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Bergstrom C, Fischer NO, Kubicek-Sutherland JZ, Stromberg ZR. mRNA vaccine platforms to prevent bacterial infections. Trends Mol Med 2024; 30:524-526. [PMID: 38485647 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2024.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Revised: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 02/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
Bacterial infections are an urgent public health priority. The application of mRNA vaccine technology to prevent bacterial infections is a promising therapeutic strategy undergoing active development. This article discusses recent advances and limitations of mRNA vaccines to prevent bacterial diseases and provides perspectives on future research directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carson Bergstrom
- Chemical and Biological Signatures Group, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, USA; Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Washington State University, Spokane, WA, USA
| | - Nicholas O Fischer
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, USA
| | | | - Zachary R Stromberg
- Chemical and Biological Signatures Group, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, USA.
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2
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Popova PG, Lagace MA, Tang G, Blakney AK. Effect of in vitro transcription conditions on yield of high quality messenger and self-amplifying RNA. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2024; 198:114247. [PMID: 38462138 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2024.114247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2023] [Revised: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
Messenger RNA (mRNA) and self-amplifying RNA (saRNA) vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 produced using in vitro transcription (IVT) were clinically approved in 2020 and 2022, respectively. While the industrial production of mRNA using IVT has been extensively optimized, the optimal conditions for saRNA have been explored to a lesser extent. Most T7 polymerase IVT protocols have been specifically optimized for mRNA which is ∼5-10-fold smaller than saRNA and may have profound effects on both the quality and yield of longer transcripts. Here, we optimized IVT conditions for simultaneously increasing the yield of full-length transcripts and reducing dsRNA formation through Design of Experiments. Using a definitive screening approach, we found that the key parameters are temperature and magnesium in the outcome of RNA quality (% full length transcript) and yield in small scale synthesis. The most important parameter for reducing dsRNA formation for both mRNA and saRNA was Mg2+ concentration (10 mM). We observed that a lower temperature was vital for production of high quality saRNA transcripts. mRNA quality was optimal at higher Mg2+ concentration (>40 mM). High quality transcripts correspond to significantly reduced product yield for saRNA, but not for mRNA. The differences between mRNA and saRNA requirements for high quality product and the relationship between high quality large saRNA molecules and low temperature synthesis have not been reported previously. These findings are key for informing future IVT parameters design and optimization for smaller and larger RNA transcripts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petya G Popova
- Michael Smith Laboratories, School of Biomedical Engineering, University of British Columbia, Canada
| | - Melissa A Lagace
- Michael Smith Laboratories, School of Biomedical Engineering, University of British Columbia, Canada
| | - George Tang
- Michael Smith Laboratories, School of Biomedical Engineering, University of British Columbia, Canada
| | - Anna K Blakney
- Michael Smith Laboratories, School of Biomedical Engineering, University of British Columbia, Canada.
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3
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Mobasher M, Ansari R, Castejon AM, Barar J, Omidi Y. Advanced nanoscale delivery systems for mRNA-based vaccines. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2024; 1868:130558. [PMID: 38185238 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2024.130558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Revised: 12/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/09/2024]
Abstract
The effectiveness of messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines, especially those designed for COVID-19, relies heavily on sophisticated delivery systems that ensure efficient delivery of mRNA to target cells. A variety of nanoscale vaccine delivery systems (VDSs) have been explored for this purpose, including lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), liposomes, and polymeric nanoparticles made from biocompatible polymers such as poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), as well as viral vectors and lipid-polymer hybrid complexes. Among these, LNPs are particularly notable for their efficiency in encapsulating and protecting mRNA. These nanoscale VDSs can be engineered to enhance stability and facilitate uptake by cells. The choice of delivery system depends on factors like the specific mRNA vaccine, target cell types, stability requirements, and desired immune response. In this review, we shed light on recent advances in delivery mechanisms for self-amplifying RNA (saRNA) vaccines, emphasizing groundbreaking studies on nanoscale delivery systems aimed at improving the efficacy and safety of mRNA/saRNA vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maha Mobasher
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Barry and Judy Silverman College of Pharmacy, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL 33328, USA
| | - Rais Ansari
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Barry and Judy Silverman College of Pharmacy, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL 33328, USA
| | - Ana M Castejon
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Barry and Judy Silverman College of Pharmacy, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL 33328, USA
| | - Jaleh Barar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Barry and Judy Silverman College of Pharmacy, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL 33328, USA
| | - Yadollah Omidi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Barry and Judy Silverman College of Pharmacy, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL 33328, USA.
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4
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McGee JE, Kirsch JR, Kenney D, Chavez E, Shih TY, Douam F, Wong WW, Grinstaff MW. Complete substitution with modified nucleotides suppresses the early interferon response and increases the potency of self-amplifying RNA. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.09.15.557994. [PMID: 37745375 PMCID: PMC10516017 DOI: 10.1101/2023.09.15.557994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
Self-amplifying RNA (saRNA) will revolutionize vaccines and in situ therapeutics by enabling protein expression for longer duration at lower doses. However, a major barrier to saRNA efficacy is the potent early interferon response triggered upon cellular entry, resulting in saRNA degradation and translational inhibition. Substitution of mRNA with modified nucleotides (modNTPs), such as N1-methylpseudouridine (N1mΨ), reduce the interferon response and enhance expression levels. Multiple attempts to use modNTPs in saRNA have been unsuccessful, leading to the conclusion that modNTPs are incompatible with saRNA, thus hindering further development. Here, contrary to the common dogma in the field, we identify multiple modNTPs that when incorporated into saRNA at 100% substitution confer immune evasion and enhance expression potency. Transfection efficiency enhances by roughly an order of magnitude in difficult to transfect cell types compared to unmodified saRNA, and interferon production reduces by >8 fold compared to unmodified saRNA in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Furthermore, we demonstrate expression of viral antigens in vitro and observe significant protection against lethal challenge with a mouse-adapted SARS-CoV-2 strain in vivo . A modified saRNA vaccine, at 100-fold lower dose than a modified mRNA vaccine, results in a statistically improved performance to unmodified saRNA and statistically equivalent performance to modified mRNA. This discovery considerably broadens the potential scope of self-amplifying RNA, enabling entry into previously impossible cell types, as well as the potential to apply saRNA technology to non-vaccine modalities such as cell therapy and protein replacement.
