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Cottini M, Palladino P, Basso D. From the lab to the classroom: Improving children's prospective memory in a natural setting. BRITISH JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 2024. [PMID: 38616307 DOI: 10.1111/bjep.12682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 04/16/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Laboratory-based studies have shown that children's ability to remember intentions (i.e., prospective memory; PM) can be improved by asking them to imagine performing the PM task beforehand (i.e., episodic future thinking; EFT) or to predict their PM performance. Moreover, combining the two strategies resulted in an additional improvement in children's PM performance. However, the effectiveness of these encoding strategies on real-life PM tasks is still unknown. AIMS The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of EFT instructions, performance predictions, and of their combination on children's PM in a natural setting, namely in the classroom. SAMPLE Twelve classes composed by a total of 121 children (53% females) aged between seven and 9 years participated to the study. METHODS As a PM task, children were asked by their teachers to deliver a letter to their parents and to bring it back to school the next day. Children were divided into four groups: control, prediction, EFT, and the EFT + prediction group. Parent reports on children's everyday prospective and retrospective memory failures were also collected. RESULTS Results showed that encoding strategies were effective in enhancing children's PM performance. However, differences compared to previous laboratory-based findings emerged since predicting PM performance resulted to be most effective in enhancing real-life PM performance. Moreover, parent reports were related to children's PM performance. CONCLUSIONS These novel findings highlight the importance of studying PM interventions in natural settings in order to increase their ecological validity and inform educational practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milvia Cottini
- Free University of Bolzano-Bozen, Bressanone-Brixen, Italy
| | | | - Demis Basso
- Free University of Bolzano-Bozen, Bressanone-Brixen, Italy
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2
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Kelly AJ, Camden AA, Williams MC, Beran MJ, Perdue BM. Habitual prospective memory in preschool children. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0293599. [PMID: 37906551 PMCID: PMC10617692 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0293599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Habitual prospective memory (PM) refers to situations in which individuals have to remember to perform a future task on a regular and frequent basis. Habitual PM tasks are ubiquitous and the ability to successfully complete these tasks (e.g., remembering to bring your lunch to school every day) is necessary for children as they begin to establish their own independence. The current investigation is the first to explore preschool children's ability to complete this kind of task. At the end of a regular testing session during which children engaged in a variety of unrelated cognitive tasks, participants were instructed to ask for a stamp on their card, which was sitting in a box on the table. Over the course of the first experiment, participants did this 13 times, spanning a time period of several months. The results demonstrated that children initially needed prompting from the experimenter to remember, but with experience, participants were able to retrieve this intention without assistance. Experiment 2 demonstrated that removing the box from participants' line of sight after numerous opportunities to perform the task did not negatively impact performance, although it did make a difference at the outset of this requirement to remember to ask for stamps. Together, these results indicate that with somewhat consistent and repeated practice, preschool children can fairly quickly demonstrate the ability to successfully perform future intentions that are likely to be repeated on numerous occasions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J. Kelly
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Abigail A. Camden
- Department of Psychology, Agnes Scott College, Decatur, GA, United States of America
| | - Melany C. Williams
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Michael J. Beran
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Bonnie M. Perdue
- Department of Psychology, Agnes Scott College, Decatur, GA, United States of America
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3
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Ding N, Miller R, Clayton NS. Inhibition and cognitive flexibility are related to prediction of one's own future preferences in young British and Chinese children. Cognition 2023; 236:105433. [PMID: 37001438 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2023.105433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023]
Abstract
The ability to shift from current to future perspective is pivotal to future-oriented cognition. With two distinct cultural groups, UK (N = 92) and China (N = 90), we investigated 3 to 5-year-olds' understanding of preference changes occurring within themselves and their peers (another child). We administered a battery of representative tasks of executive function and theory of mind to examine their underlying relationships with children's ability to predict future preferences. British 3-year-olds outperformed Chinese children in predicting future preferences, while no country differences were observed between the 4- and 5-year-olds. Across the UK and China, children were more accurate when predicting for their peers than for themselves. They were also more accurate when their current preferences were identified first, i.e. before answering questions about the future. Chinese children outperformed their British counterparts on inhibition and cognitive flexibility tasks whereas there were no Eastern and Western differences in their theory of mind abilities. After controlling for age and children's knowledge of generic adult preferences, children's performance in the inhibition and cognitive flexibility tasks were significantly correlated with the prediction of their own future preferences, but they were not significantly correlated when predicting for a peer. These results are discussed in relation to the conflicts between multiple perspectives and the cognitive correlates of future-oriented cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Ding
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK; Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
| | - Rachael Miller
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK; School of Life Sciences, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, UK
| | - Nicola S Clayton
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
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4
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Yoruk A, Yahya M, Cangoz-Tavat B. Do bilinguals have an advantage in prospective memory? JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2023. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2022.2159964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Asli Yoruk
- Cognitive Psychology, Department of Psychology, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Mevla Yahya
- Cognitive Psychology, Department of Psychology, International Balkan University, Skopje, North Macedonia
| | - Banu Cangoz-Tavat
- Cognitive Psychology, Department of Psychology, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
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5
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Dynamic functional connectivity associated with prospective memory success in children. NEUROIMAGE: REPORTS 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ynirp.2022.100144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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6
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Immel AS, Altgassen M, Meyer M, Endedijk HM, Hunnius S. Self-projection in early childhood: No evidence for a common underpinning of episodic memory, episodic future thinking, theory of mind, and spatial navigation. J Exp Child Psychol 2022; 223:105481. [PMID: 35753195 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Buckner and Carroll [Trends in Cognitive Sciences (2007), Vol. 11, pp. 49-57] argued that episodic memory (EM), episodic future thinking (EFT), theory of mind (ToM), and spatial navigation all build on the same mental mechanism-self-projection, that is, the ability to disengage from the immediate present and shift perspective to alternative temporal, mental, or spatial situations. Developmental studies indeed show that all four abilities undergo profound developmental changes around 4 years of age, and there are first indications of developmental interrelations between some of the abilities. However, strong evidence for the self-projection account, namely that all four abilities are interrelated in their emergence during early childhood, is still lacking. To thoroughly investigate the self-projection hypothesis, we tested 151 4-year-old children on 12 different tasks assessing their EM, EFT, ToM, and spatial navigation skills (3 tasks per ability). Structural equation modeling under maximum likelihood estimation was conducted on a final sample of 144 children to evaluate a model with the 12 tasks as indicators and self-projection as the latent factor. The model showed a very good fit to the data. However, the factor loadings, indicating the strength of association between the latent factor and the indicators, were very low-which speaks against the validity of the measurement model. In summary, the results do not support the assumption of a common latent factor underlying the various abilities EM, EFT, ToM, and spatial navigation. Implications of our results for the self-projection account and possible related theoretical and methodological challenges are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- A-S Immel
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen, 6525 GD Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | - M Altgassen
- Department of Psychology, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, 55122 Mainz, Germany
| | - M Meyer
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen, 6525 GD Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - H M Endedijk
- Educational Science, Leiden University, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - S Hunnius
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen, 6525 GD Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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7
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Cejudo AB, López-Rojas C, Gómez-Ariza CJ, Bajo MT. ERP Correlates of Prospective Memory and Cue Focality in Children. Brain Sci 2022; 12:brainsci12050533. [PMID: 35624918 PMCID: PMC9138550 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12050533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Revised: 04/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Prospective memory (PM) is essential in the everyday activities of children because it involves remembering intentions for the future, such as doing their homework or bringing written parental permissions to school. Developmental studies have shown increases in PM performance throughout childhood, but the specific processes underlying this development are still under debate. In the present study, event-related potentials were used to examine whether the focality of the PM task is related to the PM increments by testing two groups of children (first and last cycle of primary school) and assessing differences in N300 (cue detection), frontal positivity (switching), parietal positivity (retrieval of the intention) and frontal slow waves (monitoring of the retrieved intention). The results showed significant differences in focality in the group of older children but no differences in any of the components for their younger counterparts. In addition, the differences between prospective and ongoing trials were smaller for younger than older children. These findings suggest that the ability to adjust attentional strategies, monitor, switch and retrieve the intention develops across childhood and affects PM performance in attentionally demanding conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana B. Cejudo
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Research Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior, University of Granada, 18011 Granada, Spain; (C.L.-R.); (M.T.B.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Cristina López-Rojas
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Research Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior, University of Granada, 18011 Granada, Spain; (C.L.-R.); (M.T.B.)
