Production of Th1- and Th2-dependent cytokines induced by the Chinese medicine herb, Rhodiola algida, on human peripheral blood monocytes

Traditional Chinese medicine in regulating macrophage polarization in immune response of inflammatory diseases

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Numerous studies have demonstrated that various traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) exhibit potent anti-inflammatory effects against inflammatory diseases mediated through macrophage polarization and metabolic reprogramming.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The objective of this review was to assess and consolidate the current understanding regarding the pathogenic mechanisms governing macrophage polarization in the context of regulating inflammatory diseases. We also summarize the mechanism action of various TCMs on the regulation of macrophage polarization, which may contribute to facilitate the development of natural anti-inflammatory drugs based on reshaping macrophage polarization.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We conducted a comprehensive review of recently published articles, utilizing keywords such as "macrophage polarization" and "traditional Chinese medicines" in combination with "inflammation," as well as "macrophage polarization" and "inflammation" in conjunction with "natural products," and similar combinations, to search within PubMed and Google Scholar databases.

RESULTS

A total of 113 kinds of TCMs (including 62 components of TCMs, 27 TCMs as well as various types of extracts of TCMs and 24 Chinese prescriptions) was reported to exert anti-inflammatory effects through the regulation of key pathways of macrophage polarization and metabolic reprogramming.

CONCLUSIONS

In this review, we have analyzed studies concerning the involvement of macrophage polarization and metabolic reprogramming in inflammation therapy. TCMs has great advantages in regulating macrophage polarization in treating inflammatory diseases due to its multi-pathway and multi-target pharmacological action. This review may contribute to facilitate the development of natural anti-inflammatory drugs based on reshaping macrophage polarization.

Modulating TRPV4 Channel Activity in Pro-Inflammatory Macrophages within the 3D Tissue Analog

Investigating macrophage plasticity emerges as a promising strategy for promoting tissue regeneration and can be exploited by regulating the transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) channel. The TRPV4 channel responds to various stimuli including mechanical, chemical, and selective pharmacological compounds. It is well documented that treating cells such as epithelial cells and fibroblasts with a TRPV4 agonist enhances the Ca2+ influx to the cells, which leads to secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, while a TRPV4 antagonist reduces both Ca2+ influx and pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion. In this work, we investigated the effect of selective TRPV4 modulator compounds on U937-differentiated macrophages encapsulated within three-dimensional (3D) matrices. Despite offering a more physiologically relevant model than 2D cultures, pharmacological treatment of macrophages within 3D collagen matrices is largely overlooked in the literature. In this study, pro-inflammatory macrophages were treated with an agonist, 500 nM of GSK1016790A (TRPV4(+)), and an antagonist, 10 mM of RN-1734 (TRPV4(-)), to elucidate the modulation of the TRPV4 channel at both cellular and extracellular levels. To evaluate macrophage phenotypic alterations within 3D collagen matrices following TRPV4 modulator treatment, we employed structural techniques (SEM, Masson's trichrome, and collagen hybridizing peptide (CHP) staining), quantitative morphological measures for phenotypic assessment, and genotypic methods such as quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and immunohistochemistry (IHC). Our data reveal that pharmacological modulation of the macrophage TRPV4 channel alters the cytoskeletal structure of macrophages and influences the 3D structure encapsulating them. Moreover, we proved that treating macrophages with a TRPV4 agonist and antagonist enhances the expression of pro- and anti-inflammatory genes, respectively, leading to the upregulation of surface markers CD80 and CD206. In the TRPV4(-) group, the CD206 gene and CD206 surface marker were significantly upregulated by 9- and 2.5-fold, respectively, compared to the control group. These findings demonstrate that TRPV4 modulation can be utilized to shift macrophage phenotype within the 3D matrix toward a desired state. This is an innovative approach to addressing inflammation in musculoskeletal tissues.

