Combined hyperlipidemia is genetically similar to isolated hypertriglyceridemia

What is the phenotype of heterozygous lipoprotein lipase deficiency?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Genetic testing of patients with severe hypertriglyceridemia often identifies a single heterozygous pathogenic variant in the LPL gene. The complex and variable phenotype associated with this genotype is the topic of this review.

RECENT FINDINGS

Previous research showed that heterozygosity for lipoprotein lipase deficiency is associated with reduced but variable post heparin lipolytic activity alongside inconsistent plasma lipid phenotypes ranging from normal to mild-to-moderate to severe hypertriglyceridemia. Recent research confirms and extends these observations, showing that a heterozygous individual can express a highly variable phenotype over time, depending on the presence of secondary factors. About 10% (range 8-20%) of patients with severe hypertriglyceridemia or multifactorial chylomicronemia syndrome are heterozygous for a rare pathogenic LPL variant, and a clinically relevant minority of these has recalcitrant or sustained hypertriglyceridemia.

SUMMARY

Heterozygosity for lipoprotein lipase deficiency predisposes to hypertriglyceridemia, which is sometimes severe depending on secondary factors, but is typically quite responsive to routine interventions such as diet, lifestyle and existing lipid-lowering therapies. However, many heterozygotes for pathogenic variants in LPL have completely normal plasma lipids.

Lipids dysregulation in diseases: core concepts, targets and treatment strategies

Lipid metabolism is a well-regulated process essential for maintaining cellular functions and energy homeostasis. Dysregulation of lipid metabolism is associated with various conditions, including cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, and metabolic syndromes. This review explores the mechanisms underlying lipid metabolism, emphasizing the roles of key lipid species such as triglycerides, phospholipids, sphingolipids, and sterols in cellular physiology and pathophysiology. It also examines the genetic and environmental factors contributing to lipid dysregulation and the challenges of diagnosing and managing lipid-related disorders. Recent advancements in lipid-lowering therapies, including PCSK9 inhibitors, ezetimibe, bempedoic acid, and olpasiran, provide promising treatment options. However, these advancements are accompanied by challenges related to cost, accessibility, and patient adherence. The review highlights the need for personalized medicine approaches to address the interplay between genetics and environmental factors in lipid metabolism. As lipidomics and advanced diagnostic tools continue to progress, a deeper understanding of lipid-related disorders could pave the way for more effective therapeutic strategies.

Patterns of Lipid Abnormalities in Obesity: A Comparative Analysis in Normoglycemic and Prediabetic Obese Individuals

Background: Obesity is a growing global health concern, often accompanied by dyslipidemia, contributing to cardiovascular risk. Understanding the patterns of dyslipidemia in different glycemic states is crucial for targeted interventions. This study compares dyslipidemia patterns in normoglycemic and prediabetic obesity to improve clinical management strategies. Methods: The study analyzed the complete lipid profiles of 138 subjects, comparing the medians, prevalence, diagnostic performance, and risk assessment of each lipid parameter across 54 non-obese (NO), 44 normoglycemic obese (NG-OB), and 40 pre-diabetic obese (PreDM-OB) groups. Results: Elevated total cholesterol (TC) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) were the most prevalent forms of dyslipidemia observed in obesity (45.35% and 43.53%, respectively). Stratification by glycemic status revealed that triglyceride (TG) levels were elevated in both the NG-OB and PreDM-OB groups, with a more marked increase in the latter group (73.07 mg/dL vs. 97.87 mg/dL vs. 121.8 mg/dL, respectively). Elevated LDL showed better diagnostic performance and higher odds ratios (OR) in the NG-OB group (AUC = 0.660, p = 0.006; OR = 2.78, p = 0.022). Conversely, low high-density lipoprotein (HDL) was more common and exhibited significant diagnostic performance, with higher OR values in the PreDM-OB group (AUC = 0.687, p = 0.002; OR = 3.69, p = 0.018). Importantly, all lipid ratios were elevated in obesity, with TC/HDL showing the highest predictive ability for prediabetes (AUC = 0.7491, p < 0.001). Conclusions: These findings revealed unique and common lipid abnormalities in normoglycemic and prediabetic obesity. Future research should explore the effects of targeted lipid management on obesity-associated complications.

