A Randomized Controlled Trial of Interventions for Growth Suppression in Children With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Treated With Central Nervous System Stimulants

Managing Growth Deceleration Associated With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Stimulant-Induced Appetite Suppression

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has been diagnosed in 9.8% of children ages 3 to 17 years in the United States according to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention data from 2016 to 2019, and 62% of children with ADHD take medication as part of their treatment.1 Due to their well-established safety profile and high efficacy, central nervous system stimulants are used as first-line treatment for symptom reduction in children with ADHD.2 For each patient, benefits of stimulant medications must be weighed against risks, which may include appetite suppression and weight loss in children. Since the benefits of stimulants were first established, concern has grown for stimulant-associated growth deceleration and shorter adult height.

The Effects of Chronic Psychostimulant Administration on Bone Health: A Review

(1) Background: Methylphenidate (MP) and amphetamine (AMP) are psychostimulants that are widely prescribed to treat Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy. In recent years, 6.1 million children received an ADHD diagnosis, and nearly 2/3 of these children were prescribed psychostimulants for treatment. The purpose of this review is to summarize the current literature on psychostimulant use and the resulting effects on bone homeostasis, biomechanical properties, and functional integrity. (2) Methods: Literature searches were conducted from Medline/PubMed electronic databases utilizing the search terms "methylphenidate" OR "amphetamine" OR "methylphenidate" AND "bone health" AND "bone remodeling" AND "osteoclast" AND "osteoblast" AND "dopamine" from 01/1985 to 04/2023. (3) Results: Of the 550 publications found, 44 met the inclusion criteria. Data from identified studies demonstrate that the use of MP and AMP results in decreases in specific bone properties and biomechanical integrity via downstream effects on osteoblasts and osteoclast-related genes. (4) Conclusions: The chronic use of psychostimulants negatively affects bone integrity and strength as a result of increased osteoclast activity. These data support the need to take this into consideration when planning the treatment type and duration for bone fractures.

Micronutrients for ADHD in youth (MADDY) study: comparison of results from RCT and open label extension

BACKGROUND

The Micronutrients for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Youth (MADDY) study evaluated the efficacy and safety of a multinutrient formula for children with ADHD and emotional dysregulation. The post-RCT open-label extension (OLE) compared the effect of treatment duration (8 weeks vs 16 weeks) on ADHD symptoms, height velocity, and adverse events (AEs).

METHODS

Children aged 6-12 years randomized to multinutrients vs. placebo for 8 weeks (RCT), received an 8-week OLE for a total of 16 weeks. Assessments included the Clinical Global Impression-Improvement (CGI-I), Child and Adolescent Symptom Inventory-5 (CASI-5), Pediatric Adverse Events Rating Scale (PAERS), and anthropometric measures (height and weight).

RESULTS

Of the 126 in the RCT, 103 (81%) continued in the OLE. For those initially assigned to placebo, CGI-I responders increased from 23% in the RCT to 64% in the OLE; those who took multinutrients for 16 weeks increased from 53% (RCT) to 66% responders (OLE). Both groups improved on the CASI-5 composite score and subscales from week 8 to week 16 (all p-values < 0.01). The group taking 16 weeks of multinutrients had marginally greater height growth (2.3 cm) than those with 8 weeks (1.8 cm) (p = 0.07). No difference in AEs between groups was found.

CONCLUSION

The response rate to multinutrients by blinded clinician ratings at 8 weeks was maintained to 16 weeks; the response rate in the group initially assigned to placebo improved significantly with 8 weeks of multinutrients and almost caught up with 16 weeks. Longer time on multinutrients did not result in greater AEs, confirming an acceptable safety profile.

