Lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles of clobetasol-17-propionate capable of accumulation in pig skin

Biodegradable calcium carbonate carriers for the topical delivery of clobetasol propionate

Inflammatory dermatoses represent a global problem with increasing prevalence and recurrence among the world population. Topical glucocorticoids (GCs) are the most commonly used anti-inflammatory drugs in dermatology due to a wide range of their therapeutic actions, which, however, have numerous local and systemic side effects. Hence, there is a growing need to create new delivery systems for GCs, ensuring the drug localization in the pathological site, thus increasing the effectiveness of therapy and lowering the risk of side effects. Here, we propose a novel topical particulate formulation for the GC clobetasol propionate (CP), based on the use of porous calcium carbonate (CaCO3) carriers in the vaterite crystalline form. The designed carriers contain a substantially higher CP amount than conventional dosage forms used in clinics (4.5% w/w vs. 0.05% w/w) and displayed a good biocompatibility and effective cellular uptake when studied in fibroblasts in vitro. Hair follicles represent an important reservoir for the GC accumulation in skin and house the targets for its action. In this study, we demonstrated successful delivery of the CP-loaded carriers (CP-CaCO3) into the hair follicles of rats in vivo using optical coherent tomography (OCT). Importantly, the OCT monitoring revealed the gradual intrafollicular degradation of the carriers within 168 h with the most abundant follicle filling occurring within the first 48 h. Biodegradability makes the proposed system especially promising when searching for new CP formulations with improved safety and release profile. Our findings evidenced the great potential of the CaCO3 carriers in improving the dermal bioavailability of this poorly water-soluble GC.

Tackling myelin deficits in neurodevelopmental disorders using drug delivery systems

Interest in myelin and its roles in almost all brain functions has been greatly increasing in recent years, leading to countless new studies on myelination, as a dominant process in the development of cognitive functions. Here, we explore the unique role myelin plays in the central nervous system and specifically discuss the results of altered myelination in neurodevelopmental disorders. We present parallel developmental trajectories involving myelination that correlate with the onset of cognitive impairment in neurodevelopmental disorders and discuss the key challenges in the treatment of these chronic disorders. Recent developments in drug repurposing and nano/micro particle-based therapies are reviewed as a possible pathway to circumvent some of the main hurdles associated with early intervention, including patient's adherence and compliance, side effects, relapse, and faster route to possible treatment of these disorders. The strategy of drug encapsulation overcomes drug solubility and metabolism, with the possibility of drug targeting to a specific compartment, reducing side effects upon systemic administration.

Recent advances in nanotechnology for the treatment of fungal keratitis

Fungal keratitis (FK) is a serious pathogenic disease usually associated with serious ocular complications. The current mainstay of treatment for FK is topical eye drops; however, poor corneal penetration, low bioavailability of the drug and the need to administer high and frequent doses due to the presence of an effective clearance mechanism in the eye result in poor patient compliance. Nanocarriers can extend the duration of drug action through sustained and controlled release of the drug, protect the drug from ocular enzymes and help overcome ocular barriers. In this review, we discussed the mechanisms of action of antifungal drugs, the theoretical basis for the treatment of FK, and recent advances in the clinical treatment of FK. We have summarized the results of research into the most promising nanocarriers for ocular drug delivery and highlight their efficacy and safety in the therapy.

Integrating Artificial Intelligence with Quality by Design in the Formulation of Lecithin/Chitosan Nanoparticles of a Poorly Water-Soluble Drug

The aim of the current study is to explore the potential of artificial intelligence (AI) when integrated with Quality by Design (QbD) approach in the formulation of a poorly water-soluble drug, for its potential use in carcinoma. Silymarin is used as a model drug for its potential effectiveness in liver cancer. A detailed QbD approach was applied. The effect of the critical process parameters was studied on each of the particle size, size distribution, and entrapment efficiency. Response surface designs were applied in the screening and optimization of lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles, to obtain an optimized formula. The release rate was tested, where artificial neural network models were used to predict the % release of the drug from the optimized formula at different time intervals. The optimized formula was tested for its cytotoxicity. A design space was established, with an optimized formula having a molar ratio of 18.33:1 lecithin:chitosan and 38.35 mg silymarin. This resulted in nanoparticles with a size of 161 nm, a polydispersity index of 0.2, and an entrapment efficiency of 97%. The optimized formula showed a zeta potential of +38 mV, with well-developed spherical particles. AI successfully showed high prediction ability of the drug's release rate. The optimized formula showed an enhancement in the cytotoxic effect of silymarin with a decreased IC50 compared to standard silymarin. Lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles were successfully formulated, with deep process and product understanding. Several tools were used as AI which could shift pharmaceutical formulations from experience-dependent studies to data-driven methodologies in the future.

Self-Assembled Lecithin-Chitosan Nanoparticles Improved Rotigotine Nose-to-Brain Delivery and Brain Targeting Efficiency

Rotigotine (RTG) is a non-ergoline dopamine agonist and an approved drug for treating Parkinson’s disease. However, its clinical use is limited due to various problems, viz. poor oral bioavailability (<1%), low aqueous solubility, and extensive first-pass metabolism. In this study, rotigotine-loaded lecithin-chitosan nanoparticles (RTG-LCNP) were formulated to enhance its nose-to-brain delivery. RTG-LCNP was prepared by self-assembly of chitosan and lecithin due to ionic interactions. The optimized RTG-LCNP had an average diameter of 108 nm with 14.43 ± 2.77% drug loading. RTG-LCNP exhibited spherical morphology and good storage stability. Intranasal RTG-LCNP improved the brain availability of RTG by 7.86 fold with a 3.84-fold increase in the peak brain drug concentration (Cmax(brain)) compared to intranasal drug suspensions. Further, the intranasal RTG-LCNP significantly reduced the peak plasma drug concentration (Cmax(plasma)) compared to intranasal RTG suspensions. The direct drug transport percentage (DTP (%)) of optimized RTG-LCNP was found to be 97.3%, which shows effective direct nose-to-brain drug uptake and good targeting efficiency. In conclusion, RTG-LCNP enhanced drug brain availability, showing the potential for clinical application.