Pharmacological functions of salidroside in renal diseases: facts and perspectives

Rhodiola rosea is a valuable functional medicinal plant widely utilized in China and other Asian countries for its anti-fatigue, anti-aging, and altitude sickness prevention properties. Salidroside, a most active constituent derived from Rhodiola rosea, exhibits potent antioxidative, hypoxia-resistant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and anti-aging effects that have garnered significant attention. The appreciation of the pharmacological role of salidroside has burgeoned over the last decade, making it a beneficial option for the prevention and treatment of multiple diseases, including atherosclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, cardiovascular disease, and more. With its anti-aging and renoprotective effects, in parallel with the inhibition of oxidative stress and inflammation, salidroside holds promise as a potential therapeutic agent for kidney damage. This article provides an overview of the microinflammatory state in kidney disease and discuss the current therapeutic strategies, with a particular focus on highlighting the recent advancements in utilizing salidroside for renal disease. The potential mechanisms of action of salidroside are primarily associated with the regulation of gene and protein expression in glomerular endothelial cells, podocytes, renal tubule cells, renal mesangial cells and renal cell carcinoma cell, including TNF-α, TGF-β, IL-1β, IL-17A, IL-6, MCP-1, Bcl-2, VEGF, ECM protein, caspase-3, HIF-1α, BIM, as well as the modulation of AMPK/SIRT1, Nrf2/HO-1, Sirt1/PGC-1α, ROS/Src/Cav-1, Akt/GSK-3β, TXNIP-NLRP3, ERK1/2, TGF-β1/Smad2/3, PI3K/Akt, Wnt1/Wnt3a β-catenin, TLR4/NF-κB, MAPK, JAK2/STAT3, SIRT1/Nrf2 pathways. To the best of our knowledge, this review is the first to comprehensively cover the protective effects of salidroside on diverse renal diseases, and suggests that salidroside has great potential to be developed as a drug for the prevention and treatment of metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases and renal complications.

Salidroside regulates tumor microenvironment of non-small cell lung cancer via Hsp70/Stub1/Foxp3 pathway in Tregs

BACKGROUND

The treatment of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is challenging due to immune tolerance and evasion. Salidroside (SAL) is an extract in traditional Chinese medicine and has a potential antitumor effect. However, the mechanism of SAL in regulating the immunological microenvironment of NSCLC is yet to be clarified.

METHODS

The mouse model with Lewis lung cancer cell line (3LL) in C57BL/6 mice was established. And then, the percentage of tumor-infiltrating T cell subsets including Treg was detected in tumor-bearing mice with or without SAL treatment. In vitro, the effect of SAL on the expression of IL-10, Foxp3 and Stub1 and the function of Treg were detected by flow cytometry. Network pharmacology prediction and molecular docking software were used to predict the target of SAL and intermolecular interaction. Furthermore, the effect of SAL on the expression of Hsp70 and the co-localization of Stub1-Foxp3 in Treg was confirmed by flow cytometry and confocal laser microscopy. Finally, Hsp70 inhibitor was used to verify the above molecular expression.

RESULTS

We discovered that SAL treatment inhibits the growth of tumor cells by decreasing the percentage of tumor-infiltrated CD4⁺Foxp3⁺T cells. SAL treatment downregulates the expression of Foxp3 in Tregs, but increases the expression of Stub1, an E3 ubiquitination ligase upstream of Foxp3, and the expression of Hsp70. Inhibiting the expression of Hsp70 reverses the inhibition of SAL on Foxp3 and disrupts the colocalization of Stub1 and Foxp3 in the nucleus of Tregs.

CONCLUSIONS

SAL inhibits tumor growth by regulating the Hsp70/stub1/Foxp3 pathway in Treg to suppress the function of Treg. It is a new mechanism of SAL for antitumor therapy.

Salidroside alleviates cognitive impairment by inhibiting ferroptosis via activation of the Nrf2/GPX4 axis in SAMP8 mice

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurogenerative disease and remains no effective method for stopping its progress. Ferroptosis and adaptive immunity have been proven to contribute to AD pathogenesis. Salidroside exhibits neuroprotective and immunomodulatory effects. However, the underlying mechanisms linking salidroside, ferroptosis, and adaptive immunity in AD remain uncertain.

