U-BIOPRED clinical adult asthma clusters linked to a subset of sputum omics

Sex differences in asthma: omics evidence and future directions

Asthma is a common and complex heterogeneous disease, with prevalence and severity varying across different age groups and sexes. Over the past few decades, with the development of high-throughput technologies, various "omics" analyses have emerged and been applied to asthma research, providing us with significant opportunities to study the genetic mechanisms underlying asthma. However, despite these advancements, the differences and specificities in the genetic mechanisms of asthma between sexes remain to be fully explored. Moreover, clinical guidelines have yet to incorporate or recommend sex-specific asthma management based on high-quality omics evidence. In this article, we review recent omics-level findings on sex differ-ences in asthma and discuss how to better integrate these multidimensional findings to generate further insights and advance the precision and effectiveness of asthma treatment.

Leptin augments IL-13-induced airway eotaxins and submucosal eosinophilia in obesity-associated asthma

BACKGROUND

Airway tissue eosinophilia can be an observed feature of obesity-associated type 2 (T2) asthma, but the processes mediating this inflammation are unknown.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate a process whereby leptin, an adipokine elevated in obesity, potentiates pulmonary eosinophilia and eotaxin production by airway fibroblasts in T2 asthma.

METHODS

We assessed associations between body mass index and airway eosinophilia as well as leptin and eotaxin production in 82 participants with asthma, 37 of whom exhibited obesity. Cultured human airway fibroblasts and mouse models of chronic allergic airway disease were used to evaluate leptin's effect on eotaxin production and lung eosinophilia. The role of IL-13 receptor alpha 2 (IL-13Rα2) in mediating these processes was examined using specific neutralizing antibodies in vitro.

RESULTS

In participants with T2 asthma and obesity, we observed that airway tissue eosinophilia did not associate with traditional T2 inflammation metrics such as peripheral and/or bronchoalveolar lavage fluid eosinophil counts or with fractional exhaled nitric oxide. Alternatively, we observed elevated bronchoalveolar lavage fluid leptin and eotaxin-1 levels. In airway fibroblasts from participants with asthma, leptin augmented IL-13-induced eotaxin-1 and eotaxin-3 production and IL13RA2 expression. In mice, elevated leptin promoted airway IL-13Rα2 and eotaxin production by lung fibroblasts and lung tissue eosinophilia following chronic house dust mite allergen exposure. Inhibition of IL-13Rα2 reduced combined leptin and IL-13-stimulated eotaxin secretion by human airway fibroblasts.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified a potential association explaining airway tissue eosinophil retention in obesity-associated T2 asthma through leptin-mediated enhancement of IL-13-induced eosinophil chemokine production by airway fibroblasts, a process requiring IL-13Rα2.

Lung proteomic and metabolomic changes induced by carbon black nanoparticles and high humidity in a mouse asthma model

Allergic asthma is a significant international concern in respiratory health, which can be exacerbated by the increasing levels of non-allergenic pollutants. This rise in airborne pollutants is a primary driver behind the growing prevalence of asthma, posing a health emergency. Additionally, climatic risk factors can contribute to the onset and progression of asthma. Understanding the complex interplay between pollution, climate, and asthma induction is crucial to elucidate how environmental changes intensify asthma. In this study, we investigated the proteomic and metabolomic changes in the lungs of a mouse asthma model following co-exposure to carbon black nanoparticles and high humidity, which represent airborne and climatic factors, respectively. An asthma model was established using ovalbumin, and mice were intratracheally instilled with 15 or 30 μg/kg of carbon black and simultaneously exposed to either 70% or 90% relative humidity. Protein and metabolite profiles from the lung were used to analyze the most significantly changed clusters, and potential biomarkers and enriched pathways were identified to dissect the adverse effects of the two risk factors. The lung proteome and metabolome are significantly altered by the co-exposure, with the effects modulated by carbon black concentration and humidity level. This study proposes 10 proteins and 18 metabolites as candidate biomarkers. The significantly enriched KEGG pathways include one protein pathway (primary immunodeficiency) and six metabolic pathways (ABC transporters, nucleotide metabolism, Parkinson's disease, purine metabolism, choline metabolism in cancer, and biosynthesis of cofactors). A joint proteomic and metabolomic analysis identifies five common pathways across both omics, namely, ABC transporters, central carbon metabolism in cancer, EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor resistance, glioma, and NF-kappa B signaling pathway, disturbed by the co-exposure. We provide a multi-omic basis for the health risk assessment and management of co-exposures to environmental risk factors.

Asthma Phenotypes and Biomarkers

Asthma experienced by both adults and children is a phenotypically heterogeneous condition. Severe asthma, characterized by ongoing symptoms and airway inflammation despite high doses of inhaled and/or systemic corticosteroids, is the focus of research efforts to understand this underlying heterogeneity. Clinical phenotypes in both adult and pediatric asthma have been determined using supervised definition-driven classification and unsupervised data-driven clustering methods. Efforts to understand the underlying inflammatory patterns of severe asthma have led to the seminal discovery of type 2-high versus type 2-low phenotypes and to the development of biologics targeted at type 2-high inflammation to reduce the rates of severe asthma exacerbations. Type 2-high asthma is characterized by upregulation of T helper 2 immune pathways including interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5, and IL-13 along with eosinophilic airway inflammation, sometimes allergic sensitization, and responsiveness to treatment with corticosteroids. Type 2-low asthma is poorly responsive to corticosteroids and is not as well characterized as type 2-high asthma. Type 2-low asthma is limited by being defined as the absence of type 2-high inflammatory markers. Choosing a biologic for the treatment of severe asthma involves the evaluation of a panel of biomarkers such as blood eosinophils, total and specific immunoglobulin E/allergic sensitization, and fractional exhaled nitric oxide. In this review, we focus on the underlying pathobiology of adult and pediatric asthma, discuss the different phenotype-based treatment options for adult and pediatric type 2-high with or without allergic asthma and type 2-low asthma, and describe a clinical phenotyping approach to patients to guide out-patient therapy. Finally, we end with a discussion of whether pediatric asthma exacerbations necessitating admission to an ICU constitute their own high-risk phenotype and/or whether it is a part of other previously defined high-risk subgroups such as difficult-to-control asthma, exacerbation-prone asthma, and severe treatment-resistant asthma.

Associations of aeroallergen testing with reduced oral corticosteroid bursts among adults with asthma

Background

Aeroallergen testing can improve precision care for persistent asthma. How testing benefits diverse populations of adults with asthma and the importance of the aeroallergen sensitization and test modality used remain poorly understood.

Objective

We evaluated whether aeroallergen testing was associated with a reduction in oral corticosteroid (OCS) bursts.

Methods

We used electronic health record data to conduct a retrospective cohort study of adults with asthma who were prescribed an inhaled corticosteroid and had an allergy/immunology visit in a large health system between January 1, 2017, and June 30, 2022. We used negative binomial regression models to evaluate whether testing was associated with fewer OCS bursts in the 12-month period after an initial visit among all patients and those without chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and smoking histories. We then repeated these analyses while considering effects of sensitization to aeroallergen categories and whether the testing was via skin prick or serum-specific IgE.

Results

A total of 684 (48.4%) of 1,412 patients underwent testing. Testing was not associated with fewer bursts overall (incidence rate ratio [IRR] = 0.84 vs no testing, P = .08), but it was among never smokers without COPD (461 of 927 tested, IRR = 0.69, P = .005). Among never smokers without COPD, sensitization to 5-7 aeroallergen categories (IRR = 0.57 vs no test, P = .003) and receipt of skin prick tests (IRR = 0.58 vs no test, P < .0005) were associated with fewer bursts.

Conclusion

Aeroallergen testing was associated with reduced OCS bursts among adults with asthma who were never smokers without COPD. This association varied according to aeroallergen sensitization and test modality used.

Biologic Medications for Severe Asthma: Implications for Understanding Pathogenic Heterogeneity and Endotypes

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways long known for phenotypic heterogeneity. Phenotyping studies in asthma have led to a better characterization of disease pathogenesis, yet further work is needed to pair available treatments with disease endotypes. In this review, the biology of targeted pathways is discussed along with the efficacy of biologic therapies targeting those pathways. Results of asthma clinical trials are included, as well as results of trials in related diseases. This review then analyzes how biologics help to inform the complex immunobiology of asthma and further guide their use while identifying areas for future research.

Understanding Comorbidities of Respiratory Models as Novel Platforms for Drug Discovery

Chronic respiratory diseases affect over 450 million people worldwide and result in 4 million deaths per year. The majority of lung diseases are treated with drugs delivered directly to the lungs. However, there is bidirectional crosstalk between the lung and other organs/tissues in health and disease. This crosstalk supports targeting of extrapulmonary sites in addition to the lung to improve the comorbidities associated with lung disease. However, new preclinical in vivo and in vitro assays that model the human pathophysiology are required. In this review, we showcase the latest knowledge of the bidirectional relationship between the respiratory system and organs affected by comorbidities such as obesity and atherosclerosis. We also discuss the impact of new cell culture systems, including complex 3D culture models that may be used as platforms to generate disease insights and for drug discovery. This review highlights work presented by Respiratory and Inflammation Special Interest Group researchers as part of the Australasian Society of Clinical and Experimental Pharmacologists and Toxicologists (ASCEPT) annual scientific meeting in 2023.