| | | | - María Teresa Bajo
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Research Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior, University of Granada, 18011 Granada, Spain; (C.L.-R.); (M.T.B.)
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8
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Ren Z, Liang X, Sun F, Wang L. The effect of EF on PM performance in school-age children. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/17405629.2022.2049752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Ren
- School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Xiao Liang
- School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Fanhui Sun
- School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Lijuan Wang
- School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin, China
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9
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Mahy CEV. The development of children’s prospective memory: Lessons for developmental science. CHILD DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/cdep.12437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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10
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Hockey A, Cutmore T. Inhibitory control in prospective memory: An event related potential comparison of task-switch and dual task processing. Neuropsychologia 2021; 158:107906. [PMID: 34058173 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2021.107906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2020] [Revised: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
This study cross-validates reported changes in behavioural and event-related potential (ERP) correlates of prospective memory (PM) inhibitory control performance applying different PM response selection demands (Bisiacchi et al., 2009). Participants were randomly assigned to a control group condition with no PM requirement, or to either inhibit ongoing task processing to respond to PM task cues (task-switch; TS) or provide an ongoing task response prior to providing a PM button press (dual-task; DT). The behavioural data indicated that ongoing task reaction time (RT) performance was similar in the DT, TS, and control group conditions. PM cue detection mechanisms reflected by the N300 did not differ between PM tasks. However, early occurring (400-700 ms) PM late parietal complex (LPC) amplitudes recorded over anterior electrode sites were larger in the TS compared to the DT-PM condition, and this difference persisted during the 700-1000 ms epoch. Thus, ERP correlates of PM task-set remapping were significantly altered via the induction of different PM response production rules retrieved from retrospective memory (RM). The enhancement of anteriorly distributed TS LPC amplitudes between 400 and 700 ms led to the suggestion that increased inhibition in this group condition was accompanied by heightened frontally mediated neural activations that support prepotent ongoing task response inhibition processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Hockey
- School of Applied Psychology, Griffith University, Building M24, 176 Messines Ridge Rd, Mount Gravatt, QLD, 4122, Australia.
| | - T Cutmore
- School of Applied Psychology, Griffith University, Building M24, 176 Messines Ridge Rd, Mount Gravatt, QLD, 4122, Australia
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11
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Poole D, Gowen E, Poliakoff E, Jones LA. 'No idea of time': Parents report differences in autistic children's behaviour relating to time in a mixed-methods study. AUTISM : THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND PRACTICE 2021; 25:1797-1808. [PMID: 33926273 PMCID: PMC8323338 DOI: 10.1177/13623613211010014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
An emerging body of research suggests that temporal processing may be
disrupted in autistic children, although little is known about
behaviours relating to time in daily life. In the present study, 113
parents of autistic and 201 parents of neurotypical children (aged
7–12 years) completed the It’s About Time
questionnaire and open-ended questions about their child’s behaviour
relating to time. The questionnaire scores were lower in the autistic
compared with the neurotypical group, suggesting that behaviours are
affected. Three key themes were identified using thematic analysis:
autistic children had problems with temporal
knowledge, learning about concepts relating to time,
such as how to use the clock and language around time. There were
differences in prospection with autistic children
having more difficulties with how they thought about the future and
prepared themselves for upcoming events. The final theme,
monotropism, described how autistic children
viewed their time as precious so they could maximise engagement in
their interests. The present study indicates that behaviours relating
to time can have a considerable impact on the daily lives of autistic
children and their families. Further work exploring the development of
temporal cognition in autism would be valuable for targeting effective
educational and clinical support.
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12
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Moeller S, Mazachowsky TR, Lavis L, Gluck S, Mahy CEV. Adults' perceptions of forgetful children: the impact of child age, domain, and memory type. Memory 2021; 29:524-537. [PMID: 33847255 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2021.1912101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Prospective memory (PM) tasks have been described as social in nature because carrying out one's intentions often has an impact on others. Despite the claim that PM errors [compared to retrospective memory (RM) errors] are perceived as character flaws, little empirical work has tested this assertion. In particular, no study has examined how adults perceive children's PM errors. Thus, the aim of the current studies was to examine adults' perceptions of children's forgetfulness depending on child age (4 vs. 10-year-olds), domain of the memory error (academic vs. social), and memory type (PM vs. RM). In Study 1, adult participants rated children's PM errors on seven traits. Findings showed that social errors were rated more negatively than academic errors, and age and domain interacted such that 10-year-olds were rated more negatively than 4-year-olds for making social errors but not academic errors. Study 2 examined the impact of child age, domain, and memory type on perceptions of forgetful children to specifically test differences between PM and RM errors. Results showed a larger difference between ratings of 10-year-olds for their academic and social memory errors compared to 4-year-olds, but only for RM errors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha Moeller
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, St Catharines, ON, Canada
| | | | - Lydia Lavis
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, St Catharines, ON, Canada
| | | | - Caitlin E V Mahy
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, St Catharines, ON, Canada
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13
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Ji L, Zhao Q, Gu H, Chen Y, Zhao J, Jiang X, Wu L. Effect of Executive Function on Event-Based Prospective Memory for Different Forms of Learning Disabilities. Front Psychol 2021; 12:528883. [PMID: 33746809 PMCID: PMC7973034 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.528883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Students with learning disabilities (LDs) suffer from executive function deficits and impaired prospective memory (PM). Yet the specificity of deficits associated with different types of LDs is still unclear. The object of the present research was to compare subgroups of students with different forms of LDs (<25th percentile) on executive function and PM. Students with a mathematics disability (MD, n = 30), reading disability (RD, n = 27), both (RDMD, n = 27), or neither (typically developing, TD, n = 30) were evaluated on a set of executive functioning tasks (e.g., updating, inhibition, and shifting) and on PM. The results showed that students with MDs and RDMDs suffered from PM deficits. Among the subtypes of LDs, the deficit is different. The students with RDMDs showed a wide range of defects in PM, shifting, inhibition, and updating. In comparison, students with MDs experienced deficits in PM and shifting, while students with RDs experienced a deficit only in updating. For the RD group, the RDMD group and the TD group, updating, and shifting significantly predicted PM. For the MD group, only shifting significantly predicted PM performance, but PM deficits were not completely confined to shifting deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lili Ji
