California teachers perceive school gardens as an effective nutritional tool to promote healthful eating habits

Healthy Eats-Evaluation of a Social Marketing Program Delivered in Primary School Settings in Queensland

One in four school children in Australia are overweight or obese. In response, the Healthy Eats program was developed, piloted, and delivered using a whole-of-school approach underpinned by the socio-ecological model to increase fruit and vegetable consumption among children aged 8-10 years in regional Queensland, Australia. This research presents an outcome evaluation of the Healthy Eats program using pre-post data collected throughout 2021 (cross-sectional for knowledge and longitudinal for behaviour) from 19 schools to assess whether changes occurred in students' nutritional knowledge (n = 1868 (pre = 933, post = 935)) and fruit and vegetable consumption (n = 1042 (pre = 521, post = 521)). Knowledge data was collected via self-reports two weeks prior and immediately after the Nutrition Module. Behavioural data on daily fruit and vegetable consumption was gathered via student passports (i.e., surveys) one week before and for four consecutive weeks after the Nutrition Module. Chi-Square Difference tests and t-Tests were conducted with a significance level set at p < 0.05. Across all 19 schools, knowledge of the daily recommended serves of fruit and vegetables improved significantly following participation in the program, aligning knowledge closer to the Australian dietary guidelines. Behavioural results for fruit consumption were favourable, with clear improvements reported. Increases in vegetable consumption were demonstrated in two of the eight schools. A discussion on the knowledge-action gap is provided, including recommendations for future iterations of the Healthy Eats program.

School Garden Prevalence Before and After the Implementation of the Healthy Hunger-Free Kids Act

BACKGROUND

The Healthy Hunger-Free Kids Act (HHFKA) of 2010 supported implementation of school gardens for promoting fruit and vegetable consumption. We examined school garden prevalence over time by school-level factors during the period before and after the implementation of HHFKA.

METHODS

Using data from the New Jersey Child Health Study, conducted in 4 low-income New Jersey cities, prevalence of school gardens among K-12 schools (n = 148) was assessed between school year 2010-2011 and 2017-2018. Multivariable analysis estimated changes in garden prevalence over time adjusting for school-level factors.

RESULTS

Overall, the sample included 97 elementary and 51 middle/high schools. Multivariable logistic regression showed that compared to 2010-2011 (19%) a higher proportion of schools reported having a garden in 2013-2014 (32%, p = 0.025). Over the entire study period, schools with majority Hispanic student enrollment had approximately half the odds of having a garden compared to schools with majority Black students (p = 0.036).

CONCLUSION

School garden prevalence increased in the year immediately following the implementation of the HHFKA but this increase was not sustained over time. Future research should investigate the reasons for this decline and potential disparities by race/ethnicity.

Educational Gardens and Climate Change Education: An Analysis of Spanish Preservice Teachers’ Perceptions

Educational gardens are powerful outdoor learning environments to address the subject of climate change and foster climate action. Using an online questionnaire, this study examines the influence of the main sociodemographic and academic factors, and the role of connectedness to nature, on the perception of educational gardens as contexts of climate change education (CCE) among Spanish preservice teachers (PSTs). The sample consisted of 889 PSTs enrolled in 9 university campuses of Spain. The statistical analyses performed evidenced that women are more likely to use educational gardens than men and that there is a progressive decrease in the positive perception of PSTs about the usefulness of gardens for CCE as the educational level at which they are being trained increases. Statistics also revealed that the variable connectedness to nature and the rating of the importance of educational gardens in CCE are not significantly related. Nevertheless, the Mann–Whitney U test indicated that PSTs who scored higher on connection to nature wished to broaden their knowledge of sustainable agriculture and, thus, connectedness to nature could be considered a predictor of environmental attitudes, each influencing the other. Based on these findings, recommendations for PSTs’ training in the CCE context are provided.