An insight on topically applied formulations for management of various skin disorders

Various types of skin disorders across each age group and in each part of geographical world are very dreadful. Despite not being fatal each time they are always of social and mental concern for suffering individuals, causing complications in millions of patients every day and require comparatively longer duration of treatment. Off late, various topical/transdermal formulations have been widely explored for the treatment of various skin ailments. The efficiency of topical therapy depends on various physiochemical properties of drugs like particle size, particle size distribution, partition coefficient, viscosity of dosage form, skin permeability, skin condition and the site of application. Therefore, in plenty of examples, long-acting topical formulations have shown to be markedly excellent in comparison to conventional dosage forms. The major advantages of topical formulations accrue from their demonstrated ability: (i) Reduced serious side effects that may occur due to undesirably higher systemic absorption of drug. (ii) Enhancement of drug accumulation at the desired site. (iii) Easy incorporation of enormous range of hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs and (iv) Reduced risk of dose dumping and comparatively easy termination of drug release. The prospective applications of topically applied formulations and the deposition of pharmaceuticals into the skin are examined.

Efficient epidermal delivery of antibiotics by self-assembled lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles for enhanced therapy on epidermal bacterial infections

The treatment for epidermal bacterial infections has become a primary healthy concern, producing a significant therapeutic challenge. Here we present a facile strategy to fabricate lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles (LCNPs) for efficient epidermal drug delivery over epidermal bacterial infections. The central rotatable composite design method was used for the optimization of the preparation, and that the optimal size (212.63 ± 1.95 nm) was obtained via analysis of variance (ANOVA). The prepared CIP-LCNPs show an average diameter of 325.9 ± 7.4 nm and a zeta potential of 26.6 ± 1.2 mV. Antibiotics can be well encapsulated in LCNPs and its release kinetics is studied with cumulative release of 93.81 ± 2.05 % for 48 h. The hemolytic activity, cytotoxicity, and skin irritation are further investigated. The zones of inhibition are 2.16 ± 0.04 cm and 2.92 ± 0.03 cm for Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, respectively. Moreover, in vitro permeation studies demonstrate that LCNPs can increase the accumulation of antibiotics in the epidermis with retention ratio 2-3 fold higher than commercial formulations. The in vivo result over epidermal-infected wound demonstrates the superior therapeutic effects of LCNPs. The developed LCNPs represent an important advance in fabricating therapeutic materials for enhanced therapy over epidermal bacterial infections.

Boosting the anti-inflammatory effect of self-assembled hybrid lecithin-chitosan nanoparticles via hybridization with gold nanoparticles for the treatment of psoriasis: elemental mapping and in vivo modeling

Gold nanoparticles are a promising drug delivery system for treatment of inflammatory skin conditions, including psoriasis, due to their small size and anti-inflammatory properties. The aim of this study was to conjugate gold nanoparticles with anti-psoriatic formulations that previously showed successful results in the treatment of psoriasis (tacrolimus-loaded chitosan nanoparticles and lecithin-chitosan nanoparticles) by virtue of their surface charges, then examine whether the hybridization with gold nanoparticles would enhance the anti-psoriatic efficacy in vivo. Successful formation of gold nanoparticles was examined by elemental mapping and selected area electron diffraction (SAED). Hybrid conjugates were examined in terms of particle size and zeta potential by dynamic light scattering (DLS). Morphological features were captured by transmission electron microscope (TEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was conducted, as well. All characterization was conducted for the conjugated nanoparticles and compared with their bare counterparts. The in vivo results on imiquimod (IMQ)-induced mouse model showed promising anti-psoriatic effects upon application of gold conjugated tacrolimus-loaded lecithin-chitosan hybrid nanoparticles with a significant difference from the bare hybrid nanoparticles in some of the inflammatory markers. The anti-inflammatory effect of the gold conjugate was also evident by a lower spleen to body weight ratio and a better histopathological skin condition compared to other tested formulations.

PEGylated Lecithin-Chitosan Nanoparticle-Encapsulated Alphα-Terpineol for In Vitro Anticancer Effects

The aim of this study was to fabrication PEGylated lecithin-chitosan nanoparticles (PLC-NPs) as alphα-Terpineol's (αT-PLC-NPs) delivery system and examine its anti-cancer effects. αT-PLC-NPs were synthesized by self-assembling method; after characterization, entrapment efficiency of α-T was measured by HPLC procedure. MTT test was conducted for cytotoxicity evaluation. Chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) analysis were used to determine the angiogenesis properties, and qPCR, flow cytometry, and acridine orange and propidium iodide (AO/PI) staining were used to evaluate the pro-apoptotic effects of αT-PLC-NPs. Finally, the anti-inflammatory and antibacterial activity of the αT-PLC-NPs was also evaluated. αT-PLC-NPs with a size of 220.8 nm, polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.3, zeta potential of +29.03 mV, and encapsulation efficiency of 82% showed higher inhibitory effect on MCF7 cells (IC₅₀: 750 μg/mL) compared to HFF cells (above 1000 μg/mL). Decreased angiogenesis indices and embryonic growth factors in CAM assay, decreased expression of VEGF and VEGF-R genes, and decreased cell migration showed the inhibitory effect of αT-PLC-NPs on angiogenesis. Increased expression of P53, P21, and caspase9 genes, as well as the results of AO/PI staining along with increasing the number of SubG1 phase cells in flow cytometry, confirmed the pro-apoptotic effects of αT-PLC-NPs. Also, its anti-inflammatory effects were demonstrated by inhibiting the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6). The inhibitory power of αT-PLC-NPs in suppressing gram-positive and negative bacterial strains was demonstrated by disk diffusion (DD), minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) methods. PLC-NPs are a promising carrier for α-T transfer for preclinical studies.