- Institute of Cognition, Brain and Health, Henan University, Kaifeng, China.,Institute of Psychology and Behavior, Henan University, Kaifeng, China
| | - Qi Zhao
- Department of Psychology, University of Macau, Macau, China
| | - Huang Gu
- Institute of Cognition, Brain and Health, Henan University, Kaifeng, China.,Institute of Psychology and Behavior, Henan University, Kaifeng, China
| | - Yanan Chen
- Institute of Cognition, Brain and Health, Henan University, Kaifeng, China.,Institute of Psychology and Behavior, Henan University, Kaifeng, China
| | - Junfeng Zhao
- Institute of Cognition, Brain and Health, Henan University, Kaifeng, China.,Institute of Psychology and Behavior, Henan University, Kaifeng, China
| | - Xiaowei Jiang
- Institute of Cognition, Brain and Health, Henan University, Kaifeng, China.,Institute of Psychology and Behavior, Henan University, Kaifeng, China
| | - Lina Wu
- Institute of Cognition, Brain and Health, Henan University, Kaifeng, China.,Institute of Psychology and Behavior, Henan University, Kaifeng, China
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14
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Lavis L, Mahy CEV. "I'll remember everything no matter what!": The role of metacognitive abilities in the development of young children's prospective memory. J Exp Child Psychol 2021; 207:105117. [PMID: 33676117 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 01/27/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Prospective memory (PM), the ability to remember to carry out future intentions, is a critical skill for children's daily activities. Despite this, little is known about young children's awareness of their PM ability (metamemory), how metamemory is affected by PM task difficulty, and how metacognitive abilities might be related to metamemory. The current study examined the effect of task difficulty on children's PM predictions, actual performance, and postdictions and relations among episodic memory metamemory, metacognitive control, and executive functioning. Children aged 4 to 6 years (N = 131) made PM predictions, completed an easy or difficult PM task, and then made PM postdictions. Children also made predictions and postdictions for their performance on an episodic recall task and then completed an independent measure of metacognitive control and two measures of executive function (working memory and inhibition). Results showed that (a) children's PM increased with age and was worse in the difficult PM task condition, (b) PM predictions and postdictions did not increase with age and only PM postdictions were affected by PM task difficulty; (c) children's PM and episodic recall predictions and postdictions were more accurate with age, (d) children's PM postdictions best predicted PM performance, whereas predictions best predicted episodic recall task performance, and (e) children with better metacognitive control had better PM and more accurate PM predictions. These results are discussed in terms of young children's optimism surrounding their memory performance and the emergence of early metacognitive abilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia Lavis
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario L2S 3A1, Canada
| | - Caitlin E V Mahy
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario L2S 3A1, Canada.
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15
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Adornetti I, Chiera A, Altavilla D, Deriu V, Marini A, Valeri G, Magni R, Ferretti F. Self-projection in middle childhood: a study on the relationship between theory of mind and episodic future thinking. Cogn Process 2021; 22:321-332. [PMID: 33582880 PMCID: PMC8179913 DOI: 10.1007/s10339-021-01013-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Growing evidence suggests that theory of mind (ToM) and episodic future thinking (EFT) are closely related at both brain and functional level. This study explored the relationship between ToM and EFT in 96 Italian-speaking children with typical development aged between 8 and 10.11 using a behavioral design. ToM was assessed through an emotional facial expression recognition task. EFT was assessed with a task where participants were required to project themselves forward in time by anticipating future states of the self; this resulted in two scores: a nonverbal measure and a verbal explanation measure. Results showed that the participants’ performance on the task assessing ToM correlated with and predicted the nonverbal measure of the EFT task. These findings are discussed in the light of theories suggesting that each of these abilities is governed by a common system devoted to self-projection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ines Adornetti
- Cosmic Lab, Department of Philosophy, Communication and Performing Arts, Roma Tre University, Via Ostiense 234, 00146, Rome, Italy.
| | - Alessandra Chiera
- Cosmic Lab, Department of Philosophy, Communication and Performing Arts, Roma Tre University, Via Ostiense 234, 00146, Rome, Italy
| | - Daniela Altavilla
- Cosmic Lab, Department of Philosophy, Communication and Performing Arts, Roma Tre University, Via Ostiense 234, 00146, Rome, Italy
| | - Valentina Deriu
- Cosmic Lab, Department of Philosophy, Communication and Performing Arts, Roma Tre University, Via Ostiense 234, 00146, Rome, Italy
| | - Andrea Marini
- Department of Languages and Literatures, Communication, Education and Society, University of Udine, Via Margreth, 3, 33100, Udine, Italy
- Claudiana - Landesfachhochschule Für Gesundheitsberufe, Bozen, Italy
| | - Giovanni Valeri
- Child and Adolescent Neuropsychiatry Unit, Department of Neuroscience, The Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Piazza Di Sant'Onofrio, 4, 00165, Rome, Italy
| | - Rita Magni
- Child and Adolescent Neuropsychiatry Unit, Department of Neuroscience, The Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Piazza Di Sant'Onofrio, 4, 00165, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco Ferretti
- Cosmic Lab, Department of Philosophy, Communication and Performing Arts, Roma Tre University, Via Ostiense 234, 00146, Rome, Italy
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16
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Cottini M, Basso D, Palladino P. Improving prospective memory in school-aged children: Effects of future thinking and performance predictions. J Exp Child Psychol 2021; 204:105065. [PMID: 33422737 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2020.105065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Revised: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Recently, event-based prospective memory (PM) performance of children has been shown to benefit from different encoding strategies such as imagining the execution of a future PM task (i.e., future thinking) and making performance predictions (i.e., metacognitive monitoring). This study aimed to investigate whether and how these two encoding strategies affect PM performance alone and in combination. For this purpose, 127 children aged 8-11 years were assigned to four encoding conditions: (a) standard, (b) performance predictions, (c) future thinking, and (d) future thinking + performance predictions. The ongoing task performance costs (i.e., attentional monitoring), working memory (WM) span, and metacognitive monitoring judgments, such as task difficulty expectations, performance postdictions, confidence judgments, and strategy use, were also evaluated among participants. The results show that combining future thinking instructions with performance predictions considerably improved children's PM performance without incurring additional attentional monitoring costs. Moreover, whereas children generally tended to overestimate their PM performance, more realistic lower-performance predictions were related to higher PM scores for children in the combined condition. Finally, age, WM, and strategy use significantly predicted PM performance independent of the encoding condition. This study is the first to demonstrate that combining future thinking instructions with performance predictions enhances children's PM performance compared with each encoding strategy alone. Moreover, this work is the first to show that by simply imagining the execution of a PM task, children's prediction accuracy can be improved, which is significantly related to the PM performance advantage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milvia Cottini
- Cognitive and Educational Sciences Laboratory (CESLAb), Faculty of Education, Free University of Bolzano-Bozen, 39042 Bressanone-Brixen, Italy; Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy.