Editorial: Height and Stimulant Treatment in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Youth: Mind the Gap

In this issue of the Journal, the important story of height and weight issues related to stimulant medication in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is yet again addressed, in the largest study to date.1 Controversy related to potential growth decrements in youth with ADHD receiving stimulants has been around for decades. In fact, in a quick PubMed search of the literature, we identified more than 100 studies, 15 reviews, and meta-analyses in this area. In a general score card, about three-fourths of studies seem to support some degree of decrement, but clinical significance has yet to be determined. What is not being debated anymore is the short- and longer-term effectiveness of stimulants for ADHD with reductions in mood disorders, suicide, substance use/disorders, criminality, motor vehicle accidents, injuries, concussions, and academic failure documented in the Swedish and other register studies.2 Many of these improvements are linked with a decrease in major morbidity and even mortality. Hence, we need to put the issue of potential stimulant-related growth velocity changes in the context of the very real adverse outcomes associated with non-treatment of ADHD.

Growth Trajectories in Stimulant Treated Children and Adolescents: A Qualitative Review of the Literature from Comprehensive Datasets and Registries

Objective: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) treatment with stimulant products has been shown to be safe and effective; however, there are remaining concerns about their possible adverse effects on growth trajectories. We conducted a systematic review of the extant literature derived from ecologically valid databases and registries to assess the body of knowledge about the effects of stimulants on growth trajectories in naturalistic samples. Methods: Using PubMed and PsycINFO, we searched for articles published before February 8, 2023 that focused on growth findings associated with stimulant treatment in pediatric ADHD from comprehensive datasets derived from naturalistic population studies. Results: Of the 1070 articles initially identified, 12 met all inclusion criteria. Sample sizes ranged from 157 to 163,820 youths. Seven of 10 articles examining height found significant decreases in height associated with chronic stimulant treatment that normalized over time in 2 studies. Three articles found no significant association between stimulant treatment and height. No clear associations were identified between cumulative duration and dose of stimulant treatment and adult height. All articles examining weight and six of eight articles examining body mass index (BMI) found significant initial decreases that tended to normalize then increase over time. Longer duration of stimulant medication use was predominantly associated with significant weight and BMI reductions. The effects of stimulant dose on weight and BMI were mostly weak and clinically insignificant. Most studies found no significant association between age at start of stimulant treatment and change in height, weight, or BMI. Most studies did not find significant sex effects in relation to growth parameters. Conclusions: This review of ecologically informative samples revealed that the effects of stimulant treatment on growth trajectories are mainly small and transient. These effects seem to be clinically insignificant for most youth with ADHD who receive stimulant treatment from childhood onto adolescence and adulthood.

Methylphenidate Promotes Premature Growth Plate Closure: In Vitro Evidence

It is well known that patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder treated with stimulants, such as methylphenidate hydrochloride (MPH), have reduced height and weight. Even though MPH has an anorexigenic effect, an additional impact of this drug on the growth plate cannot be discarded. In this study, we aimed to determine the cellular effect of MPH on an in vitro growth plate model. We tested the effects of MPH on the viability and proliferation of a prechondrogenic cell line via an MTT assay. In vitro differentiation of this cell line was performed, and cell differentiation was evaluated through the expression of cartilage- and bone-related genes as measured via RT-PCR. MPH did not alter the viability or proliferation of prechondrogenic cells. However, it reduced the expression of cartilage extracellular matrix-related genes (type II collagen and aggrecan) and increased the expression of genes involved in growth plate calcification (Runx2, type I collagen, and osteocalcin) at different phases of their differentiation process. Our results evidence that MPH upregulates genes associated with growth plate hypertrophic differentiation. This may induce premature closure of the growth plate, which would contribute to the growth retardation that has been described to be induced by this drug.

Micronutrients for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Youths: A Placebo-Controlled Randomized Clinical Trial

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate whether micronutrients (vitamins/minerals) benefit attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and irritability in a North American pediatric sample.