PURPOSE

The objective of this study is to explore the neuroprotective effects and the potential molecular mechanisms of salidroside against neuronal ferroptosis and CD8⁺ T cell infiltration in senescence-accelerated mouse prone 8 (SAMP8) mice.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

SAMP8 mice were employed as an AD model and were treated with salidroside for 12 weeks. Behavioral tests, immunohistochemistry, HE and Nissl staining, immunofluorescence, transmission electron microscopy, quantitative proteomics, bioinformatic analysis, flow cytometry, iron staining, western blotting, and molecular docking were performed.

RESULTS

Treatment with salidroside dose-dependently attenuated cognitive impairment, reduced the accumulation of Aβ plaques and restored neuronal damage. Salidroside also suppressed the infiltration of CD8⁺T cells, oxidative stress, and inflammatory cytokines, and improved mitochondrial metabolism, iron metabolism, lipid metabolism, and redox in the SAMP8 mice brain. The administration of salidroside decreased iron deposition, reduced TFR1, and ACSL4 protein expression, upregulated SLC7A11, and GPX4 protein expression, and promoted the Nrf2/GPX4 axis activation.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, neuronal ferroptosis and CD8⁺T cells are involved in the process of cognitive impairment in SAMP8 mice. Salidroside alleviates cognitive impairment and inhibits neuronal ferroptosis. The underlying mechanisms may involve the Nrf2/GPX4 axis activation and reduction in CD8⁺T cells infiltration. This study provides some evidence for the roles of salidroside in adaptive immunity and neuronal ferroptosis in SAMP8 mice.

Salidroside protect Chinese hamster V79 cells from genotoxicity and oxidative stress induced by CL-20

Hexanitrohexaazaisowurtzitane (CL-20) is a high-energy elemental explosive widely used in chemical and military fields. CL-20 harms environmental fate, biosafety, and occupational health. However, there is little known about the genotoxicity of CL-20, in particular its molecular mechanisms. Therefore, this study was framed to investigate the genotoxic mechanisms of CL-20 in V79 cells and evaluate whether the genotoxicity could be diminished by pretreating the cells with salidroside. The results showed that CL-20-induced genotoxicity in V79 cells primarily through oxidative damage to DNA and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mutation. Salidroside could significantly reduce the inhibitory effect of CL-20 on the growth of V79 cells and reduce the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), 8-hydroxy-2 deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), and malondialdehyde (MDA). Salidroside also restored CL-20-induced superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH) in V79 cells. As a result, salidroside attenuated the DNA damage and mutations induced by CL-20. In conclusion, oxidative stress may be involved in CL-20-induced genotoxicity in V79 cells. Salidroside could protect V79 cells from oxidative damage induced by CL-20, mechanism of which may be related to scavenging intracellular ROS and increasing the expression of proteins that can promote the activity of intracellular antioxidant enzymes. The present study for the mechanisms and protection of CL-20-mediated genotoxicity will help further to understand the toxic effects of CL-20 and provide information on the therapeutic effect of salidroside in CL-20-induced genotoxicity.

Anti-inflammatory and Anti-osteoporotic Potential of Lactobacillus plantarum A41 and L. fermentum SRK414 as Probiotics

This study involves an investigation on the probiotic properties of lactic acid bacteria and their potential applications in an in vitro model of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated inflammation and dexamethasone-induced osteoporosis. Nine strains were pre-screened from 485 lactic acid bacteria based on their survival at a low pH and in a solution containing bile salts. All candidates were capable of surviving in an environment with low pH and with bile salts and could successfully colonize the intestine. Furthermore, their functional properties, such as anti-oxidation and anti-inflammation, were evaluated. Of the nine probiotic candidates, Lactobacillus plantarum A41 and L. fermentum SRK414 exhibited the highest anti-oxidative capacity. Moreover, only L. plantarum A41 and L. fermentum SRK414 could increase gut barrier function by upregulating the mRNA expression of tight junction proteins and inhibit the expression of inflammatory mediators induced by LPS-stimulated inflammation. Interestingly, these two strains were also capable of regulating several bone metabolism-related markers playing a role in bone homeostasis and osteoblast differentiation. In brief, L. plantarum A41 and L. fermentum SRK414 exhibited high probiotic potential and potentially impact immune-related bone health by modulating pro-inflammatory cytokines and bone metabolism-related markers.