| | - Demis Basso
- Cognitive and Educational Sciences Laboratory (CESLAb), Faculty of Education, Free University of Bolzano-Bozen, 39042 Bressanone-Brixen, Italy
| | - Paola Palladino
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy
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Hartwig J, Kretschmer-Trendowicz A, Helmert JR, Jung ML, Pannasch S. Revealing the dynamics of prospective memory processes in children with eye movements. Int J Psychophysiol 2021; 160:38-55. [PMID: 33387575 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2020.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Revised: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Prospective memory (PM), the memory for delayed intentions, develops during childhood. The current study examined PM processes, such as monitoring, PM cue identification and intention retrieval with particular focus on their temporal dynamics and interrelations during successful and unsuccessful PM performance. We analysed eye movements of 6-7 and 9-10 year olds during the inspection of movie stills while they completed one of three different tasks: scene viewing followed by a snippet allocation task, a PM task and a visual search task. We also tested children's executive functions of inhibition, flexibility and working memory. We found that older children outperformed younger children in all tasks but neither age group showed variations in monitoring behaviour during the course of the PM task. In fact, neither age group monitored. According to our data, initial processes necessary for PM success take place during the first fixation on the PM cue. In PM hit trials we found prolonged fixations after the first fixation on the PM cue, and older children showed a greater efficiency in PM processes following this first PM cue fixation. Regarding executive functions, only working memory had a significant effect on children's PM performance. Across both age groups children with better working memory scores needed less time to react to the PM cue. Our data support the notion that children rely on spontaneous processes to notice the PM cue, followed by a resource intensive search for the intended action.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Hartwig
- Chair of Engineering Psychology and Applied Cognitive Research, Technische Universität Dresden, Zellescher Weg 17, 01062 Dresden, Germany.
| | - A Kretschmer-Trendowicz
- Chair of Lifespan Developmental Neuroscience, Technische Universität Dresden, Zellescher Weg 17, 01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - J R Helmert
- Chair of Engineering Psychology and Applied Cognitive Research, Technische Universität Dresden, Zellescher Weg 17, 01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - M L Jung
- Chair of Engineering Psychology and Applied Cognitive Research, Technische Universität Dresden, Zellescher Weg 17, 01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - S Pannasch
- Chair of Engineering Psychology and Applied Cognitive Research, Technische Universität Dresden, Zellescher Weg 17, 01062 Dresden, Germany
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18
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Hajdas S, Grzegorzewska K, Niedźwieńska A. The importance of schooling and parental attitudes for children’s prospective memory. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2021.101006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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19
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Magis-Weinberg L, Custers R, Dumontheil I. Sustained and Transient Processes in Event-based Prospective Memory in Adolescence and Adulthood. J Cogn Neurosci 2020; 32:1924-1945. [DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_01604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Prospective memory (PM) refers to the cognitive processes associated with remembering to perform an intended action after a delay. Varying the salience of PM cues while keeping the intended response constant, we investigated the extent to which participants relied on strategic monitoring, through sustained, top–down control, or on spontaneous retrieval via transient bottom–up processes. There is mixed evidence regarding developmental improvements in event-based PM performance after the age of 13 years. We compared PM performance and associated sustained and transient neural correlates in 28 typically developing adolescents (12–17 years old) and 19 adults (23–30 years old). Lower PM cue salience associated with slower ongoing task (OT) RTs, reflected by increased μ ex-Gaussian parameter, and sustained increases in frontoparietal activation during OT blocks, both thought to reflect greater proactive control supporting cue monitoring. Behavioral and neural correlates of PM trials were not specifically modulated by cue salience, revealing little difference in reactive control between conditions. The effect of cue salience was similar across age groups, suggesting that adolescents are able to adapt proactive control engagement to PM task demands. Exploratory analyses showed that younger, but not older, adolescents were less accurate and slower in PM trials relative to OT trials than adults and showed greater transient activation in PM trials in an occipito-temporal cluster. These results provide evidence of both mature and still maturing aspects of cognitive processes associated with implementation of an intention after a delay during early adolescence.
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Abstract
Abstract. Prospective Memory (PM; i.e., the ability to remember to perform planned tasks) represents a key proxy of healthy aging, as it relates to older adults’ everyday functioning, autonomy, and personal well-being. The current review illustrates how PM performance develops across the lifespan and how multiple cognitive and non-cognitive factors influence this trajectory. Further, a new, integrative framework is presented, detailing how those processes interplay in retrieving and executing delayed intentions. Specifically, while most previous models have focused on memory processes, the present model focuses on the role of executive functioning in PM and its development across the lifespan. Finally, a practical outlook is presented, suggesting how the current knowledge can be applied in geriatrics and geropsychology to promote healthy aging by maintaining prospective abilities in the elderly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sascha Zuber
- Center for the Interdisciplinary Study of Gerontology and Vulnerability (CIGEV), University of Geneva, Switzerland
- Swiss National Center of Competences in Research LIVES – Overcoming Vulnerability: Life Course Perspectives, Lausanne and Geneva, Switzerland
- Department of Psychology, University of Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Matthias Kliegel
- Center for the Interdisciplinary Study of Gerontology and Vulnerability (CIGEV), University of Geneva, Switzerland
- Swiss National Center of Competences in Research LIVES – Overcoming Vulnerability: Life Course Perspectives, Lausanne and Geneva, Switzerland
- Department of Psychology, University of Geneva, Switzerland
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21
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Miller R, Frohnwieser A, Ding N, Troisi CA, Schiestl M, Gruber R, Taylor AH, Jelbert SA, Boeckle M, Clayton NS. A novel test of flexible planning in relation to executive function and language in young children. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2020; 7:192015. [PMID: 32431882 PMCID: PMC7211888 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.192015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In adult humans, decisions involving the choice and use of tools for future events typically require episodic foresight. Previous studies suggest some non-human species are capable of future planning; however, these experiments often cannot fully exclude alternative learning explanations. Here, we used a novel tool-use paradigm aiming to address these critiques to test flexible planning in 3- to 5-year-old children, in relation to executive function and language abilities. In the flexible planning task, children were not verbally cued during testing, single trials avoided consistent exposure to stimulus-reward relationships, and training trials provided experience of a predictable return of reward. Furthermore, unlike most standard developmental studies, we incorporated short delays before and after tool choice. The critical test choice included two tools with equal prior reward experience-each only functional in one apparatus. We tested executive function and language abilities using several standardized tasks. Our results echoed standard developmental research: 4- and 5-year-olds outperformed 3-year-olds on the flexible planning task, and 5-year-old children outperformed younger children in most executive function and language tasks. Flexible planning performance did not correlate with executive function and language performance. This paradigm could be used to investigate flexible planning in a tool-use context in non-human species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachael Miller
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Anna Frohnwieser
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Ning Ding
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Camille A. Troisi
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Martina Schiestl
- School of Psychology, Auckland University, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Romana Gruber
- School of Psychology, Auckland University, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Alex H. Taylor
- School of Psychology, Auckland University, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Sarah A. Jelbert
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- School of Psychological Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Markus Boeckle
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Department of Psychology and Psychodynamics, Karl Landsteiner University of Health Sciences, St Pölten, Austria
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22
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Beaudoin C, Leblanc É, Gagner C, Beauchamp MH. Systematic Review and Inventory of Theory of Mind Measures for Young Children. Front Psychol 2020; 10:2905. [PMID: 32010013 PMCID: PMC6974541 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 12/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Theory of mind (TOM), the ability to infer mental states to self and others, has been a pervasive research theme across many disciplines including developmental, educational, neuro-, and social psychology, social neuroscience and speech therapy. TOM abilities have been consistently linked to markers of social adaptation and have been shown to be affected in a broad range of clinical conditions. Despite the wealth and breadth of research dedicated to TOM, identifying appropriate assessment tools for young children remains challenging. This systematic review presents an inventory of TOM measures for children aged 0-5 years and provides details on their content and characteristics. Electronic databases (1983-2019) and 9 test publisher catalogs were systematically reviewed. In total, 220 measures, identified within 830 studies, were found to assess the understanding of seven categories of mental states and social situations: emotions, desires, intentions, percepts, knowledge, beliefs and mentalistic understanding of non-literal communication, and pertained to 39 types of TOM sub-abilities. Information on the measures' mode of presentation, number of items, scoring options, and target populations were extracted, and psychometric details are listed in summary tables. The results of the systematic review are summarized in a visual framework "Abilities in Theory of Mind Space" (ATOMS) which provides a new taxonomy of TOM sub-domains. This review highlights the remarkable variety of measures that have been created to assess TOM, but also the numerous methodological and psychometric challenges associated with developing and choosing appropriate measures, including issues related to the limited range of sub-abilities targeted, lack of standardization across studies and paucity of psychometric information provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cindy Beaudoin
