reported that G. jasminoides possess multiple biological activities, such as antioxidant properties, hypoglycemic effect, inhibition of inflammation, antidepression activity, and improved sleeping quality. In this review, our aim was to have a comprehensive summary of its phytochemistry including the extraction, isolation, and characterization of volatiles and bioactive molecules in G. jasminoides, focusing on the two major phytochemicals, genipin and crocin, which possess potent medicinal properties. Furthermore, this study attempted to establish a structure–activity relationship between the two major series of molecules with two pharmcophores and their biological activities, which would serve further exploration of the properties of phytocompounds in G. jasminoides as potential functional foods and medicines.

Geniposide reverses multidrug resistance in vitro and in vivo by inhibiting the efflux function and expression of P-glycoprotein

Geniposide is a water-soluble iridoid glucoside with anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory biological functions. It has been indicated that geniposide may increase doxorubicin (DOX) accumulation in drug-resistant tumor cells. The present study aimed to investigate the resistance-reversing effect of geniposide in DOX-resistant cells and assess the underlying mechanisms of its action. The results revealed that geniposide itself weakly inhibited tumor cell growth. Furthermore, geniposide effectively reversed DOX resistance in a dose-dependent manner in human osteosarcoma DOX-resistant (MG63/DOX) cells. The action of geniposide was confirmed by increased accumulation of intracellular DOX detected in MG63/DOX cells. Notably, geniposide enhanced the efficacy of DOX against MG63/DOX cancer cell-derived xenografts in nude mice. To study the mechanism, intracellular accumulation of rhodamine 123 was measured using flow cytometry. At concentrations that reversed multidrug resistance (MDR), geniposide significantly downregulated P-glycoprotein (P-gp) expression. Therefore, geniposide reverses P-gp-mediated MDR by reducing the expression of P-gp and its transport function. The present study therefore indicated that geniposide may be administered in combination with conventional anti-neoplastic drugs to prevent MDR.

Evaluation of the Antidepressant Activity, Hepatotoxicity and Blood Brain Barrier Permeability of Methyl Genipin

Geniposide (GE) is the main bioactive component of Gardeniae Fructus. The hepatotoxicity of geniposide limited clinical application. In order to get a new geniposide derivative that has less hepatotoxicity and still possesses the antidepressant activity, a new C-1 hydroxyl methylation derivative named methyl genipin (MG) was synthesized from geniposide. In the present study, we demonstrated that MG did not increase the liver index, alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspirate aminotransferase (AST). Histopathological examination suggested that no toxic damages were observed in rats treated orally with MG (0.72 mmol/kg). More importantly, a 7-day treatment with MG at 0.13, 0.26, and 0.52 mmol/kg/day could reduce the duration of immobility. It showed that the antidepressant-like effects of MG were similar to GE in the tail suspension test and the forced swim test. Furthermore, we found MG could be detected in the brain homogenate of mice treated orally with MG 0.52 mmol/kg/day for 1 day by HPLC. The area under the curve (AUC) of MG in the brain homogenate was enhanced to 21.7 times that of GE. The brain amount and distribution speed of MG were improved significantly after oral administration. This study demonstrated that MG possessed the antidepressant effects and could cross the blood–brain barrier, but had less hepatotoxicity.