Evaluation of the effect of a school garden as an educational didactic tool in vegetable and fruit consumption in teenagers

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Increasing the consumption of vegetables and fruits in Mexico remains a challenge. Promoting sustainable food production systems through schools may be an effective way to educate young people about food and nutrition issues. A study of nutritional education in adolescents, based on the school garden, is necessary in order to evaluate its effects on the consumption of fruits and vegetables among middle- and upper-income segments of the population. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of an educational intervention, accompanied by a school garden as an educational teaching tool, to improve vegetable and fruit consumption by Mexican teenagers attending a private middle/high school.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

Teenagers between 12 and 18 years of age (n = 126) attending a private middle/high school in Queretaro, Mexico participated in a 3-arm, controlled, comparative impact study using a vegetable and fruit consumption frequency questionnaire, food consumption diaries, a psychosocial factor assessment questionnaire of vegetable and fruit consumption, and structured interviews. The participants were randomized into 3 experimental groups: 1) food education + school garden (FE + SG), 2) FE only, and 3) control group (CG).

RESULTS

The FE + SG and FE groups significantly increased the frequency and daily intake of vegetables and fruits compared to the CG. The FE + SG group showed greater understanding of, reflection upon, and analysis of the information they received about vegetable and fruit consumption, as well as a greater willingness to include these in their daily diet.

CONCLUSIONS

FE accompanied by a SG as a teaching tool is more effective at promoting vegetable and fruit consumption than either education alone or control in teenagers in middle-upper income segments of the population.

Effects of High-Tech Urban Agriculture on Cooking and Eating in Dutch Nursing Homes

Questions have arisen about the sustainability of the industrialised food system. Alternatives like urban agriculture have emerged to reduce the negative social, environmental and health impacts of industrial agriculture. Such new food supply chains can change the way that people acquire and process food. This study looks at high-tech indoor gardening practices in nursing homes for elderly people, studying four nursing homes in the Dutch city of Velp. We used both qualitative and quantitative approaches to collect data, using site visits, a survey amongst employees, and semi-structured interviewees with residents and decision makers. Inspired by social practice theory, we aimed to understand the transformation of existing practices, investigating how the gardens affect cooking and eating practices, and how their constitutive elements of meaning, material and competences enable these transformations. Our work shows that the indoor gardens resulted in an integration of gardening and the resulting harvest into cooking practices, which in turn transformed residents’ eating practices. Appreciation of the taste of fresh vegetables and appearance of the meal decorated by fresh vegetables, as well as observing the growth of plants and their use, holds value for the elderly residents. Employees welcome the possibility to serve healthier meals. The integration of indoor gardens in existing cooking practices is more successful when employees have gardening and/or cooking competences, when they enjoy cooking and when they do not already cook with fresh ingredients. The gardens are more easily integrated when they are easily accessible. The materiality of the gardens does not require fully equipped kitchens.

Identifying Indicators of Readiness and Capacity for Implementing Farm-to-School Interventions

BACKGROUND

Farm-to-school interventions are recommended strategies to improve dietary behaviors among school-aged children. Tools are needed to assess community readiness and capacity to optimize farm-to-school implementation. The objective of this study was to identify and prioritize factors to inform tailored farm-to-school implementation by practitioners working in diverse contexts.

METHODS

Practitioners and community residents (N = 194) participated in semistructured interviews (N = 18) and focus groups (N = 23). Thematic analysis was conducted to identify themes and subthemes influencing farm-to-school implementation. The subthemes were operationalized into measureable indicators. The themes and their associated indicators were prioritized through a consensus conference with an expert panel (N = 18).

RESULTS

The qualitative data analysis and consensus conference yielded 4 themes and 17 indicators associated with community readiness and capacity to implement farm-to-school. The themes represent school capacity, networks and relationships, organizational and practitioner capacity, and community resources and motivations.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings highlight a range of indicators of community readiness and capacity needed to support farm-to-school implementation. Results offer guidance for tailoring intervention delivery based on levels of community, school, practitioner, and organizational readiness and capacity.

Cultivating healthy trajectories: An experimental study of community gardening and health

Advances in behavioral medicine suggest that optimal solutions to modern health challenges should be multifaceted, targeting multiple cognitions and behaviors simultaneously. Community gardening holds great promise as one such multifaceted intervention but lacks rigorous evidence of efficacy. We present one of the first experimental studies on the topic. The results revealed promise for aspects of community gardening, but also suggest the necessity for the use of rigorous methodologies moving forward. In addition, this article provides a framework for studying the effects of community gardening and similar multifaceted health promotion efforts.