Exploring CD26-/lo subpopulations of lymphocytes in asthma phenotype and severity: A novel CD4+ T cell subset expressing archetypical granulocyte proteins

BACKGROUND

Asthma pathology may induce changes in naïve/memory lymphocyte proportions assessable through the evaluation of surface CD26 (dipeptidyl peptidase 4/DPP4) levels. Our aim was to investigate the association of asthma phenotype/severity with the relative frequency of CD26-/lo, CD26int and CD26hi subsets within different lymphocyte populations.

METHODS

The proportion of CD26-/lo, CD26int and CD26hi subsets within CD4+ effector T cells (Teff), total CD4- lymphocytes, γδ-T cells, NK cells and NKT cells was measured in peripheral blood samples from healthy (N = 30) and asthma (N = 119) donors with different phenotypes/severities by flow cytometry. We performed K-means clustering analysis and further characterised the CD4+CD26-/lo Teff cell subset by LC-MS/MS and immunofluorescence.

RESULTS

Cluster analysis including clinical and flow cytometry data resulted in four groups, two of them with opposite inflammatory profiles (neutrophilic vs. eosinophilic). Neutrophilic asthma presented reduced CD4-CD26hi cells, which negatively correlated with systemic inflammation. Eosinophilic asthma displayed a general expansion of CD26-/lo subsets. Specifically, CD4+CD26-/lo Teff expansion was confirmed in asthma, especially in atopic patients. Proteomic characterisation of this subset with a TEM/TEMRA phenotype revealed upregulated levels of innate (e.g. MPO and RNASE2) and cytoskeleton/extracellular matrix (e.g. MMP9 and ACTN1) proteins. Immunofluorescence assays confirmed the presence of atypical proteins for CD4+ T cells, and an enrichment in 'flower-like' nuclei and MMP9/RNASE2 levels in CD4+CD26-/lo Teff compared to CD4+ T lymphocytes.

CONCLUSION

There is an association between CD26 levels in different lymphocyte subsets and asthma phenotype/severity. CD4+CD26-/loTEMRA cells expressing innate proteins specific to eosinophils/neutrophils could be determinant in sustaining long-term inflammation in adult allergic asthma.

State of the art: Alternative overlap syndrome-asthma and obstructive sleep apnea

In the general population, Bronchial Asthma (BA) and Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA) are among the most prevalent chronic respiratory disorders. Significant epidemiologic connections and complex pathogenetic pathways link these disorders via complex interactions at genetic, epigenetic, and environmental levels. The coexistence of BA and OSA in an individual likely represents a distinct syndrome, that is, a collection of clinical manifestations attributable to several mechanisms and pathobiological signatures. To avoid terminological confusion, this association has been named alternative overlap syndrome (vs overlap syndrome represented by the chronic obstructive pulmonary disease-OSA association). This comprehensive review summarizes the complex, often bidirectional links between the constituents of the alternative overlap syndrome. Cross-sectional, population, or clinic-based studies are unlikely to elucidate causality or directionality in these relationships. Even longitudinal epidemiological evaluations in BA cohorts developing over time OSA, or OSA cohorts developing BA during follow-up cannot exclude time factors or causal influence of other known or unknown mediators. As such, a lot of pathophysiological interactions described here have suggestive evidence, biological plausibility, potential or actual directionality. By showcasing existing evidence and current knowledge gaps, the hope is that deliberate, focused, and collaborative efforts in the near-future will be geared toward opportunities to shine light on the unknowns and accelerate discovery in this field of health, clinical care, education, research, and scholarly endeavors.

Novel Machine Learning Identifies 5 Asthma Phenotypes Using Cluster Analysis of Real-World Data

BACKGROUND

Asthma classification into different subphenotypes is important to guide personalized therapy and improve outcomes.

OBJECTIVES

To further explore asthma heterogeneity through determination of multiple patient groups by using novel machine learning (ML) approaches and large-scale real-world data.

METHODS

We used electronic health records of patients with asthma followed at the Cleveland Clinic between 2010 and 2021. We used k-prototype unsupervised ML to develop a clustering model where predictors were age, sex, race, body mass index, prebronchodilator and postbronchodilator spirometry measurements, and the usage of inhaled/systemic steroids. We applied elbow and silhouette plots to select the optimal number of clusters. These clusters were then evaluated through LightGBM's supervised ML approach on their cross-validated F1 score to support their distinctiveness.

RESULTS

Data from 13,498 patients with asthma with available postbronchodilator spirometry measurements were extracted to identify 5 stable clusters. Cluster 1 included a young nonsevere asthma population with normal lung function and higher frequency of acute exacerbation (0.8 /patient-year). Cluster 2 had the highest body mass index (mean ± SD, 44.44 ± 7.83 kg/m2), and the highest proportion of females (77.5%) and Blacks (28.9%). Cluster 3 comprised patients with normal lung function. Cluster 4 included patients with lower percent of predicted FEV1 of 77.03 (12.79) and poor response to bronchodilators. Cluster 5 had the lowest percent of predicted FEV1 of 68.08 (15.02), the highest postbronchodilator reversibility, and the highest proportion of severe asthma (44.9%) and blood eosinophilia (>300 cells/μL) (34.8%).

CONCLUSIONS

Using real-world data and unsupervised ML, we classified asthma into 5 clinically important subphenotypes where group-specific asthma treatment and management strategies can be designed and deployed.

Efficacy of Tezepelumab in Patients with Severe, Uncontrolled Asthma Across Multiple Clinically Relevant Subgroups in the NAVIGATOR Study

INTRODUCTION

Many patients with severe asthma continue to experience symptoms and exacerbations despite treatment with standard-of-care therapy. In the phase 3 NAVIGATOR study, tezepelumab significantly reduced exacerbations over 52 weeks compared with placebo in patients with severe, uncontrolled asthma. This analysis assessed the efficacy of tezepelumab in reducing asthma exacerbations in various clinically relevant subgroups of patients in NAVIGATOR.

METHODS

NAVIGATOR was a phase 3, multicentre, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Participants (12-80 years old) with severe, uncontrolled asthma were randomized 1:1 to receive tezepelumab 210 mg or placebo subcutaneously every 4 weeks for 52 weeks. Pre-specified and post hoc analyses were performed to evaluate the annualized asthma exacerbation rate (AAER) over 52 weeks in clinically relevant subgroups of patients defined by baseline patient characteristics, medical history, exacerbation triggers, medication eligibility and medication use before and during the study.

RESULTS

Tezepelumab reduced the AAER over 52 weeks compared with placebo across a wide range of patient subgroups assessed. Reductions in exacerbations were similar across subgroups defined by baseline patient characteristics, ranging from 48% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 21, 65) to 60% (95% CI: 44, 71) in subgroups analysed by sex, smoking history and body mass index. Among the asthma-related comorbidity subgroups investigated, patients with aspirin or NSAID sensitivity had the greatest reductions in AAER with tezepelumab compared with placebo (83%; 95% CI: 66, 91). In patients eligible to receive dupilumab, tezepelumab reduced exacerbations compared with placebo by 64% (95% CI: 54, 71). Reductions in the AAER with tezepelumab compared with placebo were also observed irrespective of exacerbation trigger category and the number of asthma controller medications patients were receiving at baseline.

CONCLUSION

These findings further support the benefits of tezepelumab in patients with severe, uncontrolled asthma and can help to inform healthcare providers' treatment decisions.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

NAVIGATOR (NCT03347279).

Implementation of multiomic mass spectrometry approaches for the evaluation of human health following environmental exposure

Omics analyses collectively refer to the possibility of profiling genetic variants, RNA, epigenetic markers, proteins, lipids, and metabolites. The most common analytical approaches used for detecting molecules present within biofluids related to metabolism are vibrational spectroscopy techniques, represented by infrared, Raman, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopies and mass spectrometry (MS). Omics-based assessments utilizing MS are rapidly expanding and being applied to various scientific disciplines and clinical settings. Most of the omics instruments are operated by specialists in dedicated laboratories; however, the development of miniature portable omics has made the technology more available to users for field applications. Variations in molecular information gained from omics approaches are useful for evaluating human health following environmental exposure and the development and progression of numerous diseases. As MS technology develops so do statistical and machine learning methods for the detection of molecular deviations from personalized metabolism, which are correlated to altered health conditions, and they are intended to provide a multi-disciplinary overview for researchers interested in adding multiomic analysis to their current efforts. This includes an introduction to mass spectrometry-based omics technologies, current state-of-the-art capabilities and their respective strengths and limitations for surveying molecular information. Furthermore, we describe how knowledge gained from these assessments can be applied to personalized medicine and diagnostic strategies.