METHOD

A 3-site, 8-week, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial of micronutrients was conducted in nonmedicated children aged 6 to 12 years with ADHD and at least 1 impairing irritability symptom by parent report on the Child and Adolescent Symptom Inventory-5 (CASI-5). A priori-defined primary outcomes were Clinical Global Impression-Improvement (CGI-I) (CGI-I of 1 or 2 = treatment responder) and parent-rated CASI-5 composite score of ADHD, oppositional defiant, disruptive mood dysregulation, and peer conflict symptoms, including impairment scores.

RESULTS

Of 135 randomized (mean age 9.8 years), 126 youths (93%) comprised the modified intention-to-treat population. Blinding was maintained. For the CGI-I, 54% of the micronutrient and 18% of the placebo group were responders (risk ratio = 2.97, 97.5% CI = 1.50, 5.90, p < .001). CASI-5 composite scores improved significantly for both groups (p < .01), with a mean change of -0.31 (95% CI = -0.39, -0.23) in the micronutrient group and a mean change of -0.28 (95% CI = -0.38, -0.19) in the placebo group. However, the between-group difference was not significant (mean change = -0.02; 97.5% CI = -0.16, 0.12, effect size = 0.07, p = .70). The micronutrient group grew 6 mm more than the placebo group (p = .002). No serious adverse events or clinically significant changes from baseline in blood and urine tests occurred.

CONCLUSION

Micronutrients showed global benefit over placebo by blinded clinician rating, but not by parent-report CASI-5 composite rating in a population with ADHD and irritability. Micronutrients showed greater height growth. Micronutrients were well tolerated, and the majority of participants adhered to the number of capsules prescribed. This randomized controlled trial replicates safety and efficacy reported for ADHD in 2 smaller trials of a similar formula containing all vitamins and known essential minerals in amounts between the Recommended Dietary Allowance and Upper Tolerable Intake Level.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION INFORMATION

Micronutrients for ADHD in Youth (MADDY) Study; https://clinicaltrials.gov; NCT03252522.

Predictors of Changes in Height, Weight, and Body Mass Index After Initiation of Central Nervous System Stimulants in Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

OBJECTIVE

To identify predictors of changes in height, weight, and body mass index (BMI) in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) starting central nervous system (CNS) stimulants.

STUDY DESIGN

There were 230 medication-naïve children aged 5-12 years with ADHD who participated in a randomized trial evaluating the impact of CNS stimulants on growth over 30 months. This observational analysis focused on the 141 participants using study medication for 65 or more days in the first 6-months after starting medication. Biometric variables, ADHD, and oppositional defiant disorder symptom scores at medication initiation, and medication use over the study were examined as predictors of changes in standardized (z) height, weight, and BMI.

RESULTS

Mean changes in z-BMI, z-weight. and z-height were negative throughout the study. The most consistent predictors of change in z-BMI, z-weight, and z-height were percent days medicated and total medication exposure. Children with lower z-height and z-weight at medication initiation experienced greater z-BMI and z-weight decreases over the first 6 months on medication. Greater appetite suppression during dose optimization predicted greater decreases in z-weight over the entire study and a greater decrease in z-height over the first 6 months on medication. z-weight change correlated with z-height change. Behavioral symptoms did not predict changes in z-BMI, z-weight, or z-height.

CONCLUSIONS

How much and how often CNS stimulants are used predicts changes in z-BMI, z-weight, and z-height in children. Even smaller and lighter children may be at risk for decreases in z-weight and z-BMI. Parent ratings of appetite during dose titration may serve as feasible indicators of future weight and height change in children using CNS stimulants.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Clinicialtrials.gov: NCT01109849.

Sex-Specific Long-Term Height and Body Mass Index Trajectories of Children Diagnosed with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Treated with Stimulants

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the sex-specific effects of stimulants in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on body mass index (BMI) z and height z trajectories.

STUDY DESIGN

A retrospective cohort study using the database of Israel Clalit Health Services was performed. Participants included 5- to 18-year-old insured patients with documentation of at least 2 consecutive prescriptions of stimulant drugs for ADHD. Participants were further compared with sex- and age-matched insured control patients without ADHD.