School Gardens: A Qualitative Study on Implementation Practices

School gardens have beneficial effects on children's dietary behaviors but information on its implementation is scarce. The current study aimed to gain insight in implementation practices of school gardens and in perceptions of key members and children towards a school garden. We conducted twelve interviews involving 14 key members and five focus groups with 38 children from fifth to sixth grade (10-13 years old) in four primary schools in Ghent (Flanders, Belgium). We analyzed the interviews and focus groups in NVivo, using thematic analysis. School gardens were mainly initiated to involve children in nature, not to improve vegetable consumption. Participants were positive about having a school garden, experienced facilitating factors (e.g., adaptability of the garden, having a person responsible for the garden), but also various barriers (e.g., difficulties with startup, maintenance during summer holidays and integration in the school curriculum) and suggested some solutions (e.g., involving external organizations and parents, expanding the garden) and motivating factors for children (e.g., colorful plants, use of gloves). In order to improve implementation and to contribute to children's health, future school gardening projects should take the recommendations of key members and children into account.

Facilitating Fresh: State Laws Supporting School Gardens Are Associated With Use of Garden-Grown Produce in School Nutrition Services Programs

OBJECTIVE

To examine whether state laws are associated with the presence of school gardens and the use of garden-grown produce in school nutrition services programs.

DESIGN

Nationally representative data from the School Health Policies and Practices Study 2014 were combined with objectively coded state law data regarding school gardens.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Outcomes were: (1) the presence of a school garden at each school (n = 419 schools), and (2) the use of garden-grown items in the school nutrition services program.

ANALYSIS

Multivariate logistic regression was used to examine each outcome. Contextual covariates included school level, size, locale, US Census region, student race/ethnic composition, and percentage of students eligible for free and reduced-priced meals.

RESULTS

State law was not significantly associated with whether schools had a garden, but it was associated with whether schools used garden-grown items in nutrition services programs (odds ratio, 4.21; P < .05). Adjusted prevalence of using garden-grown items in nutrition services programs was 15.4% among schools in states with a supportive law, vs 4.4% among schools in states with no law.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

State laws that support school gardens may facilitate the use of garden-grown items in school nutrition service programs. Additional research is needed regarding the types of messaging that might be most effective for motivating school administrators to appreciate the value of school gardens. In addition, another area for further research pertains to scaling garden programs for broader reach.

A Multicomponent, School-Based Intervention, the Shaping Healthy Choices Program, Improves Nutrition-Related Outcomes

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effectiveness of the Shaping Healthy Choices Program (SHCP).

DESIGN

A clustered, randomized, controlled intervention lasting 1 school year.

SETTING

Schools in northern and central California.

PARTICIPANTS

Fourth-graders (aged 9-10 years) at 2 control schools (n = 179) and 2 intervention schools (n = 230).

INTERVENTION

Garden-enhanced education, family, and community partnerships; increased regionally procured produce in the lunchroom; and school-site wellness committees.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Changes in body mass index (BMI) percentiles/Z-scores; nutrition knowledge, science process skills, and vegetable identification and preferences; and reported fruit and vegetable intake.

ANALYSIS

Student t test, chi-square, ANOVA of change, and multilevel regression mixed model to evaluate change in outcomes with school as a random effect to account for cluster design effects. Statistical significance was set at P < .05.

RESULTS

There was a greater improvement in BMI percentile (-6.08; P < 0.01), BMI Z-score (-0.28; P < .001), and waist-to-height ratio (-0.02; P < .001) in the intervention compared with the control schools.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

The SHCP resulted in improvements in nutrition knowledge, vegetable identification, and a significant decrease in BMI percentiles. This supports the concept that the SHCP can be used to improve the health of upper elementary school students.

Sustainability via Active Garden Education (SAGE): results from two feasibility pilot studies

Background

Low physical activity (PA) and fruit and vegetable (F&V) consumption in early childhood are continued public health challenges. This manuscript describes outcomes from two pilot studies for Sustainability via Active Garden Education (SAGE), a program designed to increase PA and F&V consumption among 3 to 5 year old children.