Traditional Chinese Medicine: Role in Reducing β-Amyloid, Apoptosis, Autophagy, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative Stress, and Mitochondrial Dysfunction of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive age-related neurodegenerative disease characterized by memory loss and cognitive impairment. The major characteristics of AD are amyloid β plaques, apoptosis, autophagy dysfunction, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction. These are mostly used as the significant indicators for selecting the effects of potential drugs. It is imperative to explain AD pathogenesis and realize productive treatments. Although the currently used chemical drugs for clinical applications of AD are effective in managing the symptoms, they are inadequate to achieve anticipated preventive or therapeutic outcomes. There are new strategies for treating AD. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) has accumulated thousands of years of experience in treating dementia. Nowadays, numerous modern pharmacological studies have verified the efficacy of many bioactive ingredients isolated from TCM for AD treatment. In this review, representative TCM for the treatment of AD are discussed, and among these herbal medicines, the Lamiaceae family accounts for the highest proportion. It is concluded that monomers and extracts from TCM have potential therapeutic effect for AD treatment.

Medicinal Plants and Phytochemicals for the Treatment of Pulmonary Hypertension

Background

Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a progressive disease that is associated with pulmonary arteries remodeling, right ventricle hypertrophy, right ventricular failure and finally death. The present study aims to review the medicinal plants and phytochemicals used for PH treatment in the period of 1994 – 2019.

Methods

PubMed, Cochrane and Scopus were searched based on pulmonary hypertension, plant and phytochemical keywords from August 23, 2019. All articles that matched the study based on title and abstract were collected, non-English, repetitive and review studies were excluded.

Results

Finally 41 studies remained from a total of 1290. The results show that many chemical treatments considered to this disease are ineffective in the long period because they have a controlling role, not a therapeutic one. On the other hand, plants and phytochemicals could be more effective due to their action on many mechanisms that cause the progression of PH.

Conclusion

Studies have shown that herbs and phytochemicals used to treat PH do their effects from six mechanisms. These mechanisms include antiproliferative, antioxidant, antivascular remodeling, anti-inflammatory, vasodilatory and apoptosis inducing actions. According to the present study, many of these medicinal plants and phytochemicals can have effects that are more therapeutic than chemical drugs if used appropriately.

Endothelial Cells: From Dysfunction Mechanism to Pharmacological Effect in Cardiovascular Disease

Endothelial cells (ECs) are the innermost layer of blood vessels that play important roles in homeostasis and vascular function. However, recent evidence suggests that the onset of inflammation and the production of reactive oxygen species impair the function of ECs and are a main factor in the development of cardiovascular disease (CVD). In this study, we investigated the effects of inflammatory markers, oxidative stress, and treatment on ECs in CVD patients. This review article is based on the material obtained from PubMed up to 2018. The key search terms used were "Cardiovascular Disease," "Endothelial Cell Dysfunction," "Inflammation," "Treatment," and "Oxidative Stress." The generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) as well as reduced nitric oxide (NO) production by ECs impairs the function of blood vessels. Therefore, treatment of CVD patients leads to the expression of transcription factors activating anti-oxidant mechanisms and NO production. In contrast, NO production by inflammatory agents can cause ECs repair due to differentiation of endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs). Therefore, identifying the molecular pathways leading to the differentiation of EPCs through mediation of factors induced by inflammatory factors can be effective in regenerative medicine for ECs repair.

Multi-Component Herbal Products in the Prevention and Treatment of Chemotherapy-Associated Toxicity and Side Effects: A Review on Experimental and Clinical Evidences

Chemotherapy is nowadays the main treatment of human cancers. Chemotherapeutic agents target rapidly dividing cancer cells to suppress tumor progression, however, their non-specific cytotoxicity often leads to significant side effects that might be intolerable to cancer patients. Multi-component herbal products have been used for thousands of years for the treatment of multiple human diseases. This study