RESULTS

A total of 4561 (66% boys) participants with ADHD were included. Of these, 2151 (70% boys) had follow-up data for ≥2 years of treatment. A decline of ≥1 SD in height and BMI z score was observed in 10.1% and 13.2% of the cohort, respectively. During ≥2 years follow-up, boys had a greater decline in height z score (~0.2 SD) than girls (~0.06 SD). Boys' height z score continued to decline after 1 and ≥2 years, and girls' height z score declined after 1 year, and then stabilized. The trajectory of BMI z score of boys and girls was similar, showing a greater decline after 1 year, followed by an incline after ≥2 years. Younger age at stimulants initiation, better adherence, longer treatment duration, and lower socioeconomic status were correlated with a greater impact on growth attenuation. The non-ADHD group (n = 4561, 66% boys) had baseline height z score and BMI z score similar to those in children with ADHD before treatment initiation. Height z score and BMI z score were greater in children without ADHD compared with children with ADHD following 1 year of treatment (P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings highlight the importance of growth monitoring accompanied with dietary counseling in children with ADHD treated with stimulants.

In vivo imaging of dopamine D1 receptor and activated microglia in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a positron emission tomography study

Alterations in the cortical dopamine system and microglial activation have been implicated in the pathophysiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), one of neurodevelopmental disorders that can be conventionally treated with a dopamine enhancer (methylphenidate) albeit unsatisfactorily. Here, we investigated the contributions of the dopamine D1 receptor (D1R) and activated microglia and their interactions to the clinical severities in ADHD individuals using positron emission tomography (PET). Twenty-four psychotropic-naïve ADHD individuals and 24 age- and sex-matched typically developing (TD) subjects underwent PET measurements with [¹¹C]SCH23390 for the D1R and [¹¹C](R)PK11195 for activated microglia as well as assessments of clinical symptoms and cognitive functions. The ADHD individuals showed decreased D1R in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and increased activated microglia in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) compared with the TD subjects. The decreased D1R in the ACC was associated with severe hyperactivity in the participants with ADHD. Microglial activation in the DLPFC were associated with deficits in processing speed and attentional ability, and that in the OFC was correlated with lower processing speed in the ADHD individuals. Furthermore, positive correlations between the D1R and activated microglia in both the DLPFC and the OFC were found to be significantly specific to the ADHD group and not to the TD group. The current findings suggest that microglial activation and the D1R reduction as well as their aberrant interactions underpin the neurophysiological mechanism of ADHD and indicate these biomolecular changes as a novel therapeutic target.

Impact of CNS Stimulants for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder on Growth: Epidemiology and Approaches to Management in Children and Adolescents

Central nervous system stimulants are established treatments for pediatric attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder with robust efficacy data. Reductions in appetite, weight, and growth velocity are some of the most common concerns regarding the long-term use of central nervous system stimulants in developing children. They are associated with suppression of weight and body mass index in childhood. However, both weight and body mass index often progressively increase over adolescence at rates faster than those seen in non-attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder youth to the degree that attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is associated with elevated body mass index by the end of adolescence regardless of medication use. The capacity of central nervous system stimulants to slow growth was identified 50 years ago. Recent work has established that the growth deficits accumulate during the first 2 years of use and may persist provided medication is used. Early initiation coupled with persistent use through adolescence is most likely to be associated with clinical impactful growth suppression. There has been limited formal investigation of treatments for stimulant-associated reductions in weight and height. The most robust evidence exists for drug holidays improving weight gain. Observational studies suggest that limiting lifetime exposure or discontinuing medication is associated with greater adult height. Additional research is needed to identify the causal mechanisms driving the observed slowing in growth as well as the identification of predictors of clinically impactful growth suppression.