Methods

SAGE was developed using community-based participatory research (CBPR) and delivered to children (N = 89) in early care and education centers (ECEC, N = 6) in two US cities. Children participated in 12 one-hour sessions that included songs, games, and interactive learning activities involving garden maintenance and taste tests. We evaluated reach, efficacy, adoption, implementation, and potential for maintenance of SAGE following the RE-AIM framework. Reach was evaluated by comparing demographic characteristics among SAGE participants and residents of target geographic areas. Efficacy was evaluated with accelerometer-measured PA, F&V consumption, and eating in the absence of hunger among children, parenting practices regarding PA, and home availability of F&V. Adoption was evaluated by the number of ECEC that participated relative to the number of ECEC that were recruited. Implementation was evaluated by completion rates of planned SAGE lessons and activities, and potential for maintenance was evaluated with a parent satisfaction survey.

Results

SAGE reached ECEC in neighborhoods representing a wide range of socioeconomic status, with participants’ sociodemographic characteristics representing those of the intervention areas. Children significantly increased PA during SAGE lessons compared to usual lessons, but they also consumed more calories in the absence of hunger in post- vs. pre-intervention tests (both p < .05). Parent reports did not suggest changes in F&V consumption, parenting PA practices, or home F&V availability, possibly due to low parent engagement. ECEC had moderate-to-high implementation of SAGE lessons and curriculum. Potential for maintenance was strong, with parents rating SAGE favorably and reporting increases in knowledge about PA and nutrition guidelines for young children.

Conclusions

SAGE successfully translated national PA guidelines to practice for young children but was less successful with nutrition guidelines. High adoption and implementation and favorable parent reports suggest high potential for program sustainability. Further work to engage parents and families of young children in ECEC-based PA and nutrition programming is needed.

Increasing Prevalence of US Elementary School Gardens, but Disparities Reduce Opportunities for Disadvantaged Students

BACKGROUND

We examined the prevalence of school garden programs at US public elementary schools. The study examined time trends, demographic and regional disparities, and associations with related programs such as farm-to-school.

METHODS

Annual surveys were gathered from nationally representative samples of elementary schools between 2006-2007 and 2013-2014. Annual samples ranged from 553 to 748 schools.

RESULTS

The prevalence of gardens increased steadily from 11.9% in 2006-2007 to 31.2% in 2013-2014 (p < .001). In multivariate logistic regressions the prevalence of garden programs varied significantly by school characteristics. Gardens were more prevalent in the west than in other regions. Gardens were less prevalent at schools serving higher proportions of lower-income students, and were more prevalent at urban schools than in suburbs, towns, or rural areas. Gardens were more common at schools with farm-to-school programs. Gardens also were associated with offering formal classroom-based nutrition education.

CONCLUSIONS

Garden programs in elementary schools have increased over time, but there is room for wider implementation, particularly at schools serving lower-income students. Given the role of childhood in establishing food preferences and dietary consumption habits, such programs are important and can reinforce the messages imparted through nutrition education.

Evaluating the Relationships Among Teacher Characteristics, Implementation Factors, and Student Outcomes of Children Participating in an Experiential School-Based Nutrition Program

The purpose of this study was to examine whether teacher characteristics and implementation factors influenced the effectiveness of a multicomponent nutrition education program to improve nutrition-related knowledge and behavior among fourth-grade children. Schools implemented the Shaping Healthy Choices Program (SHCP), a multicomponent nutrition intervention, during 2013-2014. Fourth-grade teachers ( n = 8) at two schools facilitated nutrition education using an experiential, garden-enhanced nutrition curriculum among students ( n = 173) in their classrooms. Teacher characteristics of teaching experience, self-efficacy in teaching nutrition, and knowledge about nutrition were collected at baseline. Implementation factors of fidelity and completion were measured using self-reports and qualitative observations. Student outcomes included body mass index percentile-for-age, nutrition knowledge, critical thinking skills, and identification of vegetables and were measured pre/post. Relationships were analyzed using multivariate mixed-model regression with classroom as a random effect. Pre/post changes were analyzed using t tests. Students improved body mass index percentile-for-age (−1.99 ± 7.95) and increased nutrition knowledge (2.28 ± 3.40), critical thinking skills (1.98 ± 3.28), and the ability to identify vegetables (0.87 ± 1.09). Teachers’ characteristics of teaching experience, experience teaching nutrition, attendance in a college nutrition course, self-efficacy, and nutrition knowledge were significantly related to fidelity and completeness of program implementation. This study demonstrated implementation of SHCP by teachers can positively influence student outcomes, though program implementation depends on teacher characteristics.