Characteristics of Severe Asthma in the Elderly: Observations From the Korean Severe Asthma Registry (KoSAR)

PURPOSE

Few studies have compared the clinical characteristics of severe asthma (SA) in elderly patients compared to that in nonelderly patients.

METHODS

We analyzed data from the Korean SA Registry, a nationwide, real-world observational study of SA in Korea. The baseline clinical characteristics, disease control status, and medication use of the patients were compared between elderly (≥ 65 years) and nonelderly groups.

RESULTS

Of the 864 patients with SA, 260 (30.1%) were in the elderly group. The elderly group had lower atopy rate, but had higher prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), hypertension, and osteoporosis than did the nonelderly group. The elderly group had a lower rate of type 2 inflammation and lower levels of forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1) (% predicted) and FEV1/forced vital capacity ratio than did the nonelderly group (P < 0.05 for all). However, asthma symptom scores and the frequency of asthma exacerbation were not significantly different between the 2 groups. Of controller medications, biologics were less frequently used in the elderly group (P < 0.05 for all).

CONCLUSIONS

SA in the elderly is characterized by lower lung function, less type 2-low airway inflammation, and comorbidity with COPD. These findings are being taken into consideration in the management of elderly patients with SA in real-world clinical practice.

Impact of sex on severe asthma: a cross-sectional retrospective analysis of UK primary and specialist care

INTRODUCTION

After puberty, females are more likely to develop asthma and in a more severe form than males. The associations between asthma and sex are complex with multiple intrinsic and external factors.

AIM

To evaluate the sex differences in the characteristics and treatment of patients with severe asthma (SA) in a real-world setting.

METHODS

Demographic, clinical and treatment characteristics for patients with SA in the UK Severe Asthma Registry (UKSAR) and Optimum Patient Care Research Database (OPCRD) were retrospectively analysed by sex using univariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses adjusted for year, age and hospital/practice.

RESULTS

3679 (60.9% female) patients from UKSAR and 18 369 patients (67.9% female) from OPCRD with SA were included. Females were more likely to be symptomatic with increased Asthma Control Questionnaire-6 (UKSAR adjusted OR (aOR) 1.14, 95% CI 1.09 to 1.18) and Royal College of Physicians-3 Question scores (OPCRD aOR 1.29, 95% CI 1.13 to 1.47). However, they had a higher forced expiratory volume in 1 second per cent (FEV1%) predicted (UKSAR 68.7% vs 64.8%, p<0.001) with no significant difference in peak expiratory flow. Type 2 biomarkers IgE (UKSAR 129 IU/mL vs 208 IU/mL, p<0.001) and FeNO (UKSAR 36ppb vs 46ppb, p<0.001) were lower in females with no significant difference in blood eosinophils or biological therapy. Females were less likely to be on maintenance oral corticosteroids (UKSAR aOR 0.86, 95% CI 0.75 to 0.99) but more likely to be obese (UKSAR aOR 1.67, 95% CI 145 to 1.93; OPCRD SA aOR 1.46, 95% CI 1.34 to 1.58).

CONCLUSIONS

Females had increased symptoms and were more likely to be obese despite higher FEV1% predicted and lower type 2 biomarkers with consistent and clinically important differences across both datasets.

Incorporating Asthma Evaluation into the Otolaryngic Allergy Practice: Presentation and Diagnosis

Asthma occurs frequently as a comorbid condition in many patients presenting with common otolaryngology conditions, such as allergic rhinitis and chronic sinusitis with nasal polyps. The classic presentation of asthma includes symptoms of wheezing, shortness of breath, and chest tightness but can include other symptoms such as cough. The diagnosis is made mainly through history, although pulmonary function testing, spirometry, fractional exhaled nitric oxide, and impulse oscillometry may also prove helpful.

Phenotyping of Severe Asthma in the Era of Broad-Acting Anti-Asthma Biologics

Severe asthma is associated with significant morbidity and mortality despite the maximal use of inhaled corticosteroids and additional controller medications, and has a high economic burden. Biologic therapies are recommended for the management of severe, uncontrolled asthma to help to prevent exacerbations and to improve symptoms and health-related quality of life. The effective management of severe asthma requires consideration of clinical heterogeneity that is driven by varying clinical and inflammatory phenotypes, which are reflective of distinct underlying disease mechanisms. Phenotyping patients using a combination of clinical characteristics such as the age of onset or comorbidities and biomarker profiles, including blood eosinophil counts and levels of fractional exhaled nitric oxide and serum total immunoglobulin E, is important for the differential diagnosis of asthma. In addition, phenotyping is beneficial for risk assessment, selection of treatment, and monitoring of the treatment response in patients with asthma. This review describes the clinical and inflammatory phenotypes of asthma, provides an overview of biomarkers routinely used in clinical practice and those that have recently been explored for phenotyping, and aims to assess the value of phenotyping in severe asthma management in the current era of biologics.

The primary ciliary dyskinesia-related genetic risk score is associated with susceptibility to adult-onset asthma

BACKGROUND

Disturbance of mucociliary clearance is an important factor in the pathogenesis of asthma. We hypothesized that common variants in genes responsible for ciliary function may contribute to the development of asthma with certain phenotypes.

METHODS

Three independent adult Japanese populations (including a total of 1,158 patients with asthma and 2,203 non-asthmatic healthy participants) were studied. First, based on the ClinVar database (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/clinvar/), we selected 12 common single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with molecular consequences (missense, nonsense, and 3'-untranslated region mutation) in 5 primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD)-related genes and calculated a PCD-genetic risk score (GRS) as a cumulative effect of these PCD-related genes. Second, we performed a two-step cluster analysis using 3 variables, including PCD-GRS, forced expiratory volume in 1 second (%predicted FEV1), and age of asthma onset.

RESULTS

Compared to adult asthma clusters with an average PCD-GRS, clusters with high and low PCD-GRS had similar overall characteristics: adult-onset, female predominance, preserved lung function, and fewer features of type 2 immunity as determined by IgE reactivity and blood eosinophil counts. The allele frequency of rs1530496, a SNP representing an expression quantitative trait locus (eQTL) of DNAH5 in the lung, showed the largest statistically significant difference between the PCD-GRS-High and PCD-GRS-Low asthma clusters (p = 1.4 x 10-15).

CONCLUSION

Genes associated with PCD, particularly the common SNPs associated with abnormal expression of DNAH5, may have a certain influence on the development of adult-onset asthma, perhaps through impaired mucociliary clearance.

Mucus Structure, Viscoelastic Properties, and Composition in Chronic Respiratory Diseases

The respiratory mucus, a viscoelastic gel, effectuates a primary line of the airway defense when operated by the mucociliary clearance. In chronic respiratory diseases (CRDs), such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and cystic fibrosis (CF), the mucus is overproduced and its solid content augments, changing its structure and viscoelastic properties and determining a derangement of essential defense mechanisms against opportunistic microbial (virus and bacteria) pathogens. This ensues in damaging of the airways, leading to a vicious cycle of obstruction and infection responsible for the harsh clinical evolution of these CRDs. Here, we review the essential features of normal and pathological mucus (i.e., sputum in CF, COPD, and asthma), i.e., mucin content, structure (mesh size), micro/macro-rheology, pH, and osmotic pressure, ending with the awareness that sputum biomarkers (mucins, inflammatory proteins and peptides, and metabolites) might serve to indicate acute exacerbation and response to therapies. There are some indications that old and novel treatments may change the structure, viscoelastic properties, and biomarker content of sputum; however, a wealth of work is still needed to embrace these measures as correlates of disease severity in association with (or even as substitutes of) pulmonary functional tests.

Benefits of Aeroallergen Testing on Oral Corticosteroid Bursts in Adults with Asthma

BACKGROUND

Aeroallergen testing can improve precision care for persistent asthma and is recommended by the U.S. clinical guidelines. How testing benefits diverse populations of adults with asthma, and the importance of the testing modality used, are not fully understood.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to evaluate whether receipt of aeroallergen testing was associated with a reduction in oral corticosteroid (OCS) bursts.

METHODS

We used electronic health record data to conduct a retrospective, observational cohort study of adults with asthma who were prescribed an inhaled corticosteroid and had an Allergy/Immunology visit in a large health system between 1/1/2017-6/30/2022. Negative binomial regression models were used to evaluate whether OCS bursts in the 12-month period after an initial visit were reduced for patients who received aeroallergen testing. We also measured differences in benefit after excluding patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and smoking histories, and whether testing receipt was via skin prick or serum.

RESULTS

668/1,383 (48.3%) patients received testing. Receipt of testing was not associated with fewer bursts in all patients (incidence rate ratio (IRR)=0.83 versus no testing, p=0.059), but it was among never smokers without COPD (417/844 tested, IRR=0.68, p=0.004). The receipt of skin testing was associated with fewer bursts in all patients (418/1,383 tested, IRR=0.77, p=0.02) and among never smokers without COPD (283/844 tested, IRR=0.59 versus no testing, p=0.001).