ADHD and Drug Holidays: Effects on Anthropometric Changes during Methylpenidate Treatment

OBJECTIVES

The current study evaluated the long-term effects of methylphenidate (MPH) discontinuation on growth parameters in Turkish children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

432 children and adolescents (aged 6-18 years) with ADHD receiving MPH for at least 1 year between March 2012 and January 2019 were included in a retrospective cohort study. We analyzed weight, height, and body mass index (BMI) standard deviation z scores (SDS) of groups that either did (ADHD-C) or did not (ADHD-DC) discontinue MPH. Growth parameters were converted to z scores as normative values for the Turkish population to compare the measurements at baseline and the last follow-up visit by using the paired sample t-test.

PRINCIPAL OBSERVATIONS

In patients from the ADHD-C group, statistically significant negative correlations were found between age at starting MPH and differences in weight and height SDS between baseline and follow-up. Children had a greater reduction in weight and height compared to adolescents. When we evaluated the differences in pre-and post-treatment growth factors, we found no significant differences between the groups in terms of growth parameters.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data showed that chronic use of MPH was likely responsible for changes in height and weight parameters.

The Impact of Persistent Irritability on the Medication Treatment of Paediatric Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

This study compares the efficacy and tolerability of central nervous system (CNS) stimulants in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with and without prominent irritability (IRR) over the course of 30 months. This is a secondary analysis of a study examining growth patterns in medication naïve children with ADHD subsequently treated with CNS stimulants (predominantly OROS-Methylphenidate, up to 54 mg per day) for 30 months. Participants had to meet full diagnostic criteria for ADHD and been treated with CNS stimulants for under 30 days. Children were classified as IRR if they were rated as pretty much or very much on either of the "often angry" or easily annoyed" items plus "lose temper," items of the Disruptive Behavior Disorders Rating Scale (DBDRS). Structured ratings of ADHD symptoms, impairment, side effects, and symptoms of oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) were collected every 2-12 weeks for the duration of the study. Medication use was measured by pill count and parent report. The IRR group comprised 28% of all participants. The IRR group had significantly higher levels of ADHD and ODD symptoms, impairment, and side effects ratings at baseline. In the IRR group, ODD symptoms, emotional lability, and impairment significantly decreased for participants with higher medication use. Total side effects increased for non-IRR participants with higher medication use. Emotional side effects decreased for IRR participants with higher medication use. Central nervous system stimulants were a tolerable and efficacious treatment in treatment naïve youth with ADHD with irritability. Clinical Trials Registration: NCT01109849.

Height, weight, and cardiovascular effects of stimulants on children with brain tumors

INTRODUCTION

Children with brain tumors may develop inattention, slow processing, and hypersomnia. Stimulant medications improve these problems, but their effect on growth, heart rate, and blood pressure (BP) are inadequately explored.

PROCEDURE

We retrospectively studied children with brain tumors treated at our institution that had data available for 1 year pre and 2 years on stimulant treatment. Tumor location, gender, radiation treatment (RT), age at RT, drug type, and hormone therapy were variables of interest.

RESULTS

We identified 65 children (35 males) that fulfilled eligibility criteria. Focal RT was utilized in 58; 11 additionally had whole brain RT; and seven received no RT. Thirty were treated for hypersomnia and inattention, eight for hypersomnia alone, and rest for inattention. Modafinil was the first drug in 18 (27.7%), and methylphenidate in the others. Forty-seven (72.3%), 45 (69.2%), and 49 (75.4%) were on thyroxine, cortisone, and growth hormones, respectively. There was no difference in pre- and post-stimulant body mass index (BMI), heart rate, and BP. There was also no difference between modafinil and methylphenidate groups. Rate of height acquisition slowed on stimulants (P = .0096). Thyroxine treatment correlated with increase in BMI after stimulants (P = .04). Younger age (P = .0003) and higher prestimulant BMI (P = .0063) correlated with increased heart rate on stimulants, while higher age at RT (P =.016) correlated with elevated systolic BP on stimulants. No associations were found with height acquisition and diastolic BP.

CONCLUSION

Stimulants are well tolerated by children with brain tumors that are appropriately managed for endocrine deficiencies, but may reduce the trajectory of height attainment.