Perceptions and use of sources of health knowledge by young adolescents

BACKGROUND

Understanding how adolescents acquire health knowledge and where they currently seek answers to health-related questions may facilitate the development of interventions that will be both engaging and effective, and may help to improve health over the short- and long-term.

OBJECTIVE

The present study sought to investigate the perception and use of sources of health knowledge by young adolescents as stratified by gender.

METHODS

Thirty 50-min long focus groups were conducted with 143 participants. Focus group questions were built around the following three main categories: sources of knowledge, including preferred sources, sources accessed for general health, and sources accessed for personal/sensitive health; health information and behaviour change, including characteristics of health knowledge presentation that have influenced behaviour change; and learning preferences to promote behaviour change. Content analysis of focus group transcripts was performed.

RESULTS

The use of sources of health knowledge was similar between genders, with some differences noted between sources accessed for general as compared to personal health questions. As well, motivation appeared to be the primary influence of health behaviour change, with knowledge being reported as both as positive and neutral influence, most notably in the areas of diet and exercise. Lastly, adolescents reported several characteristics of health knowledge presentation that they felt would motivate positive behaviour change, including engaging and participatory activities.

CONCLUSION

These results should be considered in the development of interventions to improve health-related behaviour in adolescents, although future research to quantify the use of sources of health knowledge by this population is recommended.

School Gardens: Cultivating Food Security in Nova Scotia Public Schools?

PURPOSE

A small but growing body of peer-reviewed research suggests that school gardens can play a role in building community food security (CFS); however, to date little research exploring the role of school gardens in supporting CFS is available. This paper begins to address this gap in the literature.

METHODS

A qualitative, exploratory, single-case study design was used. The focus of this case study was the school food garden at an elementary school in the River Valley, Nova Scotia, school community.

RESULTS

Results provide useful information about potential CFS effects of school gardens in addition to the environmental effects on school gardens important to their effectiveness as CFS tools. Findings suggest children gained food-related knowledge, skills, and values that support long-term CFS. A local social and political landscape at the community, provincial, and school board level were key to strengthening this garden's contributions to CFS.

CONCLUSIONS

We support Dietitians of Canada's nomination of school gardens as an indicator of CFS with theoretical and practical evidence, underscore the importance of a supportive environment, and need for further research in this area. Health professionals and community organizations provide critical support, helping to weave gardens into a greater movement towards building CFS.

Using a Systematic Approach and Theoretical Framework to Design a Curriculum for the Shaping Healthy Choices Program

OBJECTIVE

To examine the use of a systematic approach and theoretical framework to develop an inquiry-based, garden-enhanced nutrition curriculum for the Shaping Healthy Choices Program.

METHODS

Curriculum development occurred in 3 steps: identification of learning objectives, determination of evidence of learning, and activity development. Curriculum activities were further refined through pilot-testing, which was conducted in 2 phases. Formative data collected during pilot-testing resulted in improvements to activities.

RESULTS

Using a systematic, iterative process resulted in a curriculum called Discovering Healthy Choices, which has a strong foundation in Social Cognitive Theory and constructivist learning theory. Furthermore, the Backward Design method provided the design team with a systematic approach to ensure activities addressed targeted learning objectives and overall Shaping Healthy Choices Program goals.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

The process by which a nutrition curriculum is developed may have a direct effect on student outcomes. Processes by which nutrition curricula are designed and learning objectives are selected, and how theory and pedagogy are applied should be further investigated so that effective approaches to developing garden-enhanced nutrition interventions can be determined and replicated.

A plant to plate pilot: a cold-climate high school garden increased vegetable selection but also waste

AIM

Can high school gardens in cold climates influence vegetable intake in the absence of nutrition education?

METHODS

This study followed a before/after design where student tray-waste data were collected using the quarter-waste method. The study took place March-April 2012 in a high school in upstate New York. The subjects were 370 enrolled high school students that purchased lunch from the school cafeteria. Prior to the introduction of garden greens in the salad, salads were served as usual. On April 24, harvested greens were included in the salad, and changes in selection and plate waste were measured.