Novel Dermal Delivery Cargos of Clobetasol Propionate: An Update

Dermal disorders such as psoriasis and eczema are associated with modifications in the chemical and molecular composition of the skin. Clobetasol propionate (CP), a superpotent topical glucocorticoid, is widely used for the therapeutic management of various skin conditions, owing to its strong anti-inflammatory, antipruritic, vasoconstrictive, and antiproliferative activities. Safety studies demonstrated that CP is safer for a shorter period, however, with prolonged application, it shows secondary side effects such as photosensitivity, Cushing-like syndrome, allergic contact dermatitis, osteonecrosis, hypopigmentation, steroid acne, and skin atrophy. Therefore, the US FDA (United States Food and Drug Administration) has restricted the usage of CP to not more than 15 days. Research scientists addressed its several formulations and drug delivery issues, such as low water solubility, less stability, photodegradation, and poor absorption, by incorporating them into novel nanobased delivery platforms. With the utilization of these technologies, these drawbacks of CP have been resolved to a large extent to reestablish this moiety. This article explores the physicochemical properties and mechanism of action of CP. Additionally, an attempt has been made to discover and highlight the possible features of the novel nanosystems, including nanoemulsions, nanosponges, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, and nanogels, reported for CP. The stability and safety concerns of CP, along with its commercial status, are also discussed.

Self-assembled tacrolimus-loaded lecithin-chitosan hybrid nanoparticles for in vivo management of psoriasis

Lecithin-chitosan hybrid nanoparticles are emerging as a promising nanocarrier for topical drug delivery. They could achieve a maximized encapsulation of hydrophobic drugs due to the lipophilic nature of lecithin that comprises the core while enhancing retention in the upper skin layers using the positively charged polymeric coat of chitosan. The aim of this study is to incorporate tacrolimus; a hydrophobic anti-proliferative agent into lecithin chitosan hybrid nanoparticles by ethanolic injection technique using a suitable co-solvent to enhance encapsulation of the drug and allow a satisfactory release profile in the upper skin layers. Tacrolimus was successfully incorporated into the synthesized particles using olive oil and Tween 80 as co-solvents, with particle size (160.9 nm ± 15.9 and 118.7 nm ± 13.3, respectively) and EE (88.27% ± 4.3 and 66.72% ± 1.8, respectively). The in vitro drug release profile showed a faster release pattern for the Tween 80-containing particles over a 48-hour period (79.98% vs. 35.57%), hence, were selected for further investigation. The hybrid nanoparticles achieved significantly higher skin deposition than the marketed product (63.51% vs. 34.07%) through a 24-hour time interval, particularly, to the stratum corneum and epidermis skin layers. The in vivo results on IMQ-mouse models revealed superior anti-psoriatic efficacy of the synthesized nanoparticles in comparison to the marketed product in terms of visual observation of the skin condition, PASI score and histopathological examination of autopsy skin samples. Additionally, the in vivo drug deposition showed superior skin deposition of the nanoparticles compared to the marketed product (74.9% vs. 13.4%).

Topical Application of Vitamin D3-Loaded Hybrid Nanosystem to Offset Imiquimod-Induced Psoriasis

Lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles display several benefits over either lipid and/or polymer based systems with respect to enhanced drug loading, good colloidal stability, sustained release profile, and high cellular uptake. The present work rivets on development and evaluation of vitamin D₃-loaded monolithic lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (VD3/LPHNPs) for their in vivo anti-psoriatic efficacy. These LPHNPs were prepared using a hot homogenization method and exhibited spherical morphology with a lower particle size (123.1 nm) with narrow PDI (0.234) and efficient encapsulation (76.80%). Further, these LPHNPs demonstrated a sustained release profile of VD3 for up to 3 days following a Korsemeyer-Peppas release model. Further, VD3/LPHNPs were formulated into a topical gel containing 0.005% w/w of VD3. Rheological data suggested that the product exhibited non-newtonian flow properties with characteristic shear-thinning and variable thixotropy features that are desirable for topical formulation. The successful formation of gel structure and its long-term stability were confirmed from the oscillatory studies such as amplitude and frequency sweep tests. In vivo efficacy assessment in imiquimod-induced psoriatic mouse model demonstrated enhanced anti-psoriatic activity of VD3 with improved PASI score when delivered as LPHNPs gel as compared to the free VD3 gel that were further supported by histopathology and immunohistochemistry.

Tacrolimus-loaded chitosan nanoparticles for enhanced skin deposition and management of plaque psoriasis

Tacrolimus is a natural macrolide that exhibits an anti-proliferative action by T-lymphocytic cells inhibition. Hence, it was tested as a potential topical treatment to improve and control psoriatic plaques. In this study, for the first time the lipophilic tacrolimus in chitosan nanoparticles was used to achieve the desired response and dermal retention of the drug using a modified ionic gelation technique. The hydrophobic drug, tacrolimus, was successfully encapsulated into the synthesized positively-charged particles (140.8 nm ± 50.0) and EE of (65.5% ± 1.3). Local skin deposition of the drug was significantly enhanced with 82.0% ± 0.6 of the drug retained in the skin compared to 34.0% ± 0.9 from tarolimus® ointment. An outstanding response to the prepared formula was the enhanced hair growth rate in the treated animals, which can be considered an excellent sign of the skin recovery from the induced psoriatic plaques after only three days of treatment.

Berberine Encapsulated Lecithin-Chitosan Nanoparticles as Innovative Wound Healing Agent in Type II Diabetes

The aim of this research is to formulate a lecithin–chitosan based nanoparticulate system loaded with berberine (BER-LC-CTS-NPs) that could be integrated into a topically applied formulation and assessed for healing wounds in a diabetic animal model. In order to formulate BER-LC-CTS-NPs, soybean lecithin, isopropyl myristate, and berberine dispersed in ethanolic solution were added into an aqueous solution of chitosan dropwise with sonication. We assessed the influence of lecithin amount, chitosan amount, and isopropyl myristate concentration on particle diameter, zeta potential, and entrapment and employed a Box–Behnken statistical design. The resulting optimized BER-LC-CTS-NPs had a mean size of 168.4 nm, a surface charge of 33.1 mV, and entrapment of 82.3%. The optimized BER-LC-CTS-NPs showed a sustained in vitro release profile. Furthermore, the potential of the optimized BER-LC-CTS-NPs integrated into a topical gel formulation for wound healing in streptozocin-induced diabetic rats was assessed. Our findings show that combining chitosan and berberine in the nanoparticles produces a synergistic effect when it comes to wound healing. The optimized nanoparticulate system works by reducing inflammation, inducing blood vessels and fibroblast proliferation, and promoting mature collagen fibers deposition. Based on the experimental results, lecithin–chitosan nanoparticles loaded with berberine have evolved as a promising strategy for accelerating wound the healing process in diabetic patients. However, the clinical merits of the developed system need to be investigated in diabetic patients.