CONCLUSION

Guideline-concordant aeroallergen testing in the context of Allergy/Immunology care was associated with clinical benefit in a real-life, diverse cohort of adults with asthma. This benefit varied according to patient comorbidities and the testing modality.

Endotypes of Paediatric Cough-Do They Exist and Finding New Techniques to Improve Clinical Outcomes

Chronic cough is a common symptom of many childhood lung conditions. Given the phenotypic heterogeneity of chronic cough, better characterization through endotyping is required to provide diagnostic certainty, precision therapies and to identify pathobiological mechanisms. This review summarizes recent endotype discoveries in airway diseases, particularly in relation to children, and describes the multi-omic approaches that are required to define endotypes. Potential biospecimens that may contribute to endotype and biomarker discoveries are also discussed. Identifying endotypes of chronic cough can likely provide personalized medicine and contribute to improved clinical outcomes for children.

Proteomic signatures of eosinophilic and neutrophilic asthma from serum and sputum

BACKGROUND

Eosinophilic and neutrophilic asthma defined by high levels of blood and sputum eosinophils and neutrophils exemplifies the inflammatory heterogeneity of asthma, particularly severe asthma. We analysed the serum and sputum proteome to identify biomarkers jointly associated with these different phenotypes.

METHODS

Proteomic profiles (N = 1129 proteins) were assayed in sputum (n = 182) and serum (n = 574) from two cohorts (U-BIOPRED and ADEPT) of mild-moderate and severe asthma by SOMAscan. Using least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO)-penalised logistic regression in a stability selection framework, we sought sparse sets of proteins associated with either eosinophilic or neutrophilic asthma with and without adjustment for established clinical factors including oral corticosteroid use and forced expiratory volume.

FINDINGS

We identified 13 serum proteins associated with eosinophilic asthma, including 7 (PAPP-A, TARC/CCL17, ALT/GPT, IgE, CCL28, CO8A1, and IL5-Rα) that were stably selected while adjusting for clinical factors yielding an AUC of 0.84 (95% CI: 0.83-0.84) compared to 0.62 (95% CI: 0.61-0.63) for clinical factors only. Sputum protein analysis selected only PAPP-A (AUC = 0.81 [95% CI: 0.80-0.81]). 12 serum proteins were associated with neutrophilic asthma, of which 5 (MMP-9, EDAR, GIIE/PLA2G2E, IL-1-R4/IL1RL1, and Elafin) complemented clinical factors increasing the AUC from 0.63 (95% CI: 0.58-0.67) for the model with clinical factors only to 0.89 (95% CI: 0.89-0.90). Our model did not select any sputum proteins associated with neutrophilic status.

INTERPRETATION

Targeted serum proteomic profiles are a non-invasive and scalable approach for subtyping of neutrophilic and eosinophilic asthma and for future functional understanding of these phenotypes.

FUNDING

U-BIOPRED has received funding from the Innovative Medicines Initiative (IMI) Joint Undertaking under grant agreement no. 115010, resources of which are composed of financial contributions from the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013), and European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations (EFPIA) companies' in-kind contributions (www.imi.europa.eu). ADEPT was funded by Johnson & Johnson/Janssen pharmaceutical Company.

Characterization and inhibition of inflammasome responses in severe and non-severe asthma

BACKGROUND

Increased airway NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated IL-1β responses may underpin severe neutrophilic asthma. However, whether increased inflammasome activation is unique to severe asthma, is a common feature of immune cells in all inflammatory types of severe asthma, and whether inflammasome activation can be therapeutically targeted in patients, remains unknown.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the activation and inhibition of inflammasome-mediated IL-1β responses in immune cells from patients with asthma.

METHODS

Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were isolated from patients with non-severe (n = 59) and severe (n = 36 stable, n = 17 exacerbating) asthma and healthy subjects (n = 39). PBMCs were stimulated with nigericin or lipopolysaccharide (LPS) alone, or in combination (LPS + nigericin), with or without the NLRP3 inhibitor MCC950, and the effects on IL-1β release were assessed.

RESULTS

PBMCs from patients with non-severe or severe asthma produced more IL-1β in response to nigericin than those from healthy subjects. PBMCs from patients with severe asthma released more IL-1β in response to LPS + nigericin than those from non-severe asthma. Inflammasome-induced IL-1β release from PBMCs from patients with severe asthma was not increased during exacerbation compared to when stable. Inflammasome-induced IL-1β release was not different between male and female, or obese and non-obese patients and correlated with eosinophil and neutrophil numbers in the airways. MCC950 effectively suppressed LPS-, nigericin-, and LPS + nigericin-induced IL-1β release from PBMCs from all groups.

CONCLUSION

An increased ability for inflammasome priming and/or activation is a common feature of systemic immune cells in both severe and non-severe asthma, highlighting inflammasome inhibition as a universal therapy for different subtypes of disease.

Chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps and allergic rhinitis as different multimorbid treatable traits in asthma

Background

Respiratory multimorbidities are linked to asthma, such as allergic rhinitis (AR) with early allergic asthma and chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) with nasal polyps (CRSwNP) with late nonallergic asthma.

Objective

Our aim was to investigate the association of asthma severity and control with specific upper airway phenotypes.

Method

Patients with asthma were prospectively recruited from 23 pulmonology and ear, nose, and throat clinics. Asthma severity and control, as well as upper airway comorbidities (AR and non-AR [NAR], CRSwNP, and CRS without nasal polyps [CRSsNP]) were assessed according to international consensus guidelines definitions.

Results

A total of 492 asthmatic patients were included. Half of the asthmatic patients (49.6%) had associated rhinitis (37.0% had AR and 12.6% had NAR) and 36.2% had CRS (16.7% had CRSsNP and 19.5% had CRSwNP), whereas 14.2% had no sinonasal symptoms. Most cases of AR (78%) and NAR (84%) were present in patients with mild-to-moderate asthma, whereas CRSwNP was more frequent in patients with severe asthma (35% [P < .001]), mainly nonatopic asthma (44% [P < .001]). Patients with severe asthma with CRSwNP had worse asthma control, which was correlated (r = 0.249 [P = .034]) with sinus occupancy. Multiple logistic regression analysis showed that late-onset asthma, intolerance of aspirin and/or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and CRSwNP were independently associated with severe asthma.

Conclusion

Severe asthma is associated with CRSwNP, with sinus occupancy affecting asthma control. This study has identified 2 main different upper airway treatable traits, AR and CRSwNP, which need further evaluation to improve management and control of patients with asthma.

Factors associated with aeroallergen testing among adults with asthma in a large health system

Background

Aeroallergen testing informs precision care for adults with asthma, yet the epidemiology of testing in this population remains poorly understood.

Objective

We sought to identify factors associated with receiving aeroallergen testing, the results of these tests, and subsequent reductions in exacerbation measures among adults with asthma.

Methods

We used electronic health record data to conduct a retrospective, observational cohort study of 30,775 adults with asthma who had an office visit with a primary care provider or an asthma specialist from January 1, 2017, to August 26, 2022. We used regression models to identify (1) factors associated with receiving any aeroallergen test and tests to 9 allergen categories after the index visit, (2) factors associated with positive test results, and (3) reductions in asthma exacerbation measures in the year after testing compared with before testing.

Results

Testing was received by 2201 patients (7.2%). According to multivariable models, receiving testing was associated with having any office visit with an allergy/immunology specialist during the study period (odds ratio [OR] = 91.3 vs primary care only [P < .001]) and having an asthma emergency department visit (OR = 1.62 [P = .004]) or hospitalization (OR = 1.62 [P = .03]) in the year before the index visit. Age 65 years or older conferred decreased odds of testing (OR = 0.74 vs age 18-34 years [P = .008]) and negative test results to 6 categories (P ≤ .04 for all comparisons). Black race conferred increased odds of testing (OR =1.22 vs White race [P = .01]) and positive test results to 8 categories (P < .04 for all comparisons). Exacerbation measures decreased after testing.

Conclusion

Aeroallergen testing was performed infrequently among adults with asthma and was associated with reductions in asthma exacerbation measures.

Exogenous IL-25 ameliorates airway neutrophilia via suppressing macrophage M1 polarization and the expression of IL-12 and IL-23 in asthma

BACKGROUND

Severe asthma is associated with substantial mortality and has unmet therapeutic need. A subset of severe asthma is characterized by neutrophilic airway inflammation. Classically activated (or M1) macrophages which express IL-12 and IL-23 are associated with airway neutrophilia in asthma. Exogenous IL-25 was reported to suppress intestinal inflammation in animal models of inflammatory bowel diseases via suppressing IL-12 and IL-23 production. We hypothesize that IL-25 ameliorates airway neutrophilia via inhibiting macrophage M1 polarization and the expression of IL-12 and IL-23 in asthma.