Genetic Architecture and Clinical Outcomes of Combined Lipid Disturbances

BACKGROUND

Dyslipoproteinemia often involves simultaneous derangements of multiple lipid traits. We aimed to evaluate the phenotypic and genetic characteristics of combined lipid disturbances in a general population-based cohort.

METHODS

Among UK Biobank participants without prevalent coronary artery disease, we used blood lipid and apolipoprotein B concentrations to ascribe individuals into 1 of 6 reproducible and mutually exclusive dyslipoproteinemia subtypes. Incident coronary artery disease risk was estimated for each subtype using Cox proportional hazards models. Phenome-wide analyses and genome-wide association studies were performed for each subtype, followed by in silico causal gene prioritization and heritability analyses. Additionally, the prevalence of disruptive variants in causal genes for Mendelian lipid disorders was assessed using whole-exome sequence data.

RESULTS

Among 450 636 UK Biobank participants: 63 (0.01%) had chylomicronemia; 40 005 (8.9%) had hypercholesterolemia; 94 785 (21.0%) had combined hyperlipidemia; 13 998 (3.1%) had remnant hypercholesterolemia; 110 389 (24.5%) had hypertriglyceridemia; and 49 (0.01%) had mixed hypertriglyceridemia and hypercholesterolemia. Over a median (interquartile range) follow-up of 11.1 (10.4-11.8) years, incident coronary artery disease risk varied across subtypes, with combined hyperlipidemia exhibiting the largest hazard (hazard ratio, 1.92 [95% CI, 1.84-2.01]; P=2×10-16), even when accounting for non-HDL-C (hazard ratio, 1.45 [95% CI, 1.30-1.60]; P=2.6×10-12). Genome-wide association studies revealed 250 loci significantly associated with dyslipoproteinemia subtypes, of which 72 (28.8%) were not detected in prior single lipid trait genome-wide association studies. Mendelian lipid variant carriers were rare (2.0%) among individuals with dyslipoproteinemia, but polygenic heritability was high, ranging from 23% for remnant hypercholesterolemia to 54% for combined hyperlipidemia.

CONCLUSIONS

Simultaneous assessment of multiple lipid derangements revealed nuanced differences in coronary artery disease risk and genetic architectures across dyslipoproteinemia subtypes. These findings highlight the importance of looking beyond single lipid traits to better understand combined lipid and lipoprotein phenotypes and implications for disease risk.

Nutrition interventions for adults with dyslipidemia: A Clinical Perspective from the National Lipid Association

Lifestyle habits can have a profound impact on atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) risk. The National Lipid Association previously published recommendations for lifestyle therapies to manage dyslipidemia. This Clinical Perspective provides an update with a focus on nutrition interventions for the three most common dyslipidemias in adults: 1) low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) elevation; 2) triglyceride (TG) elevation, including severe hypertriglyceridemia with chylomicronemia; and 3) combined dyslipidemia, with elevations in both LDL-C and TG levels. Lowering LDL-C and non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol are the primary objectives for reducing ASCVD risk. With severe TG elevation (≥500 mg/dL), the primary objective is to prevent pancreatitis and ASCVD risk reduction is secondary. Nutrition interventions that lower LDL-C levels include reducing cholesterol-raising fatty acids and dietary cholesterol, as well as increasing intakes of unsaturated fatty acids, plant proteins, viscous fibers, and reducing adiposity for patients with overweight or obesity. Selected dietary supplements may be employed as dietary adjuncts. Nutrition interventions for all patients with elevated TG levels include restricting intakes of alcohol, added sugars, and refined starches. Additional lifestyle factors that reduce TG levels are participating in daily physical activity and reducing adiposity in patients with overweight or obesity. For patients with severe hypertriglyceridemia, an individualized approach is essential. Nutrition interventions for addressing concurrent elevations in LDL-C and TG include a combination of the strategies described for lowering LDL-C and TG. A multidisciplinary approach is recommended to facilitate success in making and sustaining dietary changes and the assistance of a registered dietitian nutritionist is highly recommended.

The clinical utility of polygenic risk scores for combined hyperlipidemia

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Combined hyperlipidemia is the most common lipid disorder and is strongly polygenic. Given its prevalence and associated risk for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, this review describes the potential for utilizing polygenic risk scores for risk prediction and management of combined hyperlipidemia.