Chitosan-bovine serum albumin-Carbopol 940 nanogels for mupirocin dermal delivery: ex-vivo permeation and evaluation of cellular binding capacity via radiolabeling

The goal of this study was to develop and examine the nanogel-based topical delivery system of mupirocin. Nanogels were prepared with chitosan and bovine serum albumin by ionic gelation and Carbopol 940 was added to improve the gelling/adhesive properties. Detailed characterization studies were performed and the cellular binding capacity of radiolabeled nanogels was investigated on CCD-1070Sk cell lines. Results indicate the successful formation of nanogels with particle size and zeta potential ranged between 341.920-603.320 nm and 13.120-24.300 mV, respectively. The mechanical and rheological studies proved pseudoplastic and strong elastic gel behavior (G' > G''). Mupirocin was successfully entrapped into nanogels with a ratio of more than 95% and the loaded drug was slowly released up to 93.89 ± 3.07% within 24 h. The ex vivo penetration and permeation percentages of mupirocin were very low (1.172 ± 0.202% and 0.161 ± 0.136%) indicating the suitability of nanogels for dermal use against superficial skin infections. The microbiological studies pointed out the effectiveness of nanogels against Staphylococcus aureus strains. Nanogels did not show toxicity signs and the cell binding capacity of radiolabeled formulations was found to be higher than [^99mTc]NaTcO₄ to CCD-1070Sk cell line. Overall, mupirocin nanogels might be considered as a potential and safe topical treatment option for bacterial skin infections.

Polymers in topical delivery of anti-psoriatic medications and other topical agents in overcoming the barriers of conventional treatment strategies

In recent decades, topical treatments to dermal disorders have shown ineffectiveness in delivering the medication at a particular location without a suitable drug carrier. Psoriasis treatment is hindered because of the ineffective delivery and efficacy of conventional pharmaceutical treatment. In conventional medication formulation approach, it is difficult to breach the transdermal layer of a skin membrane for topical drugs, i.e. cyclosporine, methotrexate. This problem is further complicated by extreme disease-associated conditions such as hyperkeratosis and irritation. Intending to assure better drug delivery carriers, this review emphasizes the therapeutic efficacy of polymers and their potential to deliver the drug into the deeper layer of the skin membrane. The polymers are essential in structural and physiochemical perspectives as it works as a carrier for the medication. A vast variety of delivery carriers is available nowadays but their applicability in such dermal cases like psoriasis is still lacking due to less knowledge on an appropriate polymer. The current investigation of suitable polymer would assist in brushing our expertise to optimize the advantages of a wide spectrum of polymers to fulfill the topical targeting of psoriasis.

Corticosteroid delivery using oral mucosa equivalents for the treatment of inflammatory mucosal diseases

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is an immune‐mediated disease of the oral mucosa with idiopathic aetiology. It is frequently treated with topical corticosteroids (applied as gels, mouthwashes, or sprays); however, the mucosal exposure times of topical corticosteroids are short because of removal by the constant flow of saliva and mechanical forces. In this study we used cell monolayers, as well as oral mucosal equivalents (OMEs) containing activated T‐cells, to examine corticosteroid potency and delivery of clobetasol‐17‐propionate from a novel electrospun mucoadhesive patch. The OMEs displayed tight junctions, desmosomes, hemidesmosomes, and an efficient permeability barrier. Following application of corticosteroids to cells cultured as monolayers, the degree of cytotoxicity measured correlated to the level of potency recognized for each corticosteroid; by contrast, OMEs were largely unaffected by corticosteroid treatment. Permeation of clobetasol‐17‐propionate into and through the OMEs was time‐ and dose‐dependent, regardless of whether this corticosteroid was delivered in liquid form or from a mucoadhesive patch, and both liquid‐ and patch‐delivered clobetasol‐17‐propionate significantly reduced the secretion of interleukin‐2 by activated T‐cells. This study confirms that OMEs are more suitable models than cell monolayers for evaluating toxicity and drug delivery. After topical exposure, clobetasol‐17‐propionate accumulated in OMEs at a higher level than betamethasone‐17‐valerate and hydrocortisone‐17‐valerate, and exerted its immunosuppressive actions following application via the patch delivery system, highlighting the efficacy of this mode of drug delivery to treat OLP.

ArtinM Grafted Phospholipid Nanoparticles for Enhancing Antibiotic Cellular Uptake Against Intracellular Infection

Background and Aim

An antimicrobial delivery in the form of surface-modified lectin of lipid nanoparticles was proposed to improve cellular accumulation. ArtinM, an active toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) agonist lectin isolated from cempedak (Arthocarpus integrifolia) seeds, was selected to induce cellular engulfment of nanoparticles within infected host cells.

Materials and Methods

Lipid nanoparticles were prepared using the emulsification technique before electrostatic adsorption of artinM. The formula comprising of rifampicin, soy phospholipid, and polysorbate 80 was optimized by Box-Behnken design to produce the desired particle size, entrapment efficiency, and drug loading. The optimum formula was characterized for morphology, in vitro release, and cellular transport.

Results and Discussion

Soy phospholipid showed a profound effect on controlling drug loading and entrapment efficiency. Owing to its surface activity, polysorbate 80 contributed significantly to reduce particle size; however, a higher ratio to lipid concentration resulted in a decrease of rifampicin encapsulation. The adsorption of artinM on the surface of nanoparticles was accomplished by electrostatic binding at pH 4, where this process maintained the stability of encapsulated rifampicin. A high proportion of artinM adsorbed on the surface of the nanoparticles shown by haemagglutination assay, zeta potential measurement, and transmission electron microscopy imaging. Cellular uptake revealed by confocal microscopy showed the success in transporting Nile-red labelled nanoparticles across fibroblast cells.

Conclusion

The delivery system of nanoparticles bearing artinM becomes a potential platform technology for antibiotic targeting in the treatment of life-threatening chronic diseases caused by intracellular infections.