METHODS

In a mouse model of neutrophil-dominant allergic airway inflammation, the effect of mouse recombinant IL-25 on airway inflammation were assessed by H&E staining and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) cell counting. The percentage of M1 macrophages in lung tissue and BAL cells were analyzed by flow cytometry. Quantitative PCR and immunostaining were performed to measure the expression of Il12, Il23, and inflammatory cytokines. Mechanistic experiments were performed in primary culture of macrophages from mouse lungs. The expression of IL-12, IL-23 and IL-25 in sputum was analyzed in a cohort of severe asthma and subjects with eosinophilic or non-eosinophilic asthma.

RESULTS

Intranasal administration of IL-25 markedly decreased the number of neutrophils in BAL cells in a murine model of neutrophil-dominant allergic airway inflammation. Moreover, exogenous IL-25 decreased the number of M1 macrophages, and reduced the expression of IL-12, IL-23 in the lungs of the mouse model. Exogenous IL-25 also inhibited the expression of inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IFN-γ, TNF-α and IL-17 A. In vitro, IL-25 suppressed IL-12 and IL-23 expression in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated primary culture of mouse pulmonary macrophages. Mechanistically, IL-25 inhibited LPS-induced c-Rel translocation to nucleus via STAT3-dependent signaling. In a cohort of severe asthma, IL-25 protein levels in sputum were significantly lower than control subjects. The transcript levels of IL-12 and IL-23 were increased whereas IL-25 transcripts were decreased in sputum cells from subjects with non-eosinophilic asthma compared to eosinophilic asthma.

CONCLUSIONS

IL-25 expression is downregulated in subjects with severe or non-eosinophilic asthma. Exogenous IL-25 ameliorates airway neutrophilia, at least in part, via inhibiting macrophage M1 polarization and the expression of IL-12 and IL-23.

Cluster Analysis of Finnish Population-Based Adult-Onset Asthma Patients

BACKGROUND

Phenotypes of adult asthma have been identified in previous studies but rarely in population-based settings.

OBJECTIVE

To identify clusters of adult-onset asthma in a Finnish population-based study on subjects born before 1967.

METHODS

We used population-based data from 1350 asthmatics with adult-onset asthma (Adult Asthma in Finland) from Finnish national registers. Twenty-eight covariates were selected based on literature. The number of covariates was reduced by using factor analysis before cluster analysis.

RESULTS

Five clusters (CLU1-CLU5) were identified, 3 clusters with late-onset adult asthma (onset ≥40 years) and 2 clusters with onset at earlier adulthood (<40 years). Subjects in CLU1 (n = 666) had late-onset asthma and were nonobese, symptomatic, and predominantly female with few respiratory infections during childhood. CLU2 (n = 36) consisted of subjects who had earlier-onset asthma, were predominantly female, obese with allergic asthma, and had recurrent respiratory infections. Subjects in CLU3 (n = 75) were nonobese, older, and predominantly men with late-onset asthma, smoking history, comorbidities, severe asthma, least allergic diseases, low education, many siblings, and childhood in rural areas. CLU4 (n = 218) was a late-onset cluster consisting of obese females with comorbidities, asthma symptoms, and low education level. Subjects in CLU5 (n = 260) had earlier onset asthma, were nonobese, and predominantly allergic females.

CONCLUSIONS

Our population-based adult-onset asthma clusters take into account several critical factors such as obesity and smoking, and identified clusters that partially overlap with clusters identified in clinical settings. Results give us a more profound understanding of adult-onset asthma phenotypes and support personalized management.

Asthma Phenotypes in the Era of Personalized Medicine

Asthma is a widespread disease affecting approximately 300-million people globally. This condition leads to significant morbidity, mortality, and economic strain worldwide. Recent clinical and laboratory research advancements have illuminated the immunological factors contributing to asthma. As of now, asthma is understood to be a heterogeneous disease. Personalized medicine involves categorizing asthma by its endotypes, linking observable characteristics to specific immunological mechanisms. Identifying these endotypic mechanisms is paramount in accurately profiling patients and tailoring therapeutic approaches using innovative biological agents targeting distinct immune pathways. This article presents a synopsis of the key immunological mechanisms implicated in the pathogenesis and manifestation of the disease's phenotypic traits and individualized treatments for severe asthma subtypes.

The effect of aerobic exercise training on asthma control in postmenopausal women (ATOM): a randomized controlled pilot study

Objective

To evaluate if high-intensity interval training three times weekly for 12 weeks improves asthma control in overweight, postmenopausal women with uncontrolled, late-onset asthma.

Methods

The reported study is a randomized clinical pilot study (www.clinicaltrials.gov; NCT03747211) that compared 12 weeks of high-intensity interval training (spinning) with usual care. The five-question Asthma Control Questionnaire (ACQ-5) was used as primary outcome. Secondary measures included systemic inflammation and inflammation of the airways, body composition, and cardiac function during exercise.

Results

We included 12 women with asthma (mean age 65 years (SD 6); mean body mass index 30 kg/m2 (SD 2)) from whom eight were randomized to exercise and four to control. Baseline ACQ-5 was 1.95 (SD 0.53) in the control group and 2.03 (0.54) in the exercise group. Patients had a mean blood eosinophil level of 0.16 × 109cells/L (SD 0.07) and a mean fraction of exhaled nitric oxide of 23 ppb (SD 25). Mixed models showed that participants in the exercise group reduced their ACQ-5 by 0.55 points (95%CI -1.10 to -0.00; P = 0.08) compared with the control group. The exercise group significantly reduced their mean body fat percentage (-2.7%; 95%CI -4.5 to -0.8; P = 0.02), fat mass (-2.8 kg; 95%CI -5.1 to -0.4; P = 0.044) and android fat mass (-0.33 kg; 95%CI -0.60- -0.06; P = 0.038). In analyses of cardiac measures, we saw no significant effects on right ventricular function (fractional area change), diastolic function or left ventricular function.

Conclusions

Although changes in ACQ-5 were slightly insignificant, these preliminary findings indicate that aerobic exercise training can be used as a means to improve asthma control in overweight, postmenopausal women with asthma.

Reliability of Total Serum IgE Levels to Define Type 2 High and Low Asthma Phenotypes

Background: High total IgE levels are weak predictors of T2High and have been reported in nonallergic asthma. Therefore, the role of total serum IgE (IgE) in the T2High phenotype is still debated. Objective: This study investigated the reliability of stratifying asthmatics into IgEHigh and IgELow within the T2High and T2Low phenotypes. Methods: This cross-sectional single-center study investigated the association of clinical, functional, and bio-humoral parameters in a large asthmatic population stratified by IgE ≥ 100 kU/L, allergen sensitization, B-EOS ≥ 300/µL, and FENO ≥ 30 ppb. Results: Combining T2 biomarkers and IgE identifies (1) T2Low-IgELow (15.5%); (2) T2Low-IgEHigh (5.1%); (3) T2High-IgELow (33.6%); and T2High-IgEHigh (45.7%). T2Low-IgELow patients have more frequent cardiovascular and metabolic comorbidities, a higher prevalence of emphysema, and higher LAMA use than the two T2High subgroups. Higher exacerbation rates, rhinitis, and anxiety/depression syndrome characterize the T2Low-IgEHigh phenotype vs. the T2Low-IgELow phenotype. Within the T2High, low IgE was associated with female sex, obesity, and anxiety/depression. Conclusions: High IgE in T2Low patients is associated with a peculiar clinical phenotype, similar to T2High in terms of disease severity and nasal comorbidities, while retaining the T2Low features. IgE may represent an additional biomarker for clustering asthma in both T2High and T2Low phenotypes rather than a predictor of T2High asthma "per se".

Effect of Obesity on Lung Function in the Pediatric and Adult Populations with Asthma: A Review

Obesity and asthma are major global health concerns, particularly in industrialized nations. Obesity has been shown to have detrimental effects on the respiratory system and lung function owing to metabolic issues and immunological consequences. Research has indicated that obese patients with asthma (atopic or T2-high and non-atopic or T2-low) have diminished lung function in terms of functional residual capacity (FRC), residual volume (RV), expiratory reserve volume (ERV), the FEV1/FVC ratio, and FEF 25-75% due to mechanical fat loading on the diaphragm and central adiposity when compared to non-obese asthmatic patients. Therefore, it is plausible that changes in lung function are the result of a combination of mechanical (fat loading on the diaphragm, central adiposity, bronchial hyper-reactivity, and an increase in cholinergic tone), environmental (diet and exercise), and inflammatory factors (local and systemic), which can lead to the obesity-related asthma phenotype characterized by severe asthma symptoms, poor response to corticosteroid treatment, loss of lung function, and poor quality of life from an early age.

[The profile of severe asthmatics: Results from a specialized asthma clinic]

Introduction

In patients with severe asthma, individualized treatment, and appropriate phenotyping are required to achieve control. In our study, our aim was to examine the characteristics of a specific patient group in a specialized tertiary asthma outpatient clinic, which is the primary setting for evaluating severe asthma patients, with the intention of obtaining national data.