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5
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Chung C, Kudchodkar SB, Chung CN, Park YK, Xu Z, Pardi N, Abdel-Mohsen M, Muthumani K. Expanding the Reach of Monoclonal Antibodies: A Review of Synthetic Nucleic Acid Delivery in Immunotherapy. Antibodies (Basel) 2023; 12:46. [PMID: 37489368 PMCID: PMC10366852 DOI: 10.3390/antib12030046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 06/29/2023] [Indexed: 07/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Harnessing the immune system to combat disease has revolutionized medical treatment. Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), in particular, have emerged as important immunotherapeutic agents with clinical relevance in treating a wide range of diseases, including allergies, autoimmune diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, cancer, and infectious diseases. These mAbs are developed from naturally occurring antibodies and target specific epitopes of single molecules, minimizing off-target effects. Antibodies can also be designed to target particular pathogens or modulate immune function by activating or suppressing certain pathways. Despite their benefit for patients, the production and administration of monoclonal antibody therapeutics are laborious, costly, and time-consuming. Administration often requires inpatient stays and repeated dosing to maintain therapeutic levels, limiting their use in underserved populations and developing countries. Researchers are developing alternate methods to deliver monoclonal antibodies, including synthetic nucleic acid-based delivery, to overcome these limitations. These methods allow for in vivo production of monoclonal antibodies, which would significantly reduce costs and simplify administration logistics. This review explores new methods for monoclonal antibody delivery, including synthetic nucleic acids, and their potential to increase the accessibility and utility of life-saving treatments for several diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Curtis N Chung
- GeneOne Life Science, Inc., Seoul 04500, Republic of Korea
| | - Young K Park
- GeneOne Life Science, Inc., Seoul 04500, Republic of Korea
| | - Ziyang Xu
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Norbert Pardi
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | | | - Kar Muthumani
- GeneOne Life Science, Inc., Seoul 04500, Republic of Korea
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6
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Kon E, Levy Y, Elia U, Cohen H, Hazan-Halevy I, Aftalion M, Ezra A, Bar-Haim E, Naidu GS, Diesendruck Y, Rotem S, Ad-El N, Goldsmith M, Mamroud E, Peer D, Cohen O. A single-dose F1-based mRNA-LNP vaccine provides protection against the lethal plague bacterium. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadg1036. [PMID: 36888708 PMCID: PMC9995031 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adg1036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Messenger RNA (mRNA) lipid nanoparticle (LNP) vaccines have emerged as an effective vaccination strategy. Although currently applied toward viral pathogens, data concerning the platform's effectiveness against bacterial pathogens are limited. Here, we developed an effective mRNA-LNP vaccine against a lethal bacterial pathogen by optimizing mRNA payload guanine and cytosine content and antigen design. We designed a nucleoside-modified mRNA-LNP vaccine based on the bacterial F1 capsule antigen, a major protective component of Yersinia pestis, the etiological agent of plague. Plague is a rapidly deteriorating contagious disease that has killed millions of people during the history of humankind. Now, the disease is treated effectively with antibiotics; however, in the case of a multiple-antibiotic-resistant strain outbreak, alternative countermeasures are required. Our mRNA-LNP vaccine elicited humoral and cellular immunological responses in C57BL/6 mice and conferred rapid, full protection against lethal Y. pestis infection after a single dose. These data open avenues for urgently needed effective antibacterial vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edo Kon
- Laboratory of Precision NanoMedicine, Shmunis School for Biomedicine and Cancer Research, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Department of Materials Sciences and Engineering, Iby and Aladar Fleischman Faculty of Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Cancer Biology Research Center, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Yinon Levy
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness-Ziona 76100, Israel
| | - Uri Elia
- Laboratory of Precision NanoMedicine, Shmunis School for Biomedicine and Cancer Research, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Department of Materials Sciences and Engineering, Iby and Aladar Fleischman Faculty of Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Cancer Biology Research Center, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness-Ziona 76100, Israel
| | - Hila Cohen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness-Ziona 76100, Israel
| | - Inbal Hazan-Halevy
- Laboratory of Precision NanoMedicine, Shmunis School for Biomedicine and Cancer Research, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Department of Materials Sciences and Engineering, Iby and Aladar Fleischman Faculty of Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Cancer Biology Research Center, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Moshe Aftalion
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness-Ziona 76100, Israel
| | - Assaf Ezra
- Laboratory of Precision NanoMedicine, Shmunis School for Biomedicine and Cancer Research, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Department of Materials Sciences and Engineering, Iby and Aladar Fleischman Faculty of Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Cancer Biology Research Center, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Erez Bar-Haim
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness-Ziona 76100, Israel
| | - Gonna Somu Naidu
- Laboratory of Precision NanoMedicine, Shmunis School for Biomedicine and Cancer Research, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Department of Materials Sciences and Engineering, Iby and Aladar Fleischman Faculty of Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Cancer Biology Research Center, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Yael Diesendruck
- Laboratory of Precision NanoMedicine, Shmunis School for Biomedicine and Cancer Research, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Department of Materials Sciences and Engineering, Iby and Aladar Fleischman Faculty of Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Cancer Biology Research Center, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Shahar Rotem
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness-Ziona 76100, Israel
| | - Nitay Ad-El
- Laboratory of Precision NanoMedicine, Shmunis School for Biomedicine and Cancer Research, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Department of Materials Sciences and Engineering, Iby and Aladar Fleischman Faculty of Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Cancer Biology Research Center, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Meir Goldsmith
- Laboratory of Precision NanoMedicine, Shmunis School for Biomedicine and Cancer Research, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Department of Materials Sciences and Engineering, Iby and Aladar Fleischman Faculty of Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Cancer Biology Research Center, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Emanuelle Mamroud
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness-Ziona 76100, Israel
| | - Dan Peer
- Laboratory of Precision NanoMedicine, Shmunis School for Biomedicine and Cancer Research, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Department of Materials Sciences and Engineering, Iby and Aladar Fleischman Faculty of Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Cancer Biology Research Center, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Ofer Cohen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness-Ziona 76100, Israel
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7
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Papukashvili D, Rcheulishvili N, Liu C, Ji Y, He Y, Wang PG. Self-Amplifying RNA Approach for Protein Replacement Therapy. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:12884. [PMID: 36361673 PMCID: PMC9655356 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232112884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Messenger RNA (mRNA) technology has already been successfully tested preclinically and there are ongoing clinical trials for protein replacement purposes; however, more effort has been put into the development of prevention strategies against infectious diseases. Apparently, mRNA vaccine approval against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a landmark for opening new opportunities for managing diverse health disorders based on this approach. Indeed, apart from infectious diseases, it has also been widely tested in numerous directions including cancer prevention and the treatment of inherited disorders. Interestingly, self-amplifying RNA (saRNA)-based technology is believed to display more developed RNA therapy compared with conventional mRNA technique in terms of its lower dosage requirements, relatively fewer side effects, and possessing long-lasting effects. Nevertheless, some challenges still exist that need to be overcome in order to achieve saRNA-based drug approval in clinics. Hence, the current review discusses the feasibility of saRNA utility for protein replacement therapy on various health disorders including rare hereditary diseases and also provides a detailed overview of saRNA advantages, its molecular structure, mechanism of action, and relevant delivery platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Yunjiao He
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518000, China
| | - Peng George Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518000, China
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Lee J, Kim D, Byun J, Wu Y, Park J, Oh YK. In vivo fate and intracellular trafficking of vaccine delivery systems. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2022; 186:114325. [PMID: 35550392 PMCID: PMC9085465 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2022.114325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Revised: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
With the pandemic of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, vaccine delivery systems emerged as a core technology for global public health. Given that antigen processing takes place inside the cell, the intracellular delivery and trafficking of a vaccine antigen will contribute to vaccine efficiency. Investigations focusing on the in vivo behavior and intracellular transport of vaccines have improved our understanding of the mechanisms relevant to vaccine delivery systems and facilitated the design of novel potent vaccine platforms. In this review, we cover the intracellular trafficking and in vivo fate of vaccines administered via various routes and delivery systems. To improve immune responses, researchers have used various strategies to modulate vaccine platforms and intracellular trafficking. In addition to progress in vaccine trafficking studies, the challenges and future perspectives for designing next-generation vaccines are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaiwoo Lee
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Dongyoon Kim
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Junho Byun
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Yina Wu
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Jinwon Park
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Yu-Kyoung Oh
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea.