RECENT FINDINGS

Different diagnostic criteria have led to inconsistent prevalence estimates and missed diagnoses. Given that individuals with combined hyperlipidemia have risk estimates for incident coronary artery disease similar to individuals with familial hypercholesterolemia, early identification and therapeutic management of those affected is crucial. With diagnostic criteria including traits such apolipoprotein B, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and triglyceride, polygenic risk scores for these traits strongly associate with combined hyperlipidemia and could be used in combination for clinical risk prediction models and developing specific treatment plans for patients.

SUMMARY

Polygenic risk scores are effective tools in risk prediction of combined hyperlipidemia, can provide insight into disease pathophysiology, and may be useful in managing and guiding treatment plans for patients. However, efforts to ensure equitable polygenic risk score performance across different genetic ancestry groups is necessary before clinical implementation in order to prevent the exacerbation of racial disparities in the clinic.

Genetic testing in dyslipidaemia: An approach based on clinical experience

We have used DNA sequencing in our lipid clinic for >20 years. Dyslipidaemia is typically ascertained biochemically. For moderate deviations in the lipid profile, the etiology is often a combination of a polygenic susceptibility component plus secondary non-genetic factors. For severe dyslipidaemia, a monogenic etiology is more likely, although a discrete single-gene cause is frequently not found. A severe phenotype can also result from strong polygenic predisposition that is aggravated by secondary factors. A young age of onset plus a family history of dyslipidaemia or atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease can suggest a monogenic etiology. With severe dyslipidaemia, clinical examination focuses on detecting manifestations of monogenic syndromic conditions. For all patients with dyslipidaemia, secondary causes must be ruled out. Here we describe an experience-based practical approach to genetic testing of patients with severe deviations of low-density lipoprotein, triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein and also combined hyperlipidaemia and dysbetalipoproteinemia.

Physiological Bases for the Superiority of Apolipoprotein B Over Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol and Non-High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol as a Marker of Cardiovascular Risk

In 2019, the European Society of Cardiology/European Atherosclerosis Society stated that apolipoprotein B (apoB) was a more accurate marker of cardiovascular risk than low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Since then, the evidence has continued to mount in favor of apoB. This review explicates the physiological mechanisms responsible for the superiority of apoB as a marker of the cardiovascular risk attributable to the atherogenic apoB lipoprotein particles chylomicron remnants, very low-density lipoprotein, and low-density lipoprotein particles. First, the nature and relative numbers of these different apoB particles will be outlined. This will make clear why low-density lipoprotein particles are almost always the major determinants of cardiovascular risk and why the concentrations of triglycerides and LDL-C may obscure this relation. Next, the mechanisms that govern the number of very low-density lipoprotein and low-density lipoprotein particles will be outlined because, except for dysbetalipoproteinemia, the total number of apoB particles determines cardiovascular risk, Then, the mechanisms that govern the cholesterol mass within very low-density lipoprotein and low-density lipoprotein particles will be reviewed because these are responsible for the discordance between the mass of cholesterol within apoB particles, measured either as LDL-C or non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and the number of apoB particles measured as apoB, which creates the superior predictive power of apoB over LDL-C and non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Finally, the major apoB dyslipoproteinemias will be briefly outlined. Our objective is to provide a physiological framework for health care givers to understand why apoB is a more accurate marker of cardiovascular risk than LDL-C or non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol.

A Modern Approach to Dyslipidemia

Lipid disorders involving derangements in serum cholesterol, triglycerides, or both are commonly encountered in clinical practice and often have implications for cardiovascular risk and overall health. Recent advances in knowledge, recommendations, and treatment options have necessitated an updated approach to these disorders. Older classification schemes have outlived their usefulness, yielding to an approach based on the primary lipid disturbance identified on a routine lipid panel as a practical starting point. Although monogenic dyslipidemias exist and are important to identify, most individuals with lipid disorders have polygenic predisposition, often in the context of secondary factors such as obesity and type 2 diabetes. With regard to cardiovascular disease, elevated low-density lipoprotein cholesterol is essentially causal, and clinical practice guidelines worldwide have recommended treatment thresholds and targets for this variable. Furthermore, recent studies have established elevated triglycerides as a cardiovascular risk factor, whereas depressed high-density lipoprotein cholesterol now appears less contributory than was previously believed. An updated approach to diagnosis and risk assessment may include measurement of secondary lipid variables such as apolipoprotein B and lipoprotein(a), together with selective use of genetic testing to diagnose rare monogenic dyslipidemias such as familial hypercholesterolemia or familial chylomicronemia syndrome. The ongoing development of new agents-especially antisense RNA and monoclonal antibodies-targeting dyslipidemias will provide additional management options, which in turn motivates discussion on how best to incorporate them into current treatment algorithms.