Materials and Methods

In this cross-sectional observational study, sociodemographic, clinical presentations, laboratory results, and spirometry measurements of patients with severe asthma who were followed up in our specialized asthma outpatient clinic for at least one year were recorded. Patients were defined as eosinophilic if they had a blood eosinophil count of 300/µL or higher at least twice during the oral corticosteroid free-period or 150/µL or higher under oral corticosteroids as allergic if they had sensitization to at least one inhalant allergen consistent with their history.

Result

Overall, 201 severe asthma patients (74.1% female) with a median disease duration of 15 (min-max= 1-49) years and a median follow-up duration of 7 (min-max= 1-40) years were analyzed. Most of the patients (56.7%) had adult-onset asthma [median age of onset was 32 (min-max= 10-62) years]. Overweight and obese patients were in the majority (31.8%, and 41.8%, respectively) and the median body mass index was 29 (min-max= 17.5-49.5). More than half of the patients (55.2%) had controlled asthma and the median Asthma Control Test score at the last visit was 23. Biologic therapies were applied to 73.1% (n= 147) of the patients [60.5% (n= 89) omalizumab, 39.5% (n= 58) mepolizumab]. Half of the group was allergic (49.3%) and three-quarters of them were eosinophilic (72.1%). Allergic patients had earlier asthma onset and had more controlled disease than nonallergic ones. Eosinophilic patients were younger and less obese than noneosinophilic patients. Obese and late-onset asthmatics had more uncontrolled disease than normal weight subjects and early onset patients.

Conclusions

The high rate of disease control in the patients with severe asthma in the current study demonstrated the importance of targeted individualized therapy with accurate phenotyping in specialized asthma outpatient clinics.

Eosinophilic Airway Diseases: From Pathophysiological Mechanisms to Clinical Practice

Eosinophils play a key role in airway inflammation in many diseases, such as allergic and non-allergic asthma, chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. In these chronic disabling conditions, eosinophils contribute to tissue damage, repair, remodeling, and disease persistence through the production a variety of mediators. With the introduction of biological drugs for the treatment of these respiratory diseases, the classification of patients based on clinical characteristics (phenotype) and pathobiological mechanisms (endotype) has become mandatory. This need is particularly evident in severe asthma, where, despite the great scientific efforts to understand the immunological pathways underlying clinical phenotypes, the identification of specific biomarkers defining endotypes or predicting pharmacological response remains unsatisfied. In addition, a significant heterogeneity also exists among patients with other airway diseases. In this review, we describe some of the immunological differences in eosinophilic airway inflammation associated with severe asthma and other airway diseases and how these factors might influence the clinical presentation, with the aim of clarifying when eosinophils play a key pathogenic role and, therefore, represent the preferred therapeutic target.

Poor Translatability of Biomedical Research Using Animals - A Narrative Review

The failure rate for the translation of drugs from animal testing to human treatments remains at over 92%, where it has been for the past few decades. The majority of these failures are due to unexpected toxicity - that is, safety issues revealed in human trials that were not apparent in animal tests - or lack of efficacy. However, the use of more innovative tools, such as organs-on-chips, in the preclinical pipeline for drug testing, has revealed that these tools are more able to predict unexpected safety events prior to clinical trials and so can be used for this, as well as for efficacy testing. Here, we review several disease areas, and consider how the use of animal models has failed to offer effective new treatments. We also make some suggestions as to how the more human-relevant new approach methodologies might be applied to address this.

Distribution of type 2 biomarkers and association with severity, clinical characteristics and comorbidities in the BREATHE real-life asthma population

Background

Type 2 (T2) high asthma is recognised as a heterogenous entity consisting of several endotypes; however, the prevalence and distribution of the T2 biomarkers in the general asthma population, across asthma severity, and across compartments is largely unknown. The objective of the present study was to describe expression and overlaps of airway and systemic T2 biomarkers in a clinically representative asthma population.

Methods

Patients with asthma from the real-life BREATHE cohort referred to a specialist centre were included and grouped according to T2 biomarkers: blood and sputum eosinophilia (≥0.3×10⁹ cells·L^-1 and 3% respectively), total IgE (≥150 U·mL^-1), and fractional exhaled nitric oxide (≥25 ppb).

Results

Patients with mild-to-moderate asthma were younger (41 versus 49 years, p<0.001), had lower body mass index (25.9 versus 28.0 kg·m^-2, p=0.002) and less atopy (47% versus 58%, p=0.05), higher forced expiratory volume in 1 s (3.2 versus 2.8 L, p<0.001) and forced vital capacity (4.3 versus 3.9 L, p<0.001) compared with patients with severe asthma, who had higher blood (0.22×10⁹ versus 0.17×10⁹ cells·L^-1, p=0.01) and sputum (3.0% versus 1.5%, p=0.01) eosinophils. Co-expression of all T2 biomarkers was a particular characteristic of severe asthma (p<0.001). In patients with eosinophilia, sputum eosinophilia without blood eosinophilia was present in 45% of patients with mild-to-moderate asthma and 35% with severe asthma.

Conclusion

Severe asthma is more commonly associated with activation of several T2 pathways, indicating that treatments targeting severe asthma may need to act more broadly on T2 inflammatory pathways. Implementation of airway inflammometry in clinical care is of paramount importance, as the best treatable trait is otherwise is overlooked in a large proportion of patients irrespective of disease severity.

Precision Medicine Intervention in Severe Asthma (PRISM) study: molecular phenotyping of patients with severe asthma and response to biologics

Severe asthma represents an important clinical unmet need despite the introduction of biologic agents. Although advanced omics technologies have aided researchers in identifying clinically relevant molecular pathways, there is a lack of an integrated omics approach in severe asthma particularly in terms of its evolution over time. The collaborative Korea-UK research project Precision Medicine Intervention in Severe Asthma (PRISM) was launched in 2020 with the aim of identifying molecular phenotypes of severe asthma by analysing multi-omics data encompassing genomics, epigenomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metagenomics and metabolomics. PRISM is a prospective, observational, multicentre study involving patients with severe asthma attending severe asthma clinics in Korea and the UK. Data including patient demographics, inflammatory phenotype, medication, lung function and control status of asthma will be collected along with biological samples (blood, sputum, urine, nasal epithelial cells and exhaled breath condensate) for omics analyses. Follow-up evaluations will be performed at baseline, 1 month, 4-6 months and 10-12 months to assess the stability of phenotype and treatment responses for those patients who have newly begun biologic therapy. Standalone and integrated omics data will be generated from the patient samples at each visit, paired with clinical information. By analysing these data, we will identify the molecular pathways that drive lung function, asthma control status, acute exacerbations and the requirement for daily oral corticosteroids, and that are involved in the therapeutic response to biological therapy. PRISM will establish a large multi-omics dataset of severe asthma to identify potential key pathophysiological pathways of severe asthma.

Classifications of moderate to severe asthma phenotypes in Japan and analysis of serum biomarkers: A Nationwide Cohort Study in Japan (NHOM Asthma Study)

BACKGROUND

Asthma is a heterogeneous disease, and phenotyping can facilitate understanding of disease pathogenesis and direct appropriate asthma treatment. This nationwide cohort study aimed to phenotype asthma patients in Japan and identify potential biomarkers to classify the phenotypes.

METHODS

Adult asthma patients (n = 1925) from 27 national hospitals in Japan were enrolled and divided into Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA) steps 4 or 5 (GINA 4, 5) and GINA Steps 1, 2, or 3 (GINA 1-3) for therapy. Clinical data and questionnaires were collected. Biomarker levels among GINA 4, 5 patients were measured. Ward's minimum variance hierarchical clustering method and tree analysis were performed for phenotyping. Analysis of variance, the Kruskal-Wallis, and chi-square tests were used to compare cluster differences.

RESULTS

The following five clusters were identified: 1) late-onset, old, less-atopic; 2) late-onset, old, eosinophilic, low FEV₁; 3) early-onset, long-duration, atopic, poorly controlled; 4) early-onset, young, female-dominant, atopic; and 5) female-dominant, T1/T2-mixed, most severe. Age of onset, disease duration, blood eosinophils and neutrophils, asthma control questionnaire Sum 6, number of controllers, FEV₁, body mass index (BMI), and hypertension were the phenotype-classifying variables determined by tree analysis that assigned 79.5% to the appropriate cluster. Among the cytokines measured, IL-1RA, YKL40/CHI3L1, IP-10/CXCL10, RANTES/CCL5, and TIMP-1 were useful biomarkers for classifying GINA 4, 5 phenotypes.

CONCLUSIONS

Five distinct phenotypes were identified for moderate to severe asthma and may be classified using clinical and molecular variables (Registered in UMIN-CTR; UMIN000027776.).