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9
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Maruggi G, Ulmer JB, Rappuoli R, Yu D. Self-amplifying mRNA-Based Vaccine Technology and Its Mode of Action. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2022; 440:31-70. [PMID: 33861374 DOI: 10.1007/82_2021_233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Self-amplifying mRNAs derived from the genomes of positive-strand RNA viruses have recently come into focus as a promising technology platform for vaccine development. Non-virally delivered self-amplifying mRNA vaccines have the potential to be highly versatile, potent, streamlined, scalable, and inexpensive. By amplifying their genome and the antigen encoding mRNA in the host cell, the self-amplifying mRNA mimics a viral infection, resulting in sustained levels of the target protein combined with self-adjuvanting innate immune responses, ultimately leading to potent and long-lasting antigen-specific humoral and cellular immune responses. Moreover, in principle, any eukaryotic sequence could be encoded by self-amplifying mRNA without the need to change the manufacturing process, thereby enabling a much faster and flexible research and development timeline than the current vaccines and hence a quicker response to emerging infectious diseases. This chapter highlights the rapid progress made in using non-virally delivered self-amplifying mRNA-based vaccines against infectious diseases in animal models. We provide an overview of the unique attributes of this vaccine approach, summarize the growing body of work defining its mechanism of action, discuss the current challenges and latest advances, and highlight perspectives about the future of this promising technology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Dong Yu
- GSK, 14200 Shady Grove Road, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA. .,Dynavax Technologies, 2100 Powell Street Suite, Emeryville, CA, 94608, USA.
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10
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Machado BAS, Hodel KVS, Fonseca LMDS, Mascarenhas LAB, Andrade LPCDS, Rocha VPC, Soares MBP, Berglund P, Duthie MS, Reed SG, Badaró R. The Importance of RNA-Based Vaccines in the Fight against COVID-19: An Overview. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:1345. [PMID: 34835276 PMCID: PMC8623509 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9111345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2021] [Revised: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, vaccine development using ribonucleic acid (RNA) has become the most promising and studied approach to produce safe and effective new vaccines, not only for prophylaxis but also as a treatment. The use of messenger RNA (mRNA) as an immunogenic has several advantages to vaccine development compared to other platforms, such as lower coast, the absence of cell cultures, and the possibility to combine different targets. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the use of mRNA as a vaccine became more relevant; two out of the four most widely applied vaccines against COVID-19 in the world are based on this platform. However, even though it presents advantages for vaccine application, mRNA technology faces several pivotal challenges to improve mRNA stability, delivery, and the potential to generate the related protein needed to induce a humoral- and T-cell-mediated immune response. The application of mRNA to vaccine development emerged as a powerful tool to fight against cancer and non-infectious and infectious diseases, for example, and represents a relevant research field for future decades. Based on these advantages, this review emphasizes mRNA and self-amplifying RNA (saRNA) for vaccine development, mainly to fight against COVID-19, together with the challenges related to this approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruna Aparecida Souza Machado
- SENAI Institute of Innovation (ISI) in Health Advanced Systems (CIMATEC ISI SAS), University Center SENAI/CIMATEC, Salvador 41650-010, Brazil; (K.V.S.H.); (L.M.d.S.F.); (L.A.B.M.); (L.P.C.d.S.A.); (V.P.C.R.); (M.B.P.S.); (R.B.)
| | - Katharine Valéria Saraiva Hodel
- SENAI Institute of Innovation (ISI) in Health Advanced Systems (CIMATEC ISI SAS), University Center SENAI/CIMATEC, Salvador 41650-010, Brazil; (K.V.S.H.); (L.M.d.S.F.); (L.A.B.M.); (L.P.C.d.S.A.); (V.P.C.R.); (M.B.P.S.); (R.B.)
| | - Larissa Moraes dos Santos Fonseca
- SENAI Institute of Innovation (ISI) in Health Advanced Systems (CIMATEC ISI SAS), University Center SENAI/CIMATEC, Salvador 41650-010, Brazil; (K.V.S.H.); (L.M.d.S.F.); (L.A.B.M.); (L.P.C.d.S.A.); (V.P.C.R.); (M.B.P.S.); (R.B.)
| | - Luís Alberto Brêda Mascarenhas
- SENAI Institute of Innovation (ISI) in Health Advanced Systems (CIMATEC ISI SAS), University Center SENAI/CIMATEC, Salvador 41650-010, Brazil; (K.V.S.H.); (L.M.d.S.F.); (L.A.B.M.); (L.P.C.d.S.A.); (V.P.C.R.); (M.B.P.S.); (R.B.)
| | - Leone Peter Correia da Silva Andrade
- SENAI Institute of Innovation (ISI) in Health Advanced Systems (CIMATEC ISI SAS), University Center SENAI/CIMATEC, Salvador 41650-010, Brazil; (K.V.S.H.); (L.M.d.S.F.); (L.A.B.M.); (L.P.C.d.S.A.); (V.P.C.R.); (M.B.P.S.); (R.B.)
| | - Vinícius Pinto Costa Rocha
- SENAI Institute of Innovation (ISI) in Health Advanced Systems (CIMATEC ISI SAS), University Center SENAI/CIMATEC, Salvador 41650-010, Brazil; (K.V.S.H.); (L.M.d.S.F.); (L.A.B.M.); (L.P.C.d.S.A.); (V.P.C.R.); (M.B.P.S.); (R.B.)
| | - Milena Botelho Pereira Soares
- SENAI Institute of Innovation (ISI) in Health Advanced Systems (CIMATEC ISI SAS), University Center SENAI/CIMATEC, Salvador 41650-010, Brazil; (K.V.S.H.); (L.M.d.S.F.); (L.A.B.M.); (L.P.C.d.S.A.); (V.P.C.R.); (M.B.P.S.); (R.B.)
- Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (IGM-FIOCRUZ/BA), Salvador 40296-710, Brazil
| | - Peter Berglund
- HDT Bio, 1616 Eastlake Ave E, Seattle, WA 98102, USA; (P.B.); (M.S.D.); (S.G.R.)
| | - Malcolm S. Duthie
- HDT Bio, 1616 Eastlake Ave E, Seattle, WA 98102, USA; (P.B.); (M.S.D.); (S.G.R.)
| | - Steven G. Reed
- HDT Bio, 1616 Eastlake Ave E, Seattle, WA 98102, USA; (P.B.); (M.S.D.); (S.G.R.)
| | - Roberto Badaró
- SENAI Institute of Innovation (ISI) in Health Advanced Systems (CIMATEC ISI SAS), University Center SENAI/CIMATEC, Salvador 41650-010, Brazil; (K.V.S.H.); (L.M.d.S.F.); (L.A.B.M.); (L.P.C.d.S.A.); (V.P.C.R.); (M.B.P.S.); (R.B.)
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11
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Chang YH, Lin MW, Chien MC, Ke GM, Wu IE, Lin RL, Lin CY, Hu YC. Polyplex nanomicelle delivery of self-amplifying RNA vaccine. J Control Release 2021; 338:694-704. [PMID: 34509585 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2021.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2021] [Revised: 09/05/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Self-amplifying RNA (SaRNA) is a burgeoning platform that exploits the replication machinery of alphaviruses such as Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) virus or Sindbis virus (SIN). SaRNA has been used for development of human vaccines, but has not been evaluated for porcine vaccine development. Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) causes tremendous economic losses to the worldwide pork industry, but current vaccines trigger delayed neutralizing antibody response and confer only partial protection. Here we first compared two SaRNA systems based on VEE and SIN, and demonstrated that in vitro transcribed VEE-based SaRNA conferred prolonged reporter gene expression and RNA amplification in pig cells with low cytotoxicity, but SIN-based SaRNA imparted evident cytotoxicity and limited gene expression in pig cells. Transfection of VEE-based SaRNA that encodes the major PRRSV antigen dNGP5 (SaRNA-dNGP5) conferred persistent expression for at least 28 days in pig cells. We next complexed SaRNA-dNGP5 with the polyaspartamide block copolymer PEG-PAsp(TEP) to form polyplex nanomicelle with high packaging efficiency and narrow size distribution. The polyplex nanomicelle enabled sustained dNGP5 expression and secretion in vitro. Compared with the commercial PRRS vaccine, nanomicelle delivery of SaRNA-dNGP5 into animal models accelerated the induction of potent neutralizing antibodies with minimal side effects, and elicited stronger IL-4 and IFN-γ responses against homologous and heterologous PRRSV. These properties tackle the problems of current vaccines and implicate the potential of SaRNA-dNGP5 nanomicelle as an effective PRRS vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Hao Chang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan
| | - Mei-Wei Lin
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan; Biomedical Technology and Device Research Laboratories, Industrial Technology Research Institute, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Chen Chien
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan
| | - Guan-Ming Ke
- Graduate Institute of Animal Vaccine Technology, National Ping Tung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung, Taiwan 912
| | - I-En Wu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan
| | - Ren-Li Lin
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan
| | - Chin-Yu Lin
- Institute of New Drug Development, China Medical University, Taichung 404, Taiwan.
| | - Yu-Chen Hu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan; Frontier Research Center on Fundamental and Applied Sciences of Matters, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan.
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12
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Blakney AK, McKay PF, Hu K, Samnuan K, Jain N, Brown A, Thomas A, Rogers P, Polra K, Sallah H, Yeow J, Zhu Y, Stevens MM, Geall A, Shattock RJ. Polymeric and lipid nanoparticles for delivery of self-amplifying RNA vaccines. J Control Release 2021; 338:201-210. [PMID: 34418521 PMCID: PMC8412240 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2021.08.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Revised: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Self-amplifying RNA (saRNA) is a next-generation vaccine platform, but like all nucleic acids, requires a delivery vehicle to promote cellular uptake and protect the saRNA from degradation. To date, delivery platforms for saRNA have included lipid nanoparticles (LNP), polyplexes and cationic nanoemulsions; of these LNP are the most clinically advanced with the recent FDA approval of COVID-19 based-modified mRNA vaccines. While the effect of RNA on vaccine immunogenicity is well studied, the role of biomaterials in saRNA vaccine effectiveness is under investigated. Here, we tested saRNA formulated with either pABOL, a bioreducible polymer, or LNP, and characterized the protein expression and vaccine immunogenicity of both platforms. We observed that pABOL-formulated saRNA resulted in a higher magnitude of protein expression, but that the LNP formulations were overall more immunogenic. Furthermore, we observed that both the helper phospholipid and route of administration (intramuscular versus intranasal) of LNP impacted the vaccine immunogenicity of two model antigens (influenza hemagglutinin and SARS-CoV-2 spike protein). We observed that LNP administered intramuscularly, but not pABOL or LNP administered intranasally, resulted in increased acute interleukin-6 expression after vaccination. Overall, these results indicate that delivery systems and routes of administration may fulfill different delivery niches within the field of saRNA genetic medicines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna K. Blakney
- The University of British Columbia, Michael Smith Laboratories, School of Biomedical Engineering, Vancouver, BC V6T1Z4, Canada,Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Disease, London W21PG, United Kingdom,Corresponding authors at: Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Disease, London W21PG, United Kingdom
| | - Paul F. McKay
- Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Disease, London W21PG, United Kingdom
| | - Kai Hu
- Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Disease, London W21PG, United Kingdom
| | - Karnyart Samnuan
- Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Disease, London W21PG, United Kingdom
| | - Nikita Jain
- Precision NanoSystems Inc., Vancouver, BC V6P6T7, Canada
| | - Andrew Brown
- Precision NanoSystems Inc., Vancouver, BC V6P6T7, Canada
| | - Anitha Thomas
- Precision NanoSystems Inc., Vancouver, BC V6P6T7, Canada
| | - Paul Rogers
- Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Disease, London W21PG, United Kingdom
| | - Krunal Polra
- Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Disease, London W21PG, United Kingdom
| | - Hadijatou Sallah
- Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Disease, London W21PG, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan Yeow
- Imperial College London, Department of Materials, Department of Bioengineering, Institute of Biomedical Engineering, London SW72BU, United Kingdom
| | - Yunqing Zhu
- Imperial College London, Department of Materials, Department of Bioengineering, Institute of Biomedical Engineering, London SW72BU, United Kingdom,School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Molly M. Stevens
- Imperial College London, Department of Materials, Department of Bioengineering, Institute of Biomedical Engineering, London SW72BU, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew Geall
- Precision NanoSystems Inc., Vancouver, BC V6P6T7, Canada
| | - Robin J. Shattock
- Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Disease, London W21PG, United Kingdom,Corresponding authors at: Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Disease, London W21PG, United Kingdom
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13