Self-Assembled chitosan/phospholipid nanoparticles: from fundamentals to preparation for advanced drug delivery

With the development of nanotechnology, self-assembled chitosan/phospholipid nanoparticles (SACPNs) show great promise in a broad range of applications, including therapy, diagnosis, in suit imaging and on-demand drug delivery. Here, a brief review of the SACPNs is presented, and its critical underlying formation mechanisms are interpreted with an emphasis on the intrinsic physicochemical properties. The state-of-art preparation methods of SACPNs are summarized, with particular descriptions about the classic solvent injection method. Then SACPNs microstructures are characterized, revealing the unique spherical core-shell structure and the drug release mechanisms. Afterwards, a comprehensive and in-depth depiction of their emerging applications, with special attention to drug delivery areas, are categorized and reviewed. Finally, conclusions and outlooks on further advancing the SACPNs toward a more powerful and versatile platform for investigations covering from fundamental understanding to developing multi-functional drug delivery systems are discussed.

Tackling the various classes of nano-therapeutics employed in topical therapy of psoriasis

Psoriasis is a dermatological chronic skin condition with underlying autoimmune etiology. It deeply affects patients' quality of life. Therefore, it was an interesting target for researchers throughout the past years. Conventionally, the treatment options include anti-inflammatory agents, immune suppressants, biologic treatment, and phototherapy. Nanotechnology offers promising characteristics that allow for tailoring a drug carrier to achieve dermal targeting, improved efficacy and minimize undesirable effects. Being the safest route, the first line of treatment and a targeted approach, we solely discussed the use of the topical route, combined with advanced drug delivery systems for the management of psoriasis in this article. Advanced systems include polymeric, metallic, lipidic and hybrid nanocarriers incorporating different active agents. All formerly mentioned types of drug delivery systems were investigated through the past decades for the purpose of topical application on psoriatic plaques. Scientists' efforts are promising to reach an optimized formula with a convenient dosage form to improve efficacy, safety, and compliance for the treatment of psoriasis. Accordingly, it will offer a better quality of life for patients.

Formulation and Evaluation of Novel Hybridized Nanovesicles for Enhancing Buccal Delivery of Ciclopirox Olamine

Ciclopirox olamine (CPO) is a topical wide-spectrum antimycotic agent that possesses antifungal, antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activities. Loading CPO into a hybridized vesicular system is expected to enhance its buccal permeation and hence, therapeutic activity, whereas the frequent administration and side effects are reduced. Vesicular systems with high penetration ability were prepared based on cholesterol, Lipoid S45 or Phospholipon 90H, with span 60 while incorporating a penetration enhancer (Labrafac or labrasol) followed by full assessment of their size, entrapment efficiency, and drug release profiles. The optimum formulation, composed of Lipoid S45 and Labrafac, possessed the smallest vesicle size (346.1 nm), highest entrapment efficiency (94.4%), and sustained CPO release pattern, and was characterized for its morphology and thermal properties. This powerful mixture of the penetration enhancers (Lipoid S45 and Labrafac) in the designed hybridized vesicles was thoroughly investigated for their characteristics after being incorporated in bioadhesive gel. Moreover, enhanced antifungal activity was demonstrated either upon testing the designed formulation on agar plates or in vivo upon treating infected rabbits with the proposed formulation. Results suggest that the presented bioadhesive gel incorporating the CPO-loaded vesicles can be a promising delivery system that can offer a prolonged localized antifungal treatment with enhanced therapeutic effect.

In vitro Studies of Antitumor Effect, Toxicity/Cytotoxicity and Skin Permeation/Retention of a Green Fluorescence Pyrene-based Dye for PDT Application

Photosensitizers (PS) are compounds that can generate reactive oxygen species under irradiation of appropriate light and are widely used in photodynamic therapy (PDT). Currently, topical PDT is an effective treatment for several skin diseases, including bacterial infections, fungal mycoses and psoriasis. In addition, PDT is also used to treat nonmelanoma skin cancer and can be a potential tool for melanoma, associated with other treatments. In this work, we evaluated the antitumor photoactivity of a new pyrene-based PS (TPPy) by using the murine melanoma cell line (B16F10). The in vitro permeation/retention tests in porcine ear skin were also performed in order to evaluate the potential application of the PS for topical use in skin cancer. Moreover, to determine the toxicity in vivo, we used the Galleria mellonella as an alternative animal model of study. The results showed that TPPy is a promising PS for application in PDT, with potential antitumor photoactivity (IC₅₀ 6.5 μmol L^-1 ), absence of toxicity in the G. mellonella model at higher concentration (70.0 mmol L^-1 ) and the accumulation tendency in the epidermis plus dermis sites (165.20 ± 4.12 ng cm^-2 ).

Topical delivery of clobetasol propionate loaded nanosponge hydrogel for effective treatment of psoriasis: Formulation, physicochemical characterization, antipsoriatic potential and biochemical estimation

Clobetasol propionate (CP), a superpotent topical corticosteroid, holds great promise for psoriasis treatment. However, common side effects like skin atrophy, steroidal acne, hypopigmentation and allergic contact dermatitis associated with it, hamper its utility for topical application. Taking this into consideration, the current work was aimed to fabricate CP loaded cyclodextrin nanosponge (CDNS) based hydrogel, to alleviate the aforementioned side effects, while controlling drug release. Nanosponges were crafted employing β-cyclodextrin (polymer) and diphenyl carbonate (cross linker) and evaluated appropriately. The selected formulation augmented 45 folds water solubility, with respect to pure CP. The formulation possessed entrapment efficiency (56.33 ± 0.94%), particle size (194.27 ± 49.24 nm) with polydispersitive index (0.498 ± 0.095), surface charge (-21.83 ± 0.95 mV) and drug release (86.25 ± 0.28%). Selected CP-CDNS were found crystalline and uniform in size. Further, in vitro cell viability analysis has been performed using THP1 cells to evaluate cytocompatibility of CP nanosponges. The chosen CP nanosponges were then embedded into Carbopol hydrogel, and characterized for rheological behaviour, spreadability, and texture profile. The developed nanoformulations were also assessed in vivo using mouse tail model. Histological and biochemical assessments have been conducted to explore their antipsoriatic activity via oxidative stress biomarkers. The degree of orthokeratosis was observed remarkably (p < 0.001) amplified by CP-CDNS14 hydrogel as compared to untreated group (control) and CP hydrogel. In addition, drug activity and change in epidermal thickness were found significant. Our findings altogether advocated the profound potential of prepared CP nanogel in the topical treatment of psoriasis, with improved patient compliance.