Phenotypes and Endotypes in Asthma

Asthma is a broadly encompassing diagnosis of airway inflammation with significant variability in presentation and response. Advances in molecular techniques and imaging have unraveled the delicate mechanistic tapestry responsible for the underlying inflammatory pathways in asthma. The elucidation of biomarkers and cellular components specific to these inflammatory pathways allowed for the categorization of asthma from generic phenotypes to more specific mechanistic endotypes, with two prominent subgroups emerging based on the level of Type 2 inflammation present - T2 high and T2 low (or non-T2). Sophisticated modeling and cluster analyses using a combination of clinical, physiologic, and biomarker parameters have permitted the identification of subendotypes within the broader T2 umbrella. This mechanistic-driven classification schema for asthma has dramatically altered the landscape of asthma management with the discovery and approval of targeted biologic therapies and has ushered in a new era of personalized precision medicine in asthma.

Systems Biology in Asthma

The application of mathematical and computational analysis, together with the modelling of biological and physiological processes, is transforming our understanding of the pathophysiology of complex diseases. This systems biology approach incorporates large amounts of genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic, metabolomic, breathomic, metagenomic and imaging data from disease sites together with deep clinical phenotyping, including patient-reported outcomes. Integration of these datasets will provide a greater understanding of the molecular pathways associated with severe asthma in each individual patient and determine their personalised treatment regime. This chapter describes some of the data integration methods used to combine data sets and gives examples of the results obtained using single datasets and merging of multiple datasets (data fusion and data combination) from several consortia including the severe asthma research programme (SARP) and the Unbiased Biomarkers Predictive of Respiratory Disease Outcomes (U-BIOPRED) consortia. These results highlight the involvement of several different immune and inflammatory pathways and factors in distinct subsets of patients with severe asthma. These pathways often overlap in patients with distinct clinical features of asthma, which may explain the incomplete or no response in patients undergoing specific targeted therapy. Collaboration between groups will improve the predictions obtained using a systems medicine approach in severe asthma.

Precision Medicine in Asthma Therapy

Asthma is a complex, heterogeneous disease that necessitates a proper patient evaluation to decide the correct treatment and optimize disease control. The recent introduction of new target therapies for the most severe form of the disease has heralded a new era of treatment options, intending to treat and control specific molecular pathways in asthma pathophysiology. Precision medicine, using omics sciences, investigates biological and molecular mechanisms to find novel biomarkers that can be used to guide treatment selection and predict response. The identification of reliable biomarkers indicative of the pathological mechanisms in asthma is essential to unravel new potential treatment targets. In this chapter, we provide a general description of the currently available -omics techniques, focusing on their implications in asthma therapy.

Transcriptome analysis of sputum cells reveals two distinct molecular phenotypes of “asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease overlap” in the elderly

Background

Little is known about the pathogenesis of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) overlap (ACO). This study examined the molecular phenotypes of ACO in the elderly.

Methods

A genome-wide investigation of gene expression in sputum cells from the elderly with asthma, ACO, or COPD was performed using gene set variation analysis (GSVA) with predefined asthma- or COPD-specific gene signatures. We then performed a subsequent cluster analysis using enrichment scores (ESs) to identify molecular clusters in the elderly with ACO. Finally, a second GSVA was conducted with curated gene signatures to gain insight into the pathogenesis of ACO associated with the identified molecular clusters.

Results

Seventy elderly individuals were enrolled (17 with asthma, 41 with ACO, and 12 with COPD). Two distinct molecular clusters of ACO were identified. Clinically, ACO cluster 1 (N = 23) was characterized by male and smoker dominance, more obstructive lung function, and higher proportions of both neutrophil and eosinophil in induced sputum compared to ACO cluster 2 (N = 18). ACO cluster 1 had molecular features similar to both asthma and COPD, with mitochondria and peroxisome dysfunction as important mechanisms in the pathogenesis of these diseases. The molecular features of ACO cluster 2 differed from those of asthma and COPD, with enhanced innate immune reactions to microorganisms identified as being important in the pathogenesis of this form of ACO.

Conclusion

Recognition of the unique biological pathways associated with the two distinct molecular phenotypes of ACO will deepen our understanding of ACO in the elderly.

Critical evaluation of asthma biomarkers in clinical practice

The advent of personalized medicine has revolutionized the whole approach to the management of asthma, representing the essential basis for future developments. The cornerstones of personalized medicine are the highest precision in diagnosis, individualized prediction of disease evolution, and patient-tailored treatment. To this aim, enormous efforts have been established to discover biomarkers able to predict patients' phenotypes according to clinical, functional, and bio-humoral traits. Biomarkers are objectively measured characteristics used as indicators of biological or pathogenic processes or clinical responses to specific therapeutic interventions. The diagnosis of type-2 asthma, prediction of response to type-2 targeted treatments, and evaluation of the risk of exacerbation and lung function impairment have been associated with biomarkers detectable either in peripheral blood or in airway samples. The surrogate nature of serum biomarkers, set up to be less invasive than sputum analysis or bronchial biopsies, has shown several limits concerning their clinical applicability. Routinely used biomarkers, like peripheral eosinophilia, total IgE, or exhaled nitric oxide, result, even when combined, to be not completely satisfactory in segregating different type-2 asthma phenotypes, particularly in the context of severe asthma where the choice among different biologics is compelling. Moreover, the type-2 low fraction of patients is not only an orphan of biological treatments but is at risk of being misdiagnosed due to the low negative predictive value of type-2 high biomarkers. Sputum inflammatory cell analysis, considered the highest specific biomarker in discriminating eosinophilic inflammation in asthma, and therefore elected as the gold standard in clinical trials and research models, demonstrated many limits in clinical applicability. Many factors may influence the measure of these biomarkers, such as corticosteroid intake, comorbidities, and environmental exposures or habits. Not least, biomarkers variability over time is a confounding factor leading to wrong clinical choices. In this narrative review, we try to explore many aspects concerning the role of routinely used biomarkers in asthma, applying a critical view over the "state of the art" and contemporarily offering an overview of the most recent evidence in this field.

Determinants of Severe Asthma - A Long-Term Cohort Study in Northern Sweden

Background

Risk factors for severe asthma are not well described. The aim was to identify clinical characteristics and risk factors at study entry that are associated with severe asthma at follow-up in a long-term prospective population-based cohort study of adults with asthma.

Methods

Between 1986 and 2001, 2055 adults with asthma were identified by clinical examinations of population-based samples in northern Sweden. During 2012-2014, n = 1006 (71% of invited) were still alive, residing in the study area and participated in a follow-up, of which 40 were identified as having severe asthma according to ERS/ATS, 131 according to GINA, while 875 had other asthma. The mean follow-up time was 18.7 years.

Results

Obesity at study entry and adult-onset asthma were associated with severe asthma at follow-up. While severe asthma was more common in those with adult-onset asthma in both men and women, the association with obesity was observed in women only. Sensitization to mites and moulds, but not to other allergens, as well as NSAID-related respiratory symptoms was more common in severe asthma than in other asthma. Participants with severe asthma at follow-up had lower FEV₁, more pronounced FEV₁ reversibility, and more wheeze, dyspnea and nighttime awakenings already at study entry than those with other asthma.

Conclusion

Adult-onset asthma is an important risk factor for development of severe asthma in adults, and obesity increased the risk among women. The high burden of respiratory symptoms already at study entry also indicate long-term associations with development of severe asthma.

Leukocyte redistribution as immunological biomarker of corticosteroid resistance in severe asthma

BACKGROUND

Earlier studies have suggested that the leukocyte redistribution can be considered as an immunological marker of the clinical response to corticosteroids (CS), representing an easy measurable potential biomarker in severe asthma.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to determinate the utility of the leukocyte redistribution as a biomarker of disease heterogeneity in patients with severe asthma and as a bioindicator of potential CS resistance.

METHODS

We developed an unbiased clustering approach based on the clinical data and the flow cytometry results of peripheral blood leukocyte phenotypes of 142 patients with severe asthma before and after systemic CS administration.

RESULTS

Based on the differences in the blood count eosinophils, neutrophils and lymphocytes, together with the flow cytometry measurements of basic T cell, B cell and NK cell subpopulations before and after systemic CS administration, we identified two severe asthma clusters, which differed in the cell frequencies, response to CS and atopy status. Patients in cluster 1 had higher frequency of blood eosinophils at baseline, were sensitized to less allergens and had better steroid responsiveness, measured as the pronounced leukocyte redistribution after the administration of systemic CS. Patients in cluster 2 were determined by the higher frequency of B-cells and stronger IgE sensitization status to the multiple allergens. They also displayed higher steroid resistance, as the clinical correlate for the lower leukocyte redistribution after administration of systemic CS.

CONCLUSION

The flow cytometry-based profiling of the basic populations of immune cells in the blood and its analysis before and after systemic corticosteroid administration could improve personalized treatment approaches in patients with severe asthma.