RESULTS

When the salad bar contained garden produce, the percentage of students selecting salad rose from 2% to 10% (p < 0.001), and on average, students ate two-thirds of the serving they took. Although waste increased relative to the control (from 5.56% to 33.33% per serving; p = 0.007), more students were consuming at least some salad.

CONCLUSION

This preliminary investigation suggests that school gardens increased selection and intake of school-raised produce. Although a third was not eaten, it is promising to see that still more produce was consumed compared to the past.

Influence of school architecture and design on healthy eating: a review of the evidence

We examined evidence regarding the influence of school physical environment on healthy-eating outcomes. We applied a systems perspective to examine multiple disciplines' theoretical frameworks and used a mixed-methods systematic narrative review method, considering both qualitative and quantitative sources (published through March 2014) for inclusion. We developed a causal loop diagram from 102 sources identified. We found evidence of the influence of many aspects of a school's physical environment on healthy-eating outcomes. The causal loop diagram highlights multilevel and interrelated factors and elucidates the specific roles of design and architecture in encouraging healthy eating within schools. Our review highlighted the gaps in current evidence and identified areas of research needed to refine and expand school architecture and design strategies for addressing healthy eating.

Sustenance and sustainability: maximizing the impact of school gardens on health outcomes

Objective

School garden programmes have become popular action-oriented learning environments in many countries, often driven by converging priorities of environmental sustainability and healthful diets. Many of these programmes have assessed the impact on dietary intake, specifically fruit and vegetable intake, and related dietary behaviours, such as knowledge, preference, motivation, intention and self-efficacy to eat and prepare fruit and vegetables. The objective of the present study was twofold: (i) to review published garden-based programmes conducted in schools targeting dietary intake and/or determinants of dietary behaviour in children; and (ii) to identify similar strategies and components employed by these garden-based programmes.

Design

The review included thirteen studies that have examined the impact of garden-based programmes conducted in school, either during school hours or in after-school settings, on dietary behaviours in children (kindergarten through 8th grade students).

Results

Three of the reviewed studies did not have a comparison or control group and simply evaluated within-group changes after a garden intervention. None of the reviewed studies were randomized, but were assigned based on school’s interest and timing of new school gardens being built. Out of the eleven programmes that examined dietary intake, six found that the programme resulted in increased vegetable intake, whereas four showed no effect. Seven of the eight studies that measured preference found that the programmes resulted in increased preference for vegetables. Gardening programmes also resulted in improved attitudes towards, willingness to taste, identification of and self-efficacy to prepare/cook fruit and vegetables. Similar strategies/components employed by the majority of the programmes included: ‘hands on’ curriculum, incorporation of a cooking component, providing the instructors, parental and stakeholder support, food provision and using the garden as the focal point for media promotion.

Conclusions

Some of the garden programmes resulted in increased vegetable intake, which has positive implications for both environment sustainability and health-related outcomes. Further, the majority resulted in some improvement in behaviour determinants more generally. However, more research is warranted to understand how to achieve long-term improvements in dietary behaviours and how to sustain the garden-based programmes in schools.

School Gardens in the Distrito Federal, Brazil

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study was to identify experiences with gardens in public schools in the Distrito Federal, Brazil, and to analyze factors involved in their use to promote healthy eating habits. METHODS: This is an analytical cross-sectional study with data collection in two phases: (1) telephone contact with all public schools in the Distrito Federal; (2) interviews conducted with a sample of schools with a garden (n=105). RESULTS: Of the 582 schools in the Distrito Federal, 453 (77.8%) participated in phase 1 and 37.7% of these had a garden. Rural schools had a higher prevalence of gardens (p=0.003). Among the schools which had no garden, 75.2% (n=212) had interest in creating one. The main reason for the deactivation of gardens was a lack of manpower to maintain them. The main reason for creating a garden was to supplement school food (56.2%). The garden was used as an educational space to promote healthy eating habits by 60.8% of the schools. CONCLUSION: An expressive percentage of schools with gardens (37.7%) was identified in the Distrito Federal. A number of factors were associated with the presence of a garden, including the location and size of the school, as well as the level of education. A significant percentage of schools reported using the garden as a space to promote healthy eating habits. This result must be refined by assessing the use and impact of gardens as a tool to promote healthy eating habits in the school community.