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Saviano F, Lovato T, Russo A, Russo G, Bouton CR, Shattock RJ, Alexander C, Quaglia F, Blakney AK, Gurnani P, Conte C. Ornithine-derived oligomers and dendrimers for in vitro delivery of DNA and ex vivo transfection of skin cells via saRNA. J Mater Chem B 2021; 8:4940-4949. [PMID: 32463058 DOI: 10.1039/d0tb00942c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Gene therapies are undergoing a renaissance, primarily due to their potential for applications in vaccination for infectious diseases and cancers. Although the biology of these technologies is rapidly evolving, delivery strategies need to be improved to overcome the poor pharmacokinetics and cellular transport of nucleic acids whilst maintaining patient safety. In this work, we describe the divergent synthesis of biodegradable cationic dendrimers based on the amino acid ornithine as non-viral gene delivery vectors and evaluate their potential as delivery vectors for DNA and RNA. The dendrimers effectively complexed model nucleic acids at lower N/P ratios than polyethyleneimine and outperformed it in DNA transfection experiments with ratios above 5. Remarkably, all dendrimer polyplexes at N/P = 2 achieved up to 7-fold higher protein content over an optimized PEI formulation when used for transfections with self-amplifying RNA (saRNA). Finally, transfection studies utilizing human skin explants revealed an increase of cells producing protein from 2% with RNA alone to 12% with dendrimer polyplexes, attributed to expression enrichment predominantly in epithelial cells, fibroblasts and leukocytes, with minor enrichment in NK cells, T cells, monocytes, and B cells. Overall, this study indicates the clear potential of ornithine dendrimers as safe and effective delivery vectors for both DNA and RNA therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Saviano
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Napoli Federico II, Via Domenico Montesano 49, 80131 Napoli, Italy.
| | - Tatiana Lovato
- Division of Molecular Therapeutics and Formulation, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK.
| | - Annapina Russo
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Napoli Federico II, Via Domenico Montesano 49, 80131 Napoli, Italy.
| | - Giulia Russo
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Napoli Federico II, Via Domenico Montesano 49, 80131 Napoli, Italy.
| | - Clément R Bouton
- Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, School of Medicine, St Mary's Hospital, Praed Street, London W2 1NY, UK.
| | - Robin J Shattock
- Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, School of Medicine, St Mary's Hospital, Praed Street, London W2 1NY, UK.
| | - Cameron Alexander
- Division of Molecular Therapeutics and Formulation, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK.
| | - Fabiana Quaglia
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Napoli Federico II, Via Domenico Montesano 49, 80131 Napoli, Italy.
| | - Anna K Blakney
- Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, School of Medicine, St Mary's Hospital, Praed Street, London W2 1NY, UK.
| | - Pratik Gurnani
- Division of Molecular Therapeutics and Formulation, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK.
| | - Claudia Conte
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Napoli Federico II, Via Domenico Montesano 49, 80131 Napoli, Italy.
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14
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Murray SM, McKay PF. Chlamydia trachomatis: Cell biology, immunology and vaccination. Vaccine 2021; 39:2965-2975. [PMID: 33771390 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2021.03.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Revised: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Chlamydia trachomatis is the causative agent of a highly prevalent sexually transmitted bacterial disease and is associated with a number of severe disease complications. Current therapy options are successful at treating disease, but patients are left without protective immunity and do not benefit the majority asymptomatic patients who do not seek treatment. As such, there is a clear need for a broad acting, protective vaccine that can prevent transmission and protect against symptomatic disease presentation. There are three key elements that underlie successful vaccine development: 1) Chlamydia biology and immune-evasion adaptations, 2) the correlates of protection that prevent disease in natural and experimental infection, 3) reflection upon the evidence provided by previous vaccine attempts. In this review, we give an overview of the unique intra-cellular biology of C. trachomatis and give insight into the dynamic combination of adaptations that allow Chlamydia to subvert host immunity and survive within the cell. We explore the current understanding of chlamydial immunity in animal models and in humans and characterise the key immune correlates of protection against infection. We discuss in detail the specific immune interactions involved in protection, with relevance placed on the CD4+ T lymphocyte and B lymphocyte responses that are key to pathogen clearance. Finally, we provide a timeline of C. trachomatis vaccine research to date and evaluate the successes and failures in development so far. With insight from these three key elements of research, we suggest potential solutions for chlamydial vaccine development and promising avenues for further exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam M Murray
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Imperial College London, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK.
| | - Paul F McKay
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Imperial College London, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK.
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15
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Blakney AK, McKay PF, Bouton CR, Hu K, Samnuan K, Shattock RJ. Innate Inhibiting Proteins Enhance Expression and Immunogenicity of Self-Amplifying RNA. Mol Ther 2021; 29:1174-1185. [PMID: 33352107 PMCID: PMC7935664 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2020.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Revised: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Self-amplifying RNA (saRNA) is a cutting-edge platform for both nucleic acid vaccines and therapeutics. saRNA is self-adjuvanting, as it activates types I and III interferon (IFN), which enhances the immunogenicity of RNA vaccines but can also lead to inhibition of translation. In this study, we screened a library of saRNA constructs with cis-encoded innate inhibiting proteins (IIPs) and determined the effect on protein expression and immunogenicity. We observed that the PIV-5 V and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) ORF4a proteins enhance protein expression 100- to 500-fold in vitro in IFN-competent HeLa and MRC5 cells. We found that the MERS-CoV ORF4a protein partially abates dose nonlinearity in vivo, and that ruxolitinib, a potent Janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) inhibitor, but not the IIPs, enhances protein expression of saRNA in vivo. Both the PIV-5 V and MERS-CoV ORF4a proteins were found to enhance the percentage of resident cells in human skin explants expressing saRNA and completely rescued dose nonlinearity of saRNA. Finally, we observed that the MERS-CoV ORF4a increased the rabies virus (RABV)-specific immunoglobulin G (IgG) titer and neutralization half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) by ∼10-fold in rabbits, but not in mice or rats. These experiments provide a proof of concept that IIPs can be directly encoded into saRNA vectors and effectively abate the nonlinear dose dependency and enhance immunogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna K Blakney
- Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, London W21PG, UK.
| | - Paul F McKay
- Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, London W21PG, UK
| | - Clément R Bouton
- Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, London W21PG, UK
| | - Kai Hu
- Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, London W21PG, UK
| | - Karnyart Samnuan
- Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, London W21PG, UK
| | - Robin J Shattock
- Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, London W21PG, UK.