- Department of Psychology, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Sainte-Justine Hospital Research Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Élizabel Leblanc
- Department of Psychology, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Charlotte Gagner
- Department of Psychology, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Sainte-Justine Hospital Research Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Miriam H. Beauchamp
- Department of Psychology, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Sainte-Justine Hospital Research Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
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23
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The Influence of Executive Function on Prospective Memory in Word- and Category-Based Tasks. ADONGHAKOEJI 2019. [DOI: 10.5723/kjcs.2019.40.5.31] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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24
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Zhang X, Zuber S, Zhang J, Ihle A, Kliegel M, Wang L. The influence of ongoing task absorption on preschoolers’ prospective memory with peripheral cues. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2019.1646747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xinyuan Zhang
- School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China
- Jilin Provincial Experimental Teaching Demonstration Center of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China
| | - Sascha Zuber
- Center for the Interdisciplinary Study of Gerontology and Vulnerability and NCCR LIVES, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Department of Psychology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Jinrui Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics, China–Japan Union Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Andreas Ihle
- Center for the Interdisciplinary Study of Gerontology and Vulnerability and NCCR LIVES, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Department of Psychology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Matthias Kliegel
- Center for the Interdisciplinary Study of Gerontology and Vulnerability and NCCR LIVES, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Department of Psychology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Lijuan Wang
- School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China
- Jilin Provincial Experimental Teaching Demonstration Center of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China
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25
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Cejudo AB, McDaniel MA, Bajo MT. Event versus activity-based cues and motivation in school-related prospective memory tasks. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0215845. [PMID: 31002710 PMCID: PMC6474621 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0215845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2018] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Prospective memory (PM), the ability to remember an intention in the future, is essential to children’s everyday lives. We explored age differences (6- to 7- vs. 10- to 11-year-olds) in PM depending on the nature of the task and the children’s motivation. Children performed event-based PM tasks (in which the cue was presented during the ongoing activity) and activity-based PM tasks (in which the cue consisted of finishing the ongoing activity). Additionally, the children were assigned to either a reward condition or a no-reward condition. The results showed better performance in event than in activity based tasks, with older children outperforming younger children in both. There was a marginal effect of reward for PM accuracy. These patterns suggest that the cue detection process and children’s motivation play a role in PM performance during development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana B. Cejudo
- Department of Experimental Psychology–Research Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
- * E-mail:
| | - Mark A. McDaniel
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - M. Teresa Bajo
- Department of Experimental Psychology–Research Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
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26
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Zuber S, Mahy CE, Kliegel M. How executive functions are associated with event-based and time-based prospective memory during childhood. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2019.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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27
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Cottini M, Basso D, Saracini C, Palladino P. Performance predictions and postdictions in prospective memory of school-aged children. J Exp Child Psychol 2019; 179:38-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2018.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2018] [Revised: 10/16/2018] [Accepted: 10/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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28
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Peisley M, Foster TM, Sargisson RJ. Reinforcing the prospective remembering of children with autism spectrum disorder. J Appl Behav Anal 2019; 53:121-133. [PMID: 30747448 DOI: 10.1002/jaba.546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Accepted: 12/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Prospective memory is remembering to carry out a behavior on a particular occasion or at a specific time in the future. This form of remembering is critical for the daily functioning of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and their functional independence from caregivers. We used a single-subject design to investigate whether reinforcement increased the accuracy of prospective remembering in the context of a computerized board game, Virtual Week, of four 6- to 7-year-old children diagnosed with ASD. Reinforcement increased accuracy for all participants compared to baseline performance and effects were maintained after reinforcement was discontinued for three of four children. This is the first study of which we are aware to use a reinforcement-based behavioral intervention to improve the prospective remembering of children with ASD. Limitations and areas for future research are discussed.
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29
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Cejudo AB, Gómez-Ariza CJ, Bajo MT. The Cost of Prospective Memory in Children: The Role of Cue Focality. Front Psychol 2019; 9:2738. [PMID: 30687189 PMCID: PMC6333704 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Prospective memory (PM) is an essential ability in daily life, since it involves remembering to perform an intention. While PM largely develops during childhood and adolescence, its underlying mechanisms are still poorly understood. In general, age differences in PM have been found with tasks in which the prospective cues are not part of the ongoing activity (non-focal PM tasks). In the present study, we evaluated the cognitive cost produced by a PM task over the ongoing activity by comparing the performance of a single-task condition with that of an ongoing activity condition involving a prospective intention. Specifically, to determine the impact of cue focality on performance as a function of age, we tested two groups of children (6 and 11 years old) in three experimental conditions: single, focal and non-focal prospective cues. In the single-task condition, children were only asked to perform the ongoing task (to categorize images as animal or non-animal). In the focal condition, in addition to performing the ongoing activity, participants were asked to press different keys whenever the image appearing on the screen was a kite or a ball. In the non-focal condition, children were to press the keys if the color of the frame of the screen changed to magenta or gray. Although reaction times were greater for the non-focal conditions in both age groups, the results showed worse performance on the ongoing activity for both the focal and the non-focal conditions (relative to the single-task condition) in the younger children. This difference was less pronounced in older children so that response times for focal and non-focal cues differed from the single condition, but the difference in performance between focal and single task conditions was not reliable. These findings, which are partly in line with the dual process framework (McDaniel et al., 2015), suggest that while non-focal prospective cues compromise attentional control in younger and older children, focal cues seem to rely on less effortful processes in older children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana B Cejudo
- Department of Experimental Psychology, The Mind, Brain, and Behaviour Research Centre, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | | | - M Teresa Bajo
- Department of Experimental Psychology, The Mind, Brain, and Behaviour Research Centre, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
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30
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DeNigris D, Brooks PJ. The Role of Language in Temporal Cognition in 6- to 10-Year-Old Children. JOURNAL OF COGNITION AND DEVELOPMENT 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/15248372.2018.1483372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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31
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Do verbal reminders improve preschoolers’ prospective memory performance? It depends on age and individual differences. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2018.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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32
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Kelly AJ, Perdue BM, Love MW, Parrish AE, Beran MJ. An Investigation of Prospective Memory with Output Monitoring in Preschool Children. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.5406/amerjpsyc.131.2.0201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
The ability to perform an intended behavior in some future circumstance, known as prospective memory (PM), is an important cognitive ability for young children to develop. In this study, we examined PM in preschool children, with the addition of an output monitoring component, which is the ability to remember whether a previously intended action was completed. Participants were engaged in an ongoing task of sorting cards with a variety of images such as animals, tools, and foods by the size of pictures on the card. They were also instructed to sort any cards with animals into cardboard boxes marked as zoos. The first time any given animal was seen, it was to be placed in “Zoo 1,” and if the same animal was noticed again, it was to be placed in “Zoo 2.” Participants completed the task 3 times (each with different targets) on 3 separate days. Participants’ PM accuracy improved with practice. There was a relationship between age and PM performance on the first trial, with older children detecting more PM targets. This relationship was not present on the second and third trials, and a significant relationship between ongoing task errors and PM performance emerged, such that making fewer errors on the sorting task was associated with better PM performance. Regarding output monitoring errors, children most frequently placed both occurrences of the same PM target in the first zoo.