Edible gardens in early childhood education settings in Aotearoa, New Zealand

ISSUE ADDRESSED

This paper aims to explore the presence and role of edible gardens in Aotearoa/New Zealand Early Childhood Education Services (ECES).

METHODS

Participant ECES providers were identified from the Ministry of Education database of Early Childhood Education Services (March 2009). These include Education and Care and Casual Education and Care, Kindergarten, Home-based Education and Care services, Playcentres, Te Kōhanga Reo. A structured, self-administered questionnaire was sent to the Principal or Head Teacher of the service.

RESULTS

Of the 211 ECES that responded (55% response rate), 71% had edible gardens, incorporating vegetables, berry fruit, tree fruit, edible flowers and nut trees. Garden activities were linked with teaching across all strands of the New Zealand early childhood curriculum. In addition, 34% provided guidance on using garden produce and 30% linked the garden with messages on fruit and vegetable consumption. Most gardens were established recently (past 2 years) and relied on financial and non-financial support from parents, teachers and community organisations. Barriers included a lack of funding, space, time and staff support.

CONCLUSIONS/IMPLICATIONS

Study findings suggest that gardens are already being used as a versatile teaching tool in many ECES settings. Most gardens are new, with a need to support the sustainability and workforce development among teachers and parents in order to be able to maintain these resources for future generations. SO WHAT?: Given the inherent links between gardening and healthy food and exercise, there seem to be extensive opportunities for health promotion aligned with the edible garden movement.

Factors contributing to a school's decision to apply for the California Instructional School Garden Program

OBJECTIVE

To compare the applicant schools (AS) to non-applicant schools (NAS) residing in the same school districts for the California Instructional School Garden Program and identify barriers to the application process.

METHODS

A case-control, cross-sectional study design was used to compare resources and school environments. Pearson chi-square and logistic regression were conducted.

RESULTS

Public schools throughout California participated (n = 1,662). The response rates for AS and NAS were 43.2% and 48.2%, respectively. Applicant schools had greater access to garden coordinators and parent/community volunteers dedicated to school gardens, and they had other sources of funds/grants to support school gardens compared to NAS (P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Access to certain garden resources played a significant role in predicting whether schools would decide to participate in the California Instructional School Garden Program.

Grounds for movement: green school grounds as sites for promoting physical activity

An environmental factor of particular importance to children's physical activity levels appears to be the presence of parks and open space. Thus, in promoting children's health, school grounds merit consideration as a potential setting for intervention. This paper explores how 'green' school grounds, which contain a greater diversity of landscaping and design features, affect the quantity and quality of physical activity among elementary school children. Teachers, parents and administrators associated with 59 schools across Canada completed questionnaires (n = 105). Analysis reveals that through greening, school grounds diversify the play repertoire, creating opportunities for boys and girls of all ages, interests and abilities to be more physically active. Complementing the rule-bound, competitive games supported by asphalt and turf playing fields, green school grounds invite children to jump, climb, dig, lift, rake, build, role play and generally get moving in ways that nurture all aspects of their health and development. Of particular significance is the potential to encourage moderate and light levels of physical activity by increasing the range of enjoyable, non-competitive, open-ended forms of play at school. Seen in this light, green school grounds stand to be an important intervention to be included in school health promotion initiatives.

Garden-based nutrition education affects fruit and vegetable consumption in sixth-grade adolescents

Schoolyard gardens are emerging as a nutrition education tool in academic settings. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of garden-based nutrition education on adolescents' fruit and vegetable consumption using a nonequivalent control group design. Sixth-grade students (n=99) at three different elementary schools made up a control and two treatment groups. Students in the treatment groups participated in a 12-week nutrition education program, and one treatment group also participated in garden-based activities. Students in all three groups completed three 24-hour food-recall workbooks before and after the intervention. A repeated-measures analysis of variance showed that adolescents who participated in the garden-based nutrition intervention increased their servings of fruits and vegetables more than students in the two other groups. Significant increases were also found in vitamin A, vitamin C, and fiber intake. Although further research is needed, the results of this study seem to indicate the efficacy of using garden-based nutrition education to increase adolescents' consumption of fruits and vegetables.