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16
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Mehmood I, Ijaz M, Ahmad S, Ahmed T, Bari A, Abro A, Allemailem KS, Almatroudi A, Tahir ul Qamar M. SARS-CoV-2: An Update on Genomics, Risk Assessment, Potential Therapeutics and Vaccine Development. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18041626. [PMID: 33567746 PMCID: PMC7915969 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18041626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2021] [Revised: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a great threat to public health, being a causative pathogen of a deadly coronavirus disease (COVID-19). It has spread to more than 200 countries and infected millions of individuals globally. Although SARS-CoV-2 has structural/genomic similarities with the previously reported SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, the specific mutations in its genome make it a novel virus. Available therapeutic strategies failed to control this virus. Despite strict standard operating procedures (SOPs), SARS-CoV-2 has spread globally and it is mutating gradually as well. Diligent efforts, special care, and awareness are needed to reduce transmission among susceptible masses particularly elder people, children, and health care workers. In this review, we highlighted the basic genome organization and structure of SARS-CoV-2. Its transmission dynamics, symptoms, and associated risk factors are discussed. This review also presents the latest mutations identified in its genome, the potential therapeutic options being used, and a brief explanation of vaccine development efforts against COVID-19. The effort will not only help readers to understand the deadly SARS-CoV-2 virus but also provide updated information to researchers for their research work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iqra Mehmood
- Department of Bioinformatics and Biotechnology, Government College University, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan; (I.M.); (M.I.)
| | - Munazza Ijaz
- Department of Bioinformatics and Biotechnology, Government College University, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan; (I.M.); (M.I.)
| | - Sajjad Ahmad
- Department of Microbiology and Pharmacy, Abasyn University, Peshawar 25000, Pakistan;
| | - Temoor Ahmed
- Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China;
| | - Amna Bari
- College of Informatics, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China;
| | - Asma Abro
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Informatics, Balochistan University of Information Technology Engineering and Management Sciences, Quetta 87100, Pakistan;
| | - Khaled S. Allemailem
- Department of Medical Laboratories, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Qassim University, Buraydah 51452, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Ahmad Almatroudi
- Department of Medical Laboratories, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Qassim University, Buraydah 51452, Saudi Arabia;
- Correspondence: (A.A.); (M.T.u.Q.)
| | - Muhammad Tahir ul Qamar
- College of Life Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
- Correspondence: (A.A.); (M.T.u.Q.)
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17
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Blakney AK, Ip S, Geall AJ. An Update on Self-Amplifying mRNA Vaccine Development. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:97. [PMID: 33525396 PMCID: PMC7911542 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9020097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This review will explore the four major pillars required for design and development of an saRNA vaccine: Antigen design, vector design, non-viral delivery systems, and manufacturing (both saRNA and lipid nanoparticles (LNP)). We report on the major innovations, preclinical and clinical data reported in the last five years and will discuss future prospects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna K. Blakney
- Michael Smith Laboratories, School of Biomedical Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Shell Ip
- Precision NanoSystems Inc., Vancouver, BC V6P 6T7, Canada; (S.I.); (A.J.G.)
| | - Andrew J. Geall
- Precision NanoSystems Inc., Vancouver, BC V6P 6T7, Canada; (S.I.); (A.J.G.)
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18
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Moya-Ramírez I, Bouton C, Kontoravdi C, Polizzi K. High resolution biosensor to test the capping level and integrity of mRNAs. Nucleic Acids Res 2021; 48:e129. [PMID: 33152073 PMCID: PMC7736790 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkaa955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
5′ Cap structures are ubiquitous on eukaryotic mRNAs, essential for post-transcriptional processing, translation initiation and stability. Here we describe a biosensor designed to detect the presence of cap structures on mRNAs that is also sensitive to mRNA degradation, so uncapped or degraded mRNAs can be detected in a single step. The biosensor is based on a chimeric protein that combines the recognition and transduction roles in a single molecule. The main feature of this sensor is its simplicity, enabling semi-quantitative analyses of capping levels with minimal instrumentation. The biosensor was demonstrated to detect the capping level on several in vitro transcribed mRNAs. Its sensitivity and dynamic range remained constant with RNAs ranging in size from 250 nt to approximately 2700 nt and the biosensor was able to detect variations in the capping level in increments of at least 20%, with a limit of detection of 2.4 pmol. Remarkably, it also can be applied to more complex analytes, such mRNA vaccines and mRNAs transcribed in vivo. This biosensor is an innovative example of a technology able to detect analytically challenging structures such as mRNA caps. It could find application in a variety of scenarios, from quality analysis of mRNA-based products such as vaccines to optimization of in vitro capping reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignacio Moya-Ramírez
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK.,Imperial College Centre for Synthetic Biology, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Clement Bouton
- Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, London W2 1NY, UK
| | - Cleo Kontoravdi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Karen Polizzi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK.,Imperial College Centre for Synthetic Biology, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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19
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Bloom K, van den Berg F, Arbuthnot P. Self-amplifying RNA vaccines for infectious diseases. Gene Ther 2020; 28:117-129. [PMID: 33093657 PMCID: PMC7580817 DOI: 10.1038/s41434-020-00204-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Revised: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Vaccinology is shifting toward synthetic RNA platforms which allow for rapid, scalable, and cell-free manufacturing of prophylactic and therapeutic vaccines. The simple development pipeline is based on in vitro transcription of antigen-encoding sequences or immunotherapies as synthetic RNA transcripts, which are then formulated for delivery. This approach may enable a quicker response to emerging disease outbreaks, as is evident from the swift pursuit of RNA vaccine candidates for the global SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Both conventional and self-amplifying RNAs have shown protective immunization in preclinical studies against multiple infectious diseases including influenza, RSV, Rabies, Ebola, and HIV-1. Self-amplifying RNAs have shown enhanced antigen expression at lower doses compared to conventional mRNA, suggesting this technology may improve immunization. This review will explore how self-amplifying RNAs are emerging as important vaccine candidates for infectious diseases, the advantages of synthetic manufacturing approaches, and their potential for preventing and treating chronic infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristie Bloom
- Wits/SAMRC Antiviral Gene Therapy Research Unit, School of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, WITS, Johannesburg, 2050, South Africa.