Approach to the Patient With Moderate Hypertriglyceridemia

Hypertriglyceridemia is a common lipid disorder encountered in clinical practice. Plasma triglycerides are a marker for the concentration of triglycerides carried in chylomicrons and very low-density lipoprotein particles. A fasting triglyceride level <150 mg/dL is accepted widely as the upper limit of normal range. Guidelines for hypertriglyceridemia are variable without a global consensus on classification and goals for triglyceride levels. A general classification of hypertriglyceridemia is mild < 200 mg/dL, moderate = 200 to 500 mg/dL, moderate to severe = 500 to 1000 mg/dL, and severe > 1000 mg/dL. Because moderate hypertriglyceridemia does increase atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk, it is important to determine the underlying etiology to guide appropriate and timely management. This article provides stepwise recommendations on the diagnosis and management of moderate hypertriglyceridemia, based on 3 common scenarios encountered in clinical practice. Initial steps in management include evaluating for secondary contributors, especially diabetes mellitus. Based on patient characteristics, appropriate management decisions include lifestyle adjustments aimed at weight loss and decreasing alcohol consumption and use of statin and nonstatin therapies.

Sortilin enhances secretion of apolipoprotein(a) through effects on apolipoprotein B secretion and promotes uptake of lipoprotein(a)

Elevated plasma lipoprotein(a) (Lp(a)) is an independent, causal risk factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and calcific aortic valve stenosis. Lp(a) is formed in or on hepatocytes from successive noncovalent and covalent interactions between apo(a) and apoB, although the subcellular location of these interactions and the nature of the apoB-containing particle involved remain unclear. Sortilin, encoded by the SORT1 gene, modulates apoB secretion and LDL clearance. We used a HepG2 cell model to study the secretion kinetics of apo(a) and apoB. Overexpression of sortilin increased apo(a) secretion, while siRNA-mediated knockdown of sortilin expression correspondingly decreased apo(a) secretion. Sortilin binds LDL but not apo(a) or Lp(a), indicating that its effect on apo(a) secretion is likely indirect. Indeed, the effect was dependent on the ability of apo(a) to interact noncovalently with apoB. Overexpression of sortilin enhanced internalization of Lp(a), but not apo(a), by HepG2 cells, although neither sortilin knockdown in these cells or Sort1 deficiency in mice impacted Lp(a) uptake. We found several missense mutations in SORT1 in patients with extremely high Lp(a) levels; sortilin containing some of these mutations was more effective at promoting apo(a) secretion than WT sortilin, though no differences were found with respect to Lp(a) internalization. Our observations suggest that sortilin could play a role in determining plasma Lp(a) levels and corroborate in vivo human kinetic studies which imply that secretion of apo(a) and apoB are coupled, likely within the hepatocyte.

Familial combined hyperlipidemia is a polygenic trait

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

: Familial combined hyperlipidemia (FCH), defined by concurrently elevated plasma triglyceride (TG) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, has long been investigated to characterize its genetic basis. Despite almost half a century of searching, a single gene cause for the phenotype has not yet been identified.

RECENT FINDINGS

: Recent studies using next-generation genetic analytic methods confirm that FCH has a polygenic basis, with a clear large contribution from the accumulation of small-to-moderate effect common single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) throughout the genome that is associated with raising TG, and probably also those raising LDL cholesterol. On the other hand, rare monogenic variants, such as those causing familial hypercholesterolemia, play a negligible role, if any. Genetic profiling suggests that patients with FCH and hypertriglyceridemia share a strong polygenic basis and show a similar profile of multiple TG-raising common SNPs.

SUMMARY

: Recent progress in genomics has shown that most if not all of the genetic susceptibility to FCH is polygenic in nature. Future research should include larger cohort studies, with wider ancestral diversity, ancestry-specific polygenic scores, and investigation of epigenetic and lifestyle factors to help further elucidate the causative agents at play in cases where the genetic etiology remains to be defined.