Multi-component clobetasol-loaded monolithic lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles ameliorate imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like skin inflammation in Swiss albino mice

Lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPNs) exhibit several advantages over polymeric and non-polymeric systems in terms of improved drug loading, controlled release, stability, and cellular uptake. Herein we report a scalable and stable monolithic lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPNs) consisting of a combination of lipids (solid and liquid) and an amphiphilic copolymer, mPEG-PLA. Clobetasol propionate, a topical corticosteroid, was encapsulated in the hydrophobic core of these LPNs that showed spherical shaped particles with a z-average size of 94.8 nm (PDI = 0.213) and encapsulation efficiency of 84.3%. These clobetasol loaded LPNs (CP/LPNs) were formulated into a topical hydrogel using carbopol 974P. CP/LPNs gel showed a sustained in vitro clobetasol release for 7 days with no burst release and 6 month stability at 2-8°C and room temperature. Further, CP/LPNs showed an improved cellular uptake with significant growth inhibition of HaCaT cells. In ex vivo studies, these LPNs penetrated into the viable epidermis and dermis region of the psoriatic skin with undetectable quantities leaching to the reservoir. Further, the topical application of CP/LPNs gel on Swiss albino mice with psoriasis-like inflammation showed negligible leaching of clobetasol into the systemic circulation. Efficacy assessment showed significantly improved PASI score, reduced skin damage and proliferation after treatment with CP/LPNs gel as compared to marketed product (Clobetamos™). Collectively, the enhanced cellular uptake, high skin penetration with increased skin retention, and improved efficacy demonstrate the potential of these LPNs for future clinical application.

Human skin models: From healthy to disease-mimetic systems; characteristics and applications

Skin drug delivery is an emerging route in drug development, leading to an urgent need to understand the behaviour of active pharmaceutical ingredients within the skin. Given, As one of the body's first natural defences, the barrier properties of skin provide an obstacle to the successful outcome of any skin drug therapy. To elucidate the mechanisms underlying this barrier, reductionist strategies have designed several models with different levels of complexity, using non-biological and biological components. Besides the detail of information and resemblance to human skin in vivo, offered by each in vitro model, the technical and economic efforts involved must also be considered when selecting the most suitable model. This review provides an outline of the commonly used skin models, including healthy and diseased conditions, in-house developed and commercialized models, their advantages and limitations, and an overview of the new trends in skin-engineered models.

Drug nanodelivery systems based on natural polysaccharides against different diseases

Drug nanodelivery systems (DNDSs) are fascinated cargos to achieve outstanding therapeutic results of various drugs or natural bioactive compounds owing to their unique structures. The efficiency of several pharmaceutical drugs or natural bioactive ingredients is restricted because of their week bioavailability, poor bioaccessibility and pharmacokinetics after orally pathways. In order to handle such constraints, usage of native/natural polysaccharides (NPLS) in fabrication of DNDSs has gained more popularity in the arena of nanotechnology for controlled drug delivery to enhance safety, biocompatibility, better retention time, bioavailability, lower toxicity and enhanced permeability. The main commonly used NPLS in nanoencapsulation systems include chitosan, pectin, alginates, cellulose, starches, and gums recognized as potential materials for fabrication of cargos. Herein, this review is centered on different polysaccharide-based nanocarriers including nanoemulsions, nanohydrogels, nanoliposomes, nanoparticles and nanofibers, which have already served as encouraging candidates for entrapment of therapeutic drugs as well as for their sustained controlled release. Furthermore, the current article explicitly offers comprehensive details regarding application of NPLS-based nanocarriers encapsulating several drugs intended for the handling of numerous disorders, including diabetes, cancer, HIV, malaria, cardiovascular and respiratory as well as skin diseases.

Application of Chitosan-Encapsulated Orange Oil onto Footwear Insock Leathers : Spray drying technique for an environmentally sustainable antibacterial formulation

The purpose of this study was to devise an antibacterial treatment for footwear insock leathers. Orange oil-loaded chitosan microparticles were utilised for this purpose. Emulsion formulations with different ratios were prepared, and from these formulations microparticles were manufactured using a spray drying technique. Microparticles obtained in this way were applied to the insock leathers using a finishing process. Successful encapsulation was confirmed by ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) spectrophotometry, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) techniques. The microparticles exhibited highly spheroid shape with a size range of 3‐5 μm. Microparticle encapsulation efficiencies ranged from 79.41% ± 3.36% to 86.60% ± 1.13%. After performing microbiological tests and in vitro release studies on the insock leathers, it was determined that the prepared microparticles are able to perform core material delivery. Also, successful microparticle application resulted in these leathers acquiring antibacterial properties. The products and process are biodegradable, nontoxic and biocompatible.

Lecithins-Zein nanoparticles for antifungal treatment: Enhancement and prolongation of drug retention in skin with reduced toxicity

Fungal infections are one of the major skin healthcare issues and cause significant morbidity. Ketoconazole (KC) as a broad-spectrum antifungal drug is widely used to treat skin fungal diseases. However, its therapeutic effects are limited by low concentration, short duration of drug efficacy in the skin and severe systemic toxicity. Here, the ketoconazole loaded Lecithins-Zein nanoparticles (KLZ-NPs) with core-shell structure were designed to resolve above problems. In vitro penetration test confirmed that the ketoconazole concentration of the KLZ-NPs group in the stratum corneum and deeper layers increased significantly (2.98-fold, 1.51-fold higher to free ketoconazole, respectively). Meanwhile, follicular closing technique showed the formed nanoparticles via follicle pathway into the skin had been significantly enhanced, and the results of the visual fluorescent images also confirmed it. Additionally, in the in vivo imaging experiment, the fluorescence intensity of the single applying of the DiR-LZ-NPs was higher than that of the thrice usage of the free DiR. More importantly, the results also indicated that the accumulation of nanoparticles in the liver and spleen was significantly reduced. Hence, Lecithins-Zein nanoparticles are a promising strategy to enhance the drug concentration, prolong efficacy and reduce systemic toxicity in the topical administration for antifungal treatment.