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33
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Uttl B, White CA, Cnudde K, Grant LM. Prospective memory, retrospective memory, and individual differences in cognitive abilities, personality, and psychopathology. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0193806. [PMID: 29584735 PMCID: PMC5870974 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0193806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2016] [Accepted: 02/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Although individual differences in processing speed, working memory, intelligence, and other cognitive functions were found to explain individual differences in retrospective memory (RetM), much less is known about their relationship with prospective memory (ProM). Moreover, the studies that investigated the relationship between ProM and cognitive functions arrived to contradictory conclusions. The relationship between ProM, personality, and psychopathology is similarly unsettled. Meta-analytic reviews of the relationships of ProM with aging and personality suggest that the contradictory findings may be due to widespread methodological problems plaguing ProM research including the prevalent use of inefficient, unreliable binary measures; widespread ceiling effects; failure to distinguish between various ProM subdomains (e.g., episodic ProM versus vigilance/monitoring); various confounds; and, importantly, small sample sizes, resulting in insufficient statistical power. Accordingly, in a large scale study with nearly 1,200 participants, we investigated the relationship between episodic event-cued ProM, episodic RetM, and fundamental cognitive functions including intelligence, personality, and psychopathology, using reliable continuous measures of episodic event-cued ProM. Our findings show that (a) continuous measures of episodic event-cued ProM were much more reliable than binary measures, (b) episodic event-cued ProM was associated with measures of processing speed, working memory, crystallized and fluid intelligence, as well as RetM, and that such associations were similar for ProM and RetM, (c) personality factors did not improve prediction of neither ProM nor RetM beyond the variance predicted by cognitive ability, (d) symptoms of psychopathology did not improve the prediction of ProM although they slightly improved the prediction of RetM, and (e) participants' sex was not associated with ProM but showed small correlations with RetM. In addition to advancing our theoretical understanding of ProM, our findings highlight the need to avoid common pitfalls plaguing ProM research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bob Uttl
- Psychology Department, Mount Royal University, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- * E-mail:
| | - Carmela A. White
- Psychology Department, Mount Royal University, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Kelsey Cnudde
- Psychology Department, Mount Royal University, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Laura M. Grant
- Psychology Department, Mount Royal University, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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34
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Abstract
Prospective memory (PM) is the ability to remember to carry out a planned intention at an appropriate moment in the future. Research on PM in ASD has produced mixed results. We aimed to establish the extent to which two types of PM (event-based/time-based) are impaired in ASD. In part 1, a meta-analysis of all existing studies indicates a large impairment of time-based, but only a small impairment of event-based PM in ASD. In Part 2, a critical review concludes that time-based PM appears diminished in ASD, in line with the meta-analysis, but that caution should be taken when interpreting event-based PM findings, given potential methodological limitations of several studies. Clinical implications and directions for future research are discussed.
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35
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Episodic future thinking improves children's prospective memory performance in a complex task setting with real life task demands. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2017; 83:514-525. [PMID: 28861602 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-017-0908-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2016] [Accepted: 08/19/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Research on children's prospective memory (PM) shows an increase of performance across childhood and provides first evidence that encoding strategies such as episodic future thinking (EFT; i.e., engaging in a vivid prospection of oneself performing future tasks) may improve performance. The present study aimed at testing whether the beneficial effects of EFT extend from typical lab-based tasks to more complex tasks with real life demands. Further, it was tested whether children's ability to project themselves into different perspectives (i.e., self-projection) moderates the effects of EFT encoding on PM. Overall, 56 children (mean age: M = 10.73 years) were included in this study who were randomly assigned to either an EFT or control condition. Children participated in a 'sightseeing tour' (ongoing activity) inside the lab with various socially relevant and neutral PM tasks embedded. Results showed significantly higher PM performance in the EFT compared to the control group. There was no difference between neutral and social PM tasks and no interaction between type of PM tasks with encoding condition. Further, self-projection did not moderate the effects of EFT encoding on PM. Results suggest that EFT is an effective strategy to improve children's everyday PM. These beneficial effects seem to occur independent from children's general ability to change perspectives and for different types of PM tasks.