Polygenic architecture and cardiovascular risk of familial combined hyperlipidemia

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Familial combined hyperlipidemia (FCHL) is one of the most common inherited lipid phenotypes, characterized by elevated plasma concentrations of apolipoprotein B-100 and triglycerides. The genetic inheritance of FCHL remains poorly understood. The goals of this study were to investigate the polygenetic architecture and cardiovascular risk associated with FCHL.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We identified individuals with an FCHL phenotype among 349,222 unrelated participants of European ancestry in the UK Biobank using modified versions of 5 different diagnostic criteria. The prevalence of the FCHL phenotype was 11.44% (n = 39,961), 5.01% (n = 17,485), 1.48% (n = 5,153), 1.10% (n = 3,838), and 0.48% (n = 1,688) according to modified versions of the Consensus Conference, Dutch, Mexico, Brunzell, and Goldstein criteria, respectively. We performed discovery, case-control genome-wide association studies for these different FCHL criteria and identified 175 independent loci associated with FCHL at genome-wide significance. We investigated the association of genetic and clinical risk with FCHL and found that polygenic susceptibility to hypercholesterolemia or hypertriglyceridemia and features of metabolic syndrome were associated with greater prevalence of FCHL. Participants with an FCHL phenotype had a similar risk of incident coronary artery disease compared to participants with monogenic familial hypercholesterolemia (adjusted hazard ratio vs controls [95% confidence interval]: 2.72 [2.31-3.21] and 1.90 [1.30-2.78]).

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that, rather than being a single genetic entity, the FCHL phenotype represents a polygenic susceptibility to dyslipidemia in combination with metabolic abnormalities. The cardiovascular risk associated with an FCHL phenotype is similar to that of monogenic familial hypercholesterolemia, despite being ∼5x more common.

Contribution of hypertriglyceridemia to ischemic cardiovascular disease in Korean Women: A nationwide population-based study

BACKGROUND

The independent effect of serum triglyceride levels on the development of ischemic cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains inconclusive, which might be due to heterogeneity among study populations.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effect of triglyceride levels on ischemic CVD and mortality in Korean women, with stratification according to the menopausal status, diabetes mellitus, or low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels (LDL-C).

METHODS

We retrospectively investigated Korean women aged 40-69 years who underwent health examination in 2009 and were followed up until 2018 using nationwide claim data. The subjects were divided according to triglyceride quartiles (Q): Q1 <70 mg/dL, Q2 71-99 mg/dL, Q3 100-142 mg/dL, and Q4 ≥143 mg/dL. The primary outcome was the incidence of CVD defined as a composite of myocardial infarction and ischemic stroke.

RESULTS

Among 2,208,347 women, primary outcome occurred in 62,255 (2.8%) subjects. As triglyceride levels increased, the event rate of primary outcome increased in both premenopausal and postmenopausal women in the fully adjusted model (hazard ratio [HR] per 1 Q, 1.10 [95% confidence interval (CI), 1.08-1.12] and 1.08 [95% CI, 1.07-1.09], respectively), which was maintained on further stratification according to diabetes or LDL-C (P<0.05 in all). Higher triglyceride levels were more significantly associated with the primary outcome, MI, and stroke risk among women with optimal non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels (non-HDL-C) <130 mg/dL, but only weakly with stroke for women with non-optimal non-HDL-C.

CONCLUSION

Triglyceride is an independent prognosticator in the development of ischemic CVD in Korean women aged 40-69 years.

The Genetic Basis of Hypertriglyceridemia

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Hypertriglyceridemia is a common dyslipidemia associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease and pancreatitis. Severe hypertriglyceridemia may sometimes be a monogenic condition. However, in the vast majority of patients, hypertriglyceridemia is due to the cumulative effect of multiple genetic risk variants along with lifestyle factors, medications, and disease conditions that elevate triglyceride levels. In this review, we will summarize recent progress in the understanding of the genetic basis of hypertriglyceridemia.

RECENT FINDINGS

More than 300 genetic loci have been identified for association with triglyceride levels in large genome-wide association studies. Studies combining the loci into polygenic scores have demonstrated that some hypertriglyceridemia phenotypes previously attributed to monogenic inheritance have a polygenic basis. The new genetic discoveries have opened avenues for the development of more effective triglyceride-lowering treatments and raised interest towards genetic screening and tailored treatments against hypertriglyceridemia. The discovery of multiple genetic loci associated with elevated triglyceride levels has led to improved understanding of the genetic basis of hypertriglyceridemia and opened new translational opportunities.