Intentional Discontinuation of Psychostimulants Used to Treat ADHD in Youth: A Review and Analysis

Objectives: This paper reviews the literature on intentional discontinuation of psychostimulants in ADHD to summarize what is known about clinical course of controlled discontinuation and guide practitioners who are considering stopping these medications for youth with ADHD. Methods: A systematic search was executed in Cochrane CENTRAL, EMBASE, Psychinfo, and MEDLINE databases to identify all articles that addressed the topic of deprescribing of psychotropic medications in children and adolescents. Keywords and search strings were developed using "PICO" framework, involving Population of interest (<18 y.o.), Intervention ("discontinuation," "deprescribing," and synonyms), Comparator (continuation of specific medications), and Outcomes. Ten reviewers conducted the initial screen via a single reviewer system. Articles that met a set of three inclusionary criteria were selected for full text review and identification as specific to discontinuation of stimulants in ADHD. Results: The literature review identified 35 articles specifically addressing intentional deprescribing, discontinuation, tapering, or withdrawal of stimulants for children and adolescents with ADHD. In addition to providing broad support for the efficacy of stimulants to treat ADHD and reduce negative outcomes, there is a distinct population of children and adolescents with ADHD who do not relapse or deteriorate when taken off medications for ADHD. The majority of articles addressed either the re-emergence of ADHD symptoms or side effects, both desired and adverse, following discontinuation of stimulants. While confirming the ability of stimulants to treat ADHD in youth, our results support periodic consideration of trials of stopping medications to determine continued need. Conclusions: This systematic review summarizes the literature on deprescribing stimulants for ADHD in children and adolescents. Further research is needed to determine the optimal duration of treatment, identify patients that may benefit from medication discontinuation, and inform evidence-based guidelines for discontinuation when appropriate. More research is needed to understand and define the subgroup of youth who may succeed with stimulant discontinuation.

Editorial: Two Centimeters More or Less. How Much Does It Matter to an Adolescent or a Young Adult With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder?

Stimulants are the first-line medication for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and methylphenidate (MPH) is the first choice in Europe, with good efficacy and acceptable tolerability in a short-term course during childhood and adolescence.¹ ADHD is, however a chronic condition, and patients can receive pharmacological treatment for a long period of time with understandable concerns related to long-term risks. Beside the well-known mild and transient adverse effects (ie, sleep disturbance, nervousness, anorexia, headache, and abdominal pain), in the last decade, emphasis has been placed on several less common, but potentially more serious, effects occurring with prolonged use, and in particular on a possible drug-related impact of medications on growth and pubertal maturation.

The Role of Parental Knowledge and Attitudes about ADHD and Perceptions of Treatment Response in the Treatment Utilization of Families of Children with ADHD

The present study examined the impact of parental knowledge and attitudes about attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and parental perceptions of treatment response on the utilization of behavioral and pharmacological ADHD treatments, using data from a longitudinal treatment study designed to assess physical growth in children with ADHD. It also explored if these relations were moderated by race/ethnicity. Participants include 230 (74% Hispanic) families of treatment naïve children with ADHD (M age = 7.56, SD = 1.94; 73% male). Families were randomly assigned to receive behavior therapy (BT) or stimulant medication (MED; which also included low dose BT). After 6 months, families whose children still showed at least moderate impairment had access to either treatment for a total of 30 months. Utilization was measured using the number of BT sessions attended and total mg of MED taken over the study period. Families who reported more willingness to use medication for their child's ADHD at baseline were more likely to use MED and less likely to use BT, regardless of race/ethnicity. Parental knowledge about ADHD was only important in predicting BT utilization for White non-Hispanic families. Greater reduction in ADHD symptoms and impairment significantly predicted more MED utilization for Hispanic families. Results highlight the need to explore multiple parent (e.g., medication willingness) and child (e.g., symptom severity) factors when considering treatment utilization. Results also highlight ethnic differences in which factors affect treatment utilization.