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36
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Zhang X, Ballhausen N, Liu S, Kliegel M, Wang L. The effects of ongoing task absorption on event-based prospective memory in preschoolers. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/17405629.2017.1346503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xinyuan Zhang
- School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China
| | | | - Si Liu
- Psychology Department, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Matthias Kliegel
- Department of Psychology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Center for the Interdisciplinary Study of Gerontology and Vulnerability and NCCR LIVES, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Lijuan Wang
- School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China
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37
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Han PG, Han L, Bian YL, Tian Y, Xu MX, Gao FQ. Influence of Ongoing Task Difficulty and Motivation Level on Children's Prospective Memory in a Chinese Sample. Front Psychol 2017; 8:89. [PMID: 28203212 PMCID: PMC5285343 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2016] [Accepted: 01/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Prospective memory (PM) is the process associated with the task of realizing delayed intentions in the future. Researchers distinguish two types of PM, namely time-based PM (tbPM) and event-based PM (ebPM). Experiment 1 investigated the developmental trajectory of 3- to 5-year-old preschool children’s PM ability, and the occurrence of delayed retrieval (children execute the PM task in a larger window of opportunity) in both tbPM and ebPM tasks. Results revealed that the 5-year-old children outperformed the 3- and 4-year-old children in PM. Moreover, delayed retrieval was more likely to occur in tbPM task than in ebPM task. In Experiment 2, the influence of ongoing task (OT) difficulty on PM performance was investigated with a sample of 5-year-old children. Results revealed no significant effect of OT difficulty on PM performance. In Experiment 3, we improved children’s motivation level to complete the OT, then explored the influence of OT difficulty on children’s PM performance. Results revealed that the effect of OT difficulty on PM performance became significant after increasing the children’s motivation to complete the OT. These results provide insights into the mechanism of attentional resource allocation in PM tasks and have crucial educational and social implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pi-Guo Han
- School of Psychology, Shandong Normal UniversityJinan, China; Department of Preschool Education, Heze UniversityHeze, China
| | - Lei Han
- School of Psychology, Shandong Normal University Jinan, China
| | - Yu-Long Bian
- Department of Computer Science and Technology, Shandong University Jinan, China
| | - Yu Tian
- School of Psychology, Shandong Normal University Jinan, China
| | - Min-Xia Xu
- School of Psychology, Shandong Normal University Jinan, China
| | - Feng-Qiang Gao
- School of Psychology, Shandong Normal University Jinan, China
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Krasny-Pacini A, Servant V, Alzieu C, Chevignard M. Ecological prospective memory assessment in children with acquired brain injury using the Children's Cooking Task. Dev Neurorehabil 2017. [PMID: 26222344 DOI: 10.3109/17518423.2015.1058298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Prospective memory (PM) has been shown to be impaired in children with acquired brain injuries (ABI) and is a major concern for parents. Few studies have addressed this issue and most used tasks that are not ecologically valid. The aims of this study were (1) to explore if children who have sustained an ABI suffer PM impairment, measured both by the Children's Cooking task (CCT) PM score and using the 2 PM subtests of the Rivermead Behavioral Memory Test (RBMT), and (2) to explore if the CCT PM score is sensitive to developmental changes in PM in typically developing children and in children with ABI. Fifty-four children with ABI and 33 typically developing controls participated in the study. Children with ABI had significantly lower PM scores and poorer performance in the CCT than their typically developing peers. PM scores increased significantly with age, indicating developmental progress of PM performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agata Krasny-Pacini
- a University Rehabilitation Institute Clemenceau-Strasbourg, and Paediatric Department of Hautepierre Strasbourg University Hospital , Strasbourg , France.,b Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Paris 06, UMR 7371, UMR_S 1146 , Paris , France
| | - Violette Servant
- c Centre Médico-chirurgical de réadaptation des Massues , Lyon cedex , France
| | - Christine Alzieu
- d Université de Nantes, U.F.R. de Psychologie , Nantes , France , and
| | - Mathilde Chevignard
- b Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Paris 06, UMR 7371, UMR_S 1146 , Paris , France.,e Rehabilitation Department for Children with Acquired Brain Injury , Hôpitaux de Saint Maurice , Saint Maurice , France
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Dagenais E, Rouleau I, Tremblay A, Demers M, Roger É, Jobin C, Duquette P. Prospective memory in multiple sclerosis: The impact of cue distinctiveness and executive functioning. Brain Cogn 2016; 109:66-74. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2016.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Revised: 07/28/2016] [Accepted: 07/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Leduc K, Williams S, Gomez-Garibello C, Talwar V. The contributions of mental state understanding and executive functioning to preschool-aged children's lie-telling. BRITISH JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2016; 35:288-302. [DOI: 10.1111/bjdp.12163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2016] [Revised: 09/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Karissa Leduc
- Department of Educational and Counseling Psychology; McGill University; Montreal Quebec Canada
| | - Shanna Williams
- Department of Educational and Counseling Psychology; McGill University; Montreal Quebec Canada
| | | | - Victoria Talwar
- Department of Educational and Counseling Psychology; McGill University; Montreal Quebec Canada
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Redshaw J, Henry JD, Suddendorf T. Disentangling the effect of event-based cues on children’s time-based prospective memory performance. J Exp Child Psychol 2016; 150:130-140. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2016.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Revised: 05/17/2016] [Accepted: 05/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Ford RM, Griffiths S, Neulinger K, Andrews G, Shum DHK, Gray PH. Impaired prospective memory but intact episodic memory in intellectually average 7- to 9-year-olds born very preterm and/or very low birth weight. Child Neuropsychol 2016; 23:954-979. [PMID: 27539515 DOI: 10.1080/09297049.2016.1216091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Relatively little is known about episodic memory (EM: memory for personally-experienced events) and prospective memory (PM: memory for intended actions) in children born very preterm (VP) or with very low birth weight (VLBW). This study evaluates EM and PM in mainstream-schooled 7- to 9-year-olds born VP (≤ 32 weeks) and/or VLBW (< 1500 g) and matches full-term children for comparison (n = 35 and n = 37, respectively). Additionally, participants were assessed for verbal and non-verbal ability, executive function (EF), and theory of mind (ToM). The results show that the VP/VLBW children were outperformed by the full-term children on the memory tests overall, with a significant univariate group difference in PM. Moreover, within the VP/VLBW group, the measures of PM, verbal ability and working memory all displayed reliable negative correlations with severity of neonatal illness. PM was found to be independent of EM and cognitive functioning, suggesting that this form of memory might constitute a domain of specific vulnerability for VP/VLBW children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth M Ford
- a Department of Psychology , Anglia Ruskin University , Cambridge , UK
| | - Sarah Griffiths
- b Menzies Health Institute Queensland and School of Applied Psychology , Griffith University , Queensland , Australia
| | - Kerryn Neulinger
- b Menzies Health Institute Queensland and School of Applied Psychology , Griffith University , Queensland , Australia
| | - Glenda Andrews
- b Menzies Health Institute Queensland and School of Applied Psychology , Griffith University , Queensland , Australia
| | - David H K Shum
- b Menzies Health Institute Queensland and School of Applied Psychology , Griffith University , Queensland , Australia
| | - Peter H Gray
- c Mater Research Institute , University of Queensland and Mater Mothers' Hospital , Queensland , Australia
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Event-based prospective memory across the lifespan: Do all age groups benefit from salient prospective memory cues? COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2016.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Kretschmer-Trendowicz A, Ellis JA, Altgassen M. Effects of Episodic Future Thinking and Self-Projection on Children's Prospective Memory Performance. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0158366. [PMID: 27355645 PMCID: PMC4927109 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0158366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2015] [Accepted: 06/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study is the first to investigate the benefits of episodic future thinking (EFT) at encoding on prospective memory (PM) in preschool (age: M = 66.34 months, SD = 3.28) and primary school children (age: M = 88.36 months, SD = 3.12). A second aim was to examine if self-projection influences the possible effects of EFT instructions. PM was assessed using a standard PM paradigm in children with a picture-naming task as the ongoing activity in which the PM task was embedded. Further, two first- and two second-order ToM tasks were administered as indicator of children’s self-projection abilities. Forty-one preschoolers and 39 school-aged children were recruited. Half of the participants in each age group were instructed to use EFT as a strategy to encode the PM task, while the others received standard PM instructions. Results revealed a significant age effect, with school-aged children significantly outperforming preschoolers and a significant effect of encoding condition with overall better performance when receiving EFT instructions compared to the standard encoding condition. Even though the interaction between age group and encoding condition was not significant, planned comparisons revealed first evidence that compared to the younger age group, older children’s PM benefitted more from EFT instructions during intention encoding. Moreover, results showed that although self-projection had a significant impact on PM performance, it did not influence the effects of EFT instructions. Overall, results indicate that children can use EFT encoding strategies to improve their PM performance once EFT abilities are sufficiently developed. Further, they provide first evidence that in addition to executive functions, which have already been shown to influence the development of PM across childhood, self-projection seems to be another key mechanism underlying this development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Judith A. Ellis
- School of Psychology & Clinical Language Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom
| | - Mareike Altgassen
- Department of Psychology, Technische Universitaet Dresden, Dresden, Germany
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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Grainger C, Williams DM, Lind SE. Recognition memory and source memory in autism spectrum disorder: A study of the intention superiority and enactment effects. AUTISM : THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND PRACTICE 2016; 21:812-820. [PMID: 27335106 DOI: 10.1177/1362361316653364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
It is well established that neurotypical individuals generally show better memory for actions they have performed than actions they have observed others perform or merely read about, a so-called 'enactment effect'. Strikingly, research has also shown that neurotypical individuals demonstrate superior memory for actions they intend to perform in the future (but have not yet performed), an effect commonly known as the 'intention superiority effect'. Although the enactment effect has been studied among people with autism spectrum disorder, this study is the first to investigate the intention superiority effect in this disorder. This is surprising given the potential importance this issue has for general theory development, as well as for clinical practice. As such, this study aimed to assess the intention superiority and enactment effects in 22 children with autism spectrum disorder, and 20 intelligence quotient/age-matched neurotypical children. The results showed that children with autism spectrum disorder demonstrated not only undiminished enactment effects in recognition and source memory, but also (surprisingly for some theories) typical intention superiority effects. The implications of these results for theory, as well as clinical practice, are discussed.