| | - Fiona van den Berg
- Wits/SAMRC Antiviral Gene Therapy Research Unit, School of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, WITS, Johannesburg, 2050, South Africa
| | - Patrick Arbuthnot
- Wits/SAMRC Antiviral Gene Therapy Research Unit, School of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, WITS, Johannesburg, 2050, South Africa
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20
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Abstract
Messenger RNA (mRNA) has immense potential for developing a wide range of therapies, including immunotherapy and protein replacement. As mRNA presents no risk of integration into the host genome and does not require nuclear entry for transfection, which allows protein production even in nondividing cells, mRNA-based approaches can be envisioned as safe and practical therapeutic strategies. Nevertheless, mRNA presents unfavorable characteristics, such as large size, immunogenicity, limited cellular uptake, and sensitivity to enzymatic degradation, which hinder its use as a therapeutic agent. While mRNA stability and immunogenicity have been ameliorated by direct modifications on the mRNA structure, further improvements in mRNA delivery are still needed for promoting its activity in biological settings. In this regard, nanomedicine has shown the ability for spatiotemporally controlling the function of a myriad of bioactive agents in vivo. Direct engineering of nanomedicine structures for loading, protecting, and releasing mRNA and navigating in biological environments can then be applied for promoting mRNA translation toward the development of effective treatments. Here, we review recent approaches aimed at enhancing mRNA function and its delivery through nanomedicines, with particular emphasis on their applications and eventual clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Uchida
- Department of Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan.,Innovation Center of NanoMedicine, Kawasaki Institute of Industrial Promotion, 3-25-14, Tonomachi, Kawasaki 210-0821, Japan
| | - Federico Perche
- Centre de Biophysique Moléculaire, UPR4301 CNRS Rue Charles Sadron Orléans, Orléans 45071 Cedex 02, France
| | - Chantal Pichon
- Centre de Biophysique Moléculaire, UPR4301 CNRS Rue Charles Sadron Orléans, Orléans 45071 Cedex 02, France.,Faculty of Sciences and Techniques, University of Orléans, Orléans 45071 Cedex 02, France
| | - Horacio Cabral
- Department of Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan.,Innovation Center of NanoMedicine, Kawasaki Institute of Industrial Promotion, 3-25-14, Tonomachi, Kawasaki 210-0821, Japan
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21
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Ballesteros-Briones MC, Silva-Pilipich N, Herrador-Cañete G, Vanrell L, Smerdou C. A new generation of vaccines based on alphavirus self-amplifying RNA. Curr Opin Virol 2020; 44:145-153. [PMID: 32898764 PMCID: PMC7474593 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2020.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Alphavirus self-amplifiying RNA (saRNA) induces more potent immune responses than conventional mRNA. saRNA delivery can be enhanced by electroporation or conjugation with cationic lipid or polymers. saRNA vaccines induce protective responses against human pathogens in preclinical models. saRNA replication mediates innate immune signals that contribute to the strength of immune responses. saRNA vaccines could be generated in a quick way to face emergent pathogens like SARS-CoV-2.
DNA or mRNA vaccines have potential advantages over conventional vaccines since they are easier to manufacture and have higher safety profiles. In particular, self-amplifying RNA (saRNA) derived from alphavirus expression vectors has shown to be very efficient to induce humoral and cellular responses against many antigens in preclinical models, being superior to non-replicating mRNA and DNA. This is mainly due to the fact that saRNA can provide very high expression levels and simultaneously induces strong innate responses, potentiating immunity. saRNA can be administered as viral particles or DNA, but direct delivery as RNA represents a safer and more simple approach. Although saRNA can be delivered as naked RNA, in vivo transfection can be enhanced by electroporation or by complexing it with cationic lipids or polymers. Alphavirus saRNA could have broad application to vaccinate against human pathogens, including emerging ones like SARS-CoV-2, for which clinical trials have been recently initiated.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Cristina Ballesteros-Briones
- Division of Gene Therapy and Regulation of Gene Expression, Cima Universidad de Navarra and Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra (IdISNA), Pamplona, Spain
| | - Noelia Silva-Pilipich
- Division of Gene Therapy and Regulation of Gene Expression, Cima Universidad de Navarra and Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra (IdISNA), Pamplona, Spain
| | - Guillermo Herrador-Cañete
- Division of Gene Therapy and Regulation of Gene Expression, Cima Universidad de Navarra and Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra (IdISNA), Pamplona, Spain
| | - Lucia Vanrell
- Facultad de ingeniería, Universidad ORT Uruguay, Montevideo, Uruguay.
| | - Cristian Smerdou
- Division of Gene Therapy and Regulation of Gene Expression, Cima Universidad de Navarra and Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra (IdISNA), Pamplona, Spain.
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22
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Gurnani P, Blakney AK, Terracciano R, Petch JE, Blok AJ, Bouton CR, McKay PF, Shattock RJ, Alexander C. The In Vitro, Ex Vivo, and In Vivo Effect of Polymer Hydrophobicity on Charge-Reversible Vectors for Self-Amplifying RNA. Biomacromolecules 2020; 21:3242-3253. [PMID: 32644777 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.0c00698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
RNA technology has the potential to revolutionize vaccination. However, the lack of clear structure-property relationships in relevant biological models mean there is no clear consensus on the chemical motifs necessary to improve RNA delivery. In this work, we describe the synthesis of a series of copolymers based on the self-hydrolyzing charge-reversible polycation poly(dimethylaminoethyl acrylate) (pDMAEA), varying the lipophilicity of the additional co-monomers. All copolymers formed stable polyplexes, showing efficient complexation with model nucleic acids from nitrogen/phosphate (N/P) ratios of N/P = 5, with more hydrophobic complexes exhibiting slower charge reversal and disassembly compared to hydrophilic analogues. The more hydrophobic copolymers outperformed hydrophilic versions, homopolymer controls and the reference standard polymer (polyethylenimine), in transfection assays on 2D cell monolayers, albeit with significantly higher toxicities. Similarly, hydrophobic derivatives displayed up to a 4-fold higher efficacy in terms of the numbers of cells expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP+) cells in ex vivo human skin (10%) compared to free RNA (2%), attributed to transfection enrichment in epithelial cells. In contrast, in a mouse model, we observed the reverse trend in terms of RNA transfection, with no observable protein production in more hydrophobic analogues, whereas hydrophilic copolymers induced the highest transfection in vivo. Overall, our results suggest an important relationship between the vector lipophilicity and RNA transfection in vaccine settings, with polymer biocompatibility potentially a key parameter in effective in vivo protein production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pratik Gurnani
- Division of Molecular Therapeutics and Formulation, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, United Kindom
| | - Anna K Blakney
- Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, School of Medicine, St Mary's Hospital, Praed Street, London W2 1NY, United Kindom
| | - Roberto Terracciano
- Division of Molecular Therapeutics and Formulation, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, United Kindom.,Drug Delivery Laboratory, Department of Pharmacy, University of Napoli Federico II, Via Domenico Montesano 49, 80131 Napoli, Italy
| | - Joshua E Petch
- Division of Molecular Therapeutics and Formulation, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, United Kindom
| | - Andrew J Blok
- Division of Molecular Therapeutics and Formulation, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, United Kindom
| | - Clément R Bouton
- Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, School of Medicine, St Mary's Hospital, Praed Street, London W2 1NY, United Kindom
| | - Paul F McKay
- Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, School of Medicine, St Mary's Hospital, Praed Street, London W2 1NY, United Kindom