Self-Assembled Lecithin/Chitosan Nanoparticles Based on Phospholipid Complex: A Feasible Strategy to Improve Entrapment Efficiency and Transdermal Delivery of Poorly Lipophilic Drug

PURPOSE

Lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles have shown great promise in the transdermal delivery of therapeutic agents. Baicalein, a natural bioactive flavonoid, possesses multiple biological activities against dermatosis. However, its topical application is limited due to its inherently poor hydrophilicity and lipophilicity. In this study, the baicalein-phospholipid complex was prepared to enhance the lipophilicity of baicalein and then lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles loaded with the baicalein-phospholipid complex were developed to improve the transdermal retention and permeability of baicalein.

METHODS

Lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles were prepared by the solvent-injection method and characterized in terms of particle size distribution, zeta potential, and morphology. The in vitro release, the ex vivo and in vivo permeation studies, and safety evaluation of lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles were performed to evaluate the effectiveness in enhancing transdermal retention and permeability of baicalein.

RESULTS

The lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles obtained by the self-assembled interaction of chitosan and lecithin not only efficiently encapsulated the drug with high entrapment efficiency (84.5%) but also provided sustained release of baicalein without initial burst release. Importantly, analysis of the permeation profile ex vivo and in vivo demonstrated that lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles prolonged the retention of baicalein in the skin and efficiently penetrated the barrier of stratum corneum without displaying skin irritation.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate the potential of drug-phospholipid complexes in enhancing the entrapment efficiency and self-assembled lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles based on phospholipid complexes in the design of a rational transdermal delivery platform to improve the efficiency of transdermal therapy by enhancing its percutaneous retention and penetration in the skin.

Self-assembled lecithin-chitosan nanoparticles improve the oral bioavailability and alter the pharmacokinetics of raloxifene

In this study, we report the development and evaluation of soy lecithin-chitosan hybrid nanoparticles to improve the oral bioavailability of raloxifene hydrochloride. The nanoparticles were formed by interaction of negatively charged soy lecithin with positively charged chitosan. The ratio of soy lecithin to chitosan was critical for the charge, and hence the size of the nanoparticles. The optimal soy lecithin to chitosan ratio was 20:1 to obtain nanoparticles with particle size of 208 ± 3 nm, a ζ-potential of 36 ± 2 mV and an entrapment efficiency of 73 ± 3%. The nanoparticles were also characterized by differential scanning calorimetry and FT-IR spectrophotometer. In-vitro drug release was assessed using dialysis bag method in pH 7.4 buffer. The drug loaded nanoparticles did not cause significant reduction in the cell viability at low doses. Pharmacokinetic studies in female Wistar rats showed significant improvement (~4.2 folds) in the oral bioavailability of the drug when loaded into nanoparticles. Further, the modified everted gut sac study showed that these nanoparticles are taken up by active endocytic processes in the intestine. The ex-vivo mucoadhesion studies proved that the nanoparticles get bound to the mucus layer of the intestine, which in turn correlates with reduced excretion of the drug in faeces. In conclusion, the proposed nanoparticles appear promising for effective oral delivery of poorly bioavailable drugs like raloxifene hydrochloride.

Evolution of Nanotechnology in Delivering Drugs to Eyes, Skin and Wounds via Topical Route

The topical route is the most preferred one for administering drugs to eyes, skin and wounds for reaching enhanced efficacy and to improve patient compliance. Topical administration of drugs via conventional dosage forms such as solutions, creams and so forth to the eyes is associated with very low bioavailability (less than 5%) and hence, we cannot rely on these for delivering drugs to eyes more efficiently. An intravitreal injection is another popular drug delivery regime but is associated with complications like intravitreal hemorrhage, retinal detachment, endophthalmitis, and cataracts. The skin has a complex structure that serves as numerous physiological barriers to the entry of exogenous substances. Drug localization is an important aspect of some dermal diseases and requires directed delivery of the active substance to the diseased cells, which is challenging with current approaches. Existing therapies used for wound healing are costly, and they involve long-lasting treatments with 70% chance of recurrence of ulcers. Nanotechnology is a novel and highly potential technology for designing formulations that would improve the efficiency of delivering drugs via the topical route. This review involves a discussion about how nanotechnology-driven drug delivery systems have evolved, and their potential in overcoming the natural barriers for delivering drugs to eyes, skin and wounds.

Vehicles for atopic dermatitis therapies: more than just a placebo

A topical vehicle is a 'carrier system' for an active pharmaceutical (or cosmetic) substance, referred to hereafter as the drug, but a vehicle may also be used on its own as an emollient to ameliorate dry skin. It is well established that the vehicle plays an important role in determining the bioavailability of a given drug at its ultimate target within the skin. Yet in the treatment of atopic eczema/dermatitis (AD), wherein the structure and function of the skin's outer barrier play a pivotal role in the development and course of the condition, the interaction of the vehicle with this barrier carries a particular importance. It is now clear that the often-considered inert excipients of a vehicle bring about changes within the skin at the molecular level that promote barrier restoration and enhance innate immune defenses with therapeutic value to AD patients. Moreover, the vehicle control in randomized controlled trials (RCTs) increasingly displays significant efficacy. In light of this, we consider the implications of vehicle design in relation to AD pathophysiology and the role vehicles play as controls in RCTs of new drug treatments for this condition.

Tazarotene-loaded in situ gels for potential management of psoriasis: biocompatibility, anti-inflammatory and analgesic effect

Psoriasis is a chronic autoinflammatory disorder characterized by patches of abnormal skin. For psoriasis management, the application of topical retinoids as Tazarotene is recommended. However, Tazarotene could induce skin irritation limiting its use. Herein, it is evaluated the possible usage of in situ gels for tazarotene skin delivery. The topical in situ gels were developed using thermosensitive poloxamers via cold method. They were examined for their appearance, sol-gel temperature, clarity, pH, viscosity, in vitro release, and stability. Their biocompatibility was evaluated by investigating their cytotoxicity and irritation inducing capacity. The possible anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities were determined by measuring the nitric oxide and prostaglandin E₂ levels production in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 murine macrophage cells. It was revealed that the in situ gels had no cytotoxic effect (∼95-100% cell viability) and nor irritation potential (∼97% cell viability), according to the in vitro EpiDerm™ reconstituted skin irritation test. Additionally, the 10% tazarotene-in situ gels showed possible analgesic activity since the production of prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) was decreased. In further, both concentrations of 5% and 10% tazarotene-in situ gels inhibited significantly the nitrite oxide production at 16% and 19%, respectively. Finally, the prepared in situ gels can act as a potential non-irritant alternative option for tazarotene topical skin delivery.