Phenotyping, Precision Medicine, and Asthma

The traditional one-size-fits all approach based on asthma severity is archaic. Asthma is a heterogenous syndrome rather than a single disease entity. Studies evaluating observable characteristics called phenotypes have elucidated this heterogeneity. Asthma clusters demonstrate overlapping features, are generally stable over time and are reproducible. What the identification of clusters may have failed to do, is move the needle of precision medicine meaningfully in asthma. This may be related to the lack of a straightforward and clinically meaningful way to apply what we have learned about asthma clusters. Clusters are based on both clinical factors and biomarkers. The use of biomarkers is slowly gaining popularity, but phenotyping based on biomarkers is generally greatly underutilized even in subspecialty care. Biomarkers are more often used to evaluate type 2 (T2) inflammatory signatures and eosinophils (sputum and blood), fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) and serum total and specific immunoglobulin (Ig) E reliably characterize the underlying inflammatory pathways. Biomarkers perform variably and clinicians must be familiar with their advantages and disadvantages to accurately apply them in clinical care. In addition, it is increasingly clear that clinical features are critical in understanding not only phenotypic characterization but in predicting response to therapy and future risk of poor outcomes. Strategies for asthma management will need to leverage our knowledge of biomarkers and clinical features to create composite scores and risk prediction tools that are clinically applicable. Despite significant progress, many questions remain, and more work is required to accurately identify non-T2 biomarkers. Adoption of phenotyping and more consistent use of biomarkers is needed, and we should continue to encourage this incorporation into practice.

A retrospective observational study on pheno-endotypes of severe asthma among adults attending asthma clinic in a tertiary care centre in India

Background and Objective

Severe asthma phenotyping based on invasive and non-invasive bio-markers assists in a better understanding of heterogeneity of clinical presentations and thereby using targeted therapies. Therefore, the current study was conducted to evaluate phenotypes based on non-invasive bio-markers of severe asthma patients attending a tertiary care hospital in North India.

Methods

This was a retrospective, observational study conducted on the patients who visited the respiratory department of a tertiary care hospital in North India. Patients aged 18 years and above diagnosed with severe asthma were classified into distinct phenotypes, namely, atopic asthma, eosinophilic asthma, and Type 2 low asthma. Patients with their clinical and functional parameters were classified based on the levels of bio-chemical and hematological results [such as total/specific IgE, blood absolute eosinophil count (AEC)], skin prick tests, history of allergy, and the presence of allergic symptoms.

Results

Out of total 100 severe asthmatics, the majority of the patients had an eosinophilic asthma (49%) phenotype, followed by atopic (allergic) asthma (36%) and Type 2 low asthma (15%) phenotypes. However, it was found that 29% of these patients had overlap of both atopy and eosinophilia. The atopic phenotype showed allergic symptoms, positive skin prick tests, and elevated IgE levels. The eosinophilic phenotype had high AEC (≥300 cells/uL) and low IgE (< 30 IU/ml) levels. The Type 2 low phenotype showed low AEC and IgE levels along with the absence of allergic symptoms. However, among these 100 patients, overlapping traits of both atopy and eosinophilia were labelled as overlap phenotypes. 50% of type 2 low severe asthma cases had eosinophils >150 cells/cmm and were eligible for mepolizumab.

Conclusions

Identification of severe asthma pheno-endotypes based on simple non-invasive bio-markers is feasible in Indian settings, and it is of utmost importance for future treatment planning in these patients with available biologicals. Overlap of eosinophilic and atopic endotypes in one-third cases would challenge physicians to choose upfront appropriate biologicals in our country. Type 2 low asthma was least common with only <10% cases of severe asthma being ineligible for any biological.

Development of clinical phenotypes and biological profiles via proteomic analysis of trauma patients

Background

Trauma is a heterogeneous condition, and specific clinical phenotypes may identify target populations that could benefit from certain treatment strategies. In this retrospective study, we determined clinical phenotypes and identified new target populations of trauma patients and their treatment strategies.

Methods

We retrospectively analyzed datasets from the Japan Trauma Data Bank and determined trauma death clinical phenotypes using statistical machine learning techniques and evaluation of biological profiles.

Results

The analysis included 71,038 blunt trauma patients [median age, 63 (interquartile range [IQR], 40–78) years; 45,479 (64.0%) males; median Injury Severity Score, 13 (IQR, 9–20)], and the derivation and validation cohorts included 42,780 (60.2%) and 28,258 (39.8%) patients, respectively. Of eight derived phenotypes (D-1–D-8), D-8 (n = 2178) had the highest mortality (48.6%) with characteristic severely disturbed consciousness and was further divided into four phenotypes: D-8α, multiple trauma in the young (n = 464); D-8β, head trauma with lower body temperature (n = 178); D-8γ, severe head injury in the elderly (n = 957); and D-8δ, multiple trauma, with higher predicted mortality than actual mortality (n = 579). Phenotype distributions were comparable in the validation cohort. Biological profile analysis of 90 trauma patients revealed that D-8 exhibited excessive inflammation, including enhanced acute inflammatory response, dysregulated complement activation pathways, and impaired coagulation, including downregulated coagulation and platelet degranulation pathways, compared with other phenotypes.

Conclusions

We identified clinical phenotypes with high mortality, and the evaluation of the molecular pathogenesis underlying these clinical phenotypes suggests that lethal trauma may involve excessive inflammation and coagulation disorders.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13054-022-04103-z.

Characterization of Selective and Potent JAK1 Inhibitors Intended for the Inhaled Treatment of Asthma

Purpose

Janus kinase 1 (JAK1) is implicated in multiple inflammatory pathways that are critical for the pathogenesis of asthma, including the interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5, IL-13, and thymic stromal lymphopoietin cytokine signaling pathways, which have previously been targeted to treat allergic asthma. Here, we describe the development of AZD0449 and AZD4604, two novel and highly selective JAK1 inhibitors with promising properties for inhalation.

Methods

The effects of AZD0449 and AZD4604 in JAK1 signaling pathways were assessed by measuring phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) proteins and chemokine release using immunoassays of whole blood from healthy human volunteers and rats. Pharmacokinetic studies performed on rats evaluated AZD0449 at a lung deposited dose of 52 μg/kg and AZD4604 at 30 µg/kg. The efficacy of AZD0449 and AZD4604 was assessed by evaluating lung inflammation (cell count and cytokine levels) and the late asthmatic response (average enhanced pause [Penh]).

Results

Both compounds inhibited JAK1-dependent cytokine signaling pathways in a dose-dependent manner in human and rat leukocytes. After intratracheal administration in rats, both compounds exhibited low systemic exposures and medium-to-long terminal lung half-lives (AZD0449, 34 hours; AZD4604, 5 hours). Both compounds inhibited STAT3 and STAT5 phosphorylation in lung tissue from ovalbumin (OVA)-challenged rats. AZD0449 and AZD4604 also inhibited eosinophilia in the lung and reduced the late asthmatic response, measured as Penh in the OVA rat model.

Conclusion

AZD0449 and AZD4604 show potential as inhibitors of signaling pathways involved in asthmatic immune responses, with target engagement demonstrated locally in the lung. These findings support the clinical development of AZD0449 and AZD4604 for the treatment of patients with asthma.

Allergic Asthma in the Era of Personalized Medicine

Allergic asthma is the most common asthma phenotype and is characterized by IgE sensitization to airborne allergens and subsequent typical asthmatic symptoms after exposure. A form of type 2 (T2) airway inflammation underlies allergic asthma. It usually arises in childhood and is accompanied by multimorbidity presenting with the occurrence of other atopic diseases, such as atopic dermatitis and allergic rhinitis. Diagnosis of the allergic endotype is based on in vivo (skin prick tests) and/or in vitro (allergen-specific IgE levels, component-resolved diagnosis (CRD)) documentation of allergic sensitization. Biomarkers identifying patients with allergic asthma include total immunoglobulin E (IgE) levels, fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) and serum eosinophil counts. The treatment of allergic asthma is a complex procedure and requires a patient-tailored approach. Besides environmental control involving allergen avoidance measurements and cornerstone pharmacological interventions based on inhaled drugs, allergen-specific immunotherapy (AIT) and biologics are now at the forefront when it comes to personalized management of asthma. The current review aims to shed light on the distinct phenotype of allergic asthma, ranging over its current definition, clinical characteristics, pathophysiology and biomarkers, as well as its treatment options in the era of precision medicine.

Diversities of allergic pathologies and their modifiers: Report from the second DGAKI-JSA meeting

In October 2021, researchers from the German Society of Allergy and Clinical Immunology (DGAKI) and from the Japanese Society of Allergology (JSA) focused their attention on the pathological conditions and modifiers of various allergic diseases. Topics included 1) the pathophysiology of IgE/mast cell-mediated allergic diseases; 2) the diagnosis and prevention of IgE/mast cell-mediated diseases; 3) the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment of eosinophilic airway diseases; and 4) host-pathogen interaction and allergic diseases. This report summarizes the panel discussions, which highlighted the importance of recognizing the diversity of genetics, immunological mechanisms, and modifying factors underlying allergic diseases.