| | - Robin J Shattock
- Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, School of Medicine, St Mary's Hospital, Praed Street, London W2 1NY, United Kindom
| | - Cameron Alexander
- Division of Molecular Therapeutics and Formulation, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, United Kindom
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23
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Sharpe HR, Gilbride C, Allen E, Belij-Rammerstorfer S, Bissett C, Ewer K, Lambe T. The early landscape of coronavirus disease 2019 vaccine development in the UK and rest of the world. Immunology 2020; 160:223-232. [PMID: 32460358 PMCID: PMC7283842 DOI: 10.1111/imm.13222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Revised: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the first World Health Organization notification on 31 December 2019, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19), the respiratory disease caused by the coronavirus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus‐2 (SARS‐CoV‐2), has been responsible for over four million confirmed infections and almost 300 000 deaths worldwide. The pandemic has led to over half of the world's population living under lockdown conditions. To allow normal life to resume, public health interventions will be needed to prevent further waves of infections as lockdown measures are lifted. As one of the most effective countermeasures against infectious diseases, an efficacious vaccine is considered crucial to containing the COVID‐19 pandemic. Following the publication of the genome sequence of SARS‐CoV‐2, vaccine development has accelerated at an unprecedented pace across the world. Here we review the different platforms employed to develop vaccines, the standard timelines of development and how they can be condensed in a pandemic situation. We focus on vaccine development in the UK and vaccines that have entered clinical trials around the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah R Sharpe
- The Jenner Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Ciaran Gilbride
- The Jenner Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Elizabeth Allen
- The Jenner Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | | | - Cameron Bissett
- The Jenner Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Katie Ewer
- The Jenner Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Teresa Lambe
- The Jenner Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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24
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Blakney AK, Zhu Y, McKay PF, Bouton C, Yeow J, Tang J, Hu K, Samnuan K, Grigsby CL, Shattock RJ, Stevens MM. Big Is Beautiful: Enhanced saRNA Delivery and Immunogenicity by a Higher Molecular Weight, Bioreducible, Cationic Polymer. ACS NANO 2020; 14:5711-5727. [PMID: 32267667 PMCID: PMC7304921 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c00326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Self-amplifying RNA (saRNA) vaccines are highly advantageous, as they result in enhanced protein expression compared to mRNA (mRNA), thus minimizing the required dose. However, previous delivery strategies were optimized for siRNA or mRNA and do not necessarily deliver saRNA efficiently due to structural differences of these RNAs, thus motivating the development of saRNA delivery platforms. Here, we engineer a bioreducible, linear, cationic polymer called "pABOL" for saRNA delivery and show that increasing its molecular weight enhances delivery both in vitro and in vivo. We demonstrate that pABOL enhances protein expression and cellular uptake via both intramuscular and intradermal injection compared to commercially available polymers in vivo and that intramuscular injection confers complete protection against influenza challenge. Due to the scalability of polymer synthesis and ease of formulation preparation, we anticipate that this polymer is highly clinically translatable as a delivery vehicle for saRNA for both vaccines and therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna K. Blakney
- Department
of Infectious Diseases, Imperial College
London, Norfolk Place, London, W2 1PG, U.K.
| | - Yunqing Zhu
- Department
of Materials, Department of Bioengineering, Institute of Biomedical
Engineering, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, U.K.
- School
of Materials Science and Engineering, Tongji
University, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Paul F. McKay
- Department
of Infectious Diseases, Imperial College
London, Norfolk Place, London, W2 1PG, U.K.
| | - Clément
R. Bouton
- Department
of Infectious Diseases, Imperial College
London, Norfolk Place, London, W2 1PG, U.K.
| | - Jonathan Yeow
- Department
of Materials, Department of Bioengineering, Institute of Biomedical
Engineering, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, U.K.
| | - Jiaqing Tang
- Department
of Materials, Department of Bioengineering, Institute of Biomedical
Engineering, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, U.K.
| | - Kai Hu
- Department
of Infectious Diseases, Imperial College
London, Norfolk Place, London, W2 1PG, U.K.
| | - Karnyart Samnuan
- Department
of Infectious Diseases, Imperial College
London, Norfolk Place, London, W2 1PG, U.K.
| | - Christopher L. Grigsby
- Department
of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, 171 65, Sweden
| | - Robin J. Shattock
- Department
of Infectious Diseases, Imperial College
London, Norfolk Place, London, W2 1PG, U.K.
| | - Molly M. Stevens
- Department
of Materials, Department of Bioengineering, Institute of Biomedical
Engineering, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, U.K.
- Department
of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, 171 65, Sweden
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25
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He W, Evans AC, Rasley A, Bourguet F, Peters S, Kamrud KI, Wang N, Hubby B, Felderman M, Gouvis H, Coleman MA, Fischer NO. Cationic HDL mimetics enhance in vivo delivery of self-replicating mRNA. NANOMEDICINE-NANOTECHNOLOGY BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2020; 24:102154. [PMID: 31982617 DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2020.102154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2019] [Revised: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 12/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In vivo delivery of large RNA molecules has significant implications for novel gene therapy, biologics delivery, and vaccine applications. We have developed cationic nanolipoprotein particles (NLPs) to enhance the complexation and delivery of large self-amplifying mRNAs (replicons) in vivo. NLPs are high-density lipoprotein (HDL) mimetics, comprised of a discoidal lipid bilayer stabilized by apolipoproteins that are readily functionalized to provide a versatile delivery platform. Herein, we systematically screened NLP assembly with a wide range of lipidic and apolipoprotein constituents, using biophysical metrics to identify lead candidates for in vivo RNA delivery. NLPs formulated with cationic lipids successfully complexed with RNA replicons encoding luciferase, provided measurable protection from RNase degradation, and promoted replicon in vivo expression. The NLP complexation of the replicon and in vivo transfection efficiency were further enhanced by modulating the type and percentage of cationic lipid, the ratio of cationic NLP to replicon, and by incorporating additive molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei He
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California
| | - Angela C Evans
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California
| | - Amy Rasley
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California
| | - Feliza Bourguet
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California
| | - Sandra Peters
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California
| | | | | | - Bolyn Hubby
- Synthetic Genomics Vaccine Inc., La Jolla, CA
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26
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Roces CB, Khadke S, Christensen D, Perrie Y. Scale-Independent Microfluidic Production of Cationic Liposomal Adjuvants and Development of Enhanced Lymphatic Targeting Strategies. Mol Pharm 2019; 16:4372-4386. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.9b00730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Carla B. Roces
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G4 0RE, Scotland
| | - Swapnil Khadke
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G4 0RE, Scotland
| | - Dennis Christensen
- Center for Vaccine Research, Statens Serum Institut, DK-2300 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Yvonne Perrie
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G4 0RE, Scotland
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