Appliance of fungal chitosan/ceftriaxone nano-composite to strengthen and sustain their antimicrobial potentiality against drug resistant bacteria

Nano-biopolymers could be employed for the delivery of active compounds to increase their stability, bioavailability, efficacy and sustainability. The bioactive chitosan polymer (Cts) was extracted from grown fungus, Cunninghamella elegans, and used for loading ceftriaxone (CFT) and forming the nano-conjugates using tripolyphosphate (TPP) - ionic crosslinking method. The characterization of synthesized CFT/chitosan nanoparticles (NCT) revealed that they chemically crosslinked and had particles' size mean of 56 nm. The CFT loading capacity onto NCT was 54.37%, while its entrapment efficiency was apparently high (79.43%); the maximum released of CFT was 78% from NCT composite after 90 h from dialysis. The CFT/NCT antibacterial activity was confirmed against 3 strains of Staphylococcus aureus (methicillin resistants), using disc diffusion and scanning images of electron microscope, which elucidate that CFT/NCT nano-composite had a vigorous action toward bacterial cells; most cells were ruptured and exploded after 6 h of exposure and entirely lysed after 9 h. The formulation of CFT/NCT nano-composite is exceedingly recommended for enhancing drug biocidal activity, especially against resistant bacterial strains.

Nanotechnology advances for hair loss

Alopecia is the partial or total reduction of hair in a specific area of the skin that affects millions of men and women worldwide. Most common approved treatments present inconvenient therapeutic regimes and serious adverse effects. In this scenario, nanoencapsulation has emerged as a relatively simple technology for improving the therapeutic outcome of this pathology, promoting a targeted drug delivery with enhanced local bioavailability, which could reduce the adverse effects. Herein, we present some recent studies involving the nanosystems developed for the pharmacological treatment of alopecia, highlighting how each system represents an improvement in relation to conventional drug products and the future perspectives of these new technologies in reaching the market.

Electrophoretic bottom up design of chitosan patches for topical drug delivery

Clobetasol propionate (CP) is a high-potency corticosteroid, representing the standard of care for the symptomatic treatment of different skin disorders as well as oral mucosal diseases. Several topical delivery systems are available for treating oral lesions, but the ideal one is still lacking. In this work, we propose a novel class of chitosan (CS) patches, loaded with CP, for the topical treatment of inflammatory chronic oral diseases. Chitosan patches have been fabricated via electrophoretic deposition (EPD), by using a one-pot approach in order to load controlled quantity of CP. Optimized structures showed a water uptake in the range of 200-360% and mechanical properties that allow the design of flexible patches in wet state (E = 0.6 MPa and σ_br = 0.55 MPa). Ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy was used for the evaluation of both loading and release profile of CP in CS patches. The CP loading has been tuned by adjusting CP concentration in deposition bath-in the range 0.002-0.12 mg cm^-2-while releasing curves show an in vitro CP burst of about 80% in the first two hours. Overall, the obtained properties paved the way for the application of this new class of patches for the local oral release of CP.

A Critical Review of Analytical Methods in Pharmaceutical Matrices for Determination of Corticosteroids

Corticosteroids are a class of hormones released by the adrenal cortex, which includes glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids. Glucocorticoids have an important role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and calcium and effective anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive activity. Due to their intense immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory activity, glucocorticoids are used in the treatment of various inflammatory, malignant, allergic conditions such as rhinitis, asthma, dermatological, rheumatic, ophthalmic and neurological diseases, as well as after organ transplants. They are the most widely prescribed drugs in the world. The objective of this review is to provide an overview of the analytical methods in pharmaceutical matrices for determination of corticosteroids. In this study, the predominance of liquid chromatography methods for the analysis of corticosteroids from pharmaceutical products is evident for both liquid and semisolid dosage forms as well as for solids. The same can be said for topical, oral and parenteral formulations. Methods such as spectrophotometry are also used, but given the advantages of chromatographic methods such as better selectivity and sensitivity, they have become the choice for analysis of these drugs, however, most methods still do not meet the credentials of "green chemistry."

Improving antitumor outcomes for palliative intratumoral injection therapy through lecithin- chitosan nanoparticles loading paclitaxel- cholesterol complex

Background

Intratumoral injection is a palliative treatment that aims at further improvement in the survival and quality of life of patients with advanced or recurrent carcinomas, or cancer patients with severe comorbidities or those with a poor performance status.

Methods

In this study, a solvent-injection method was used to prepare paclitaxel–cholesterol complex-loaded lecithin–chitosan nanoparticles (PTX-CH-loaded LCS_NPs) for intratumoral injection therapy, and the physicochemical properties of NPs were well characterized.

Results

The particle size and zeta potential of PTX-CH-loaded LCS_NPs were 142.83±0.25 nm and 13.50±0.20 mV, respectively. Release behavior of PTX from PTX-CH-loaded LCS_NPs showed a pH-sensitive pattern. The result of cell uptake assay showed that PTX-CH-loaded LCS_NPs could effectively enter cells via the energy-dependent caveolae-mediated endocytosis and macropinocytosis in company with the Golgi apparatus. Meanwhile, PTX-CH-loaded LCS_NPs had a better ability to induce cell apoptosis than PTX solution. The in vivo antitumor results suggested that PTX-CH-loaded LCS_NPs effectively inhibited mouse mammary cancer growth and metastasis to distant organs and significantly improved the survival rate of tumor-bearing mice by intratumoral administration.

Conclusion

In general, our study demonstrated that PTX-CH-loaded LCS_NPs used for palliative treatment by intratumoral injection showed improved safety and antitumor efficacy, which provided an alternative approach in the field of palliative chemotherapy.