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Petersen IT, Hoyniak CP, McQuillan ME, Bates JE, Staples AD. Measuring the development of inhibitory control: The challenge of heterotypic continuity. DEVELOPMENTAL REVIEW 2016; 40:25-71. [PMID: 27346906 PMCID: PMC4917209 DOI: 10.1016/j.dr.2016.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Inhibitory control is thought to demonstrate heterotypic continuity, in other words, continuity in its purpose or function but changes in its behavioral manifestation over time. This creates major methodological challenges for studying the development of inhibitory control in childhood including construct validity, developmental appropriateness and sensitivity of measures, and longitudinal factorial invariance. We meta-analyzed 198 studies using measures of inhibitory control, a key aspect of self-regulation, to estimate age ranges of usefulness for each measure. The inhibitory control measures showed limited age ranges of usefulness owing to ceiling/floor effects. Tasks were useful, on average, for a developmental span of less than 3 years. This suggests that measuring inhibitory control over longer spans of development may require use of different measures at different time points, seeking to measure heterotypic continuity. We suggest ways to study the development of inhibitory control, with overlapping measurement in a structural equation modeling framework and tests of longitudinal factorial or measurement invariance. However, as valuable as this would be for the area, we also point out that establishing longitudinal factorial invariance is neither sufficient nor necessary for examining developmental change. Any study of developmental change should be guided by theory and construct validity, aiming toward a better empirical and theoretical approach to the selection and combination of measures.
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Zhang X, Zuber S, Liu S, Kliegel M, Wang L. The effects of task instructor status on prospective memory performance in preschoolers. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/17405629.2016.1165660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Davis JTM, Cullen E, Suddendorf T. Understanding deliberate practice in preschool-aged children. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2016; 69:361-80. [DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2015.1082140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Deliberate practice is essential for skill acquisition and expertise and may be a direct consequence of episodic foresight. However, little is known about how deliberate practice develops in children. We present two experiments testing children's ability to selectively practise a behaviour that was going to be useful in future and to reason about the role of practice in skill formation. Five-year-olds demonstrated an explicit understanding of deliberate practice both in selectively choosing to practise a future-relevant skill and in predicting skill change in others based on their practice. Four-year-olds showed some capacities, but failed to demonstrate consistent understanding of the relationship between practice and skill improvement. Children's understanding of this relationship was significantly related to their understanding of how information leads to knowledge, suggesting that both may draw on similar cognitive developmental changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jac T. M. Davis
- School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Elizabeth Cullen
- School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Thomas Suddendorf
- School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
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Sheppard DP, Kretschmer A, Knispel E, Vollert B, Altgassen M. The Role of Extrinsic Rewards and Cue-Intention Association in Prospective Memory in Young Children. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0140987. [PMID: 26489046 PMCID: PMC4619271 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0140987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2015] [Accepted: 10/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The current study examined, for the first time, the effect of cue-intention association, as well as the effects of promised extrinsic rewards, on prospective memory in young children, aged 5-years-old (n = 39) and 7-years-old (n = 40). Children were asked to name pictures for a toy mole, whilst also having to remember to respond differently to certain target pictures (prospective memory task). The level to which the target picture was associated with the intention was manipulated across two conditions (low- or high-association) for all participants, whilst half of the participants were promised a reward for good prospective memory performance. Results showed a main effect of age, with the 7-year-olds outperforming the 5-year-olds. Furthermore, there was a main effect of reward, with those promised a reward performing better than those who were not. No effect was found for cue-association, with the participants of both age groups performing equally well in both association conditions. No significant interactions were found between any of the variables. The potentially important role of reward in young children's everyday prospective memory tasks, and possible reasons for the lack of a reflexive-associative effect, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Patrick Sheppard
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Anett Kretschmer
- Department of Psychology, Technische Universitaet Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Elisa Knispel
- Department of Psychology, Technische Universitaet Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Bianka Vollert
- Department of Psychology, Technische Universitaet Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Mareike Altgassen
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Department of Psychology, Technische Universitaet Dresden, Dresden, Germany
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50
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Spiess MA, Meier B, Roebers CM. Prospective Memory, Executive Functions, and Metacognition Are Already Differentiated in Young Elementary School Children. SWISS JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1024/1421-0185/a000165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Abstract. This study investigated the empirical differentiation of prospective memory, executive functions, and metacognition and their structural relationships in 119 elementary school children (M = 95 months, SD = 4.8 months). These cognitive abilities share many characteristics on the theoretical level and are all highly relevant in many everyday contexts when intentions must be executed. Nevertheless, their empirical relationships have not been examined on the latent level, although an empirical approach would contribute to our knowledge concerning the differentiation of cognitive abilities during childhood. We administered a computerized event-based prospective memory task, three executive function tasks (updating, inhibition, shifting), and a metacognitive control task in the context of spelling. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that the three cognitive abilities are already empirically differentiable in young elementary school children. At the same time, prospective memory and executive functions were found to be strongly related, and there was also a close link between prospective memory and metacognitive control. Furthermore, executive functions and metacognitive control were marginally significantly related. The findings are discussed within a framework of developmental differentiation and conceptual similarities and differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuela A. Spiess
- Institute of Psychology and Center for Cognition, Learning, and Memory, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Beat Meier
- Institute of Psychology and Center for Cognition, Learning, and Memory, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Claudia M. Roebers
- Institute of Psychology and Center for Cognition, Learning, and Memory, University of Bern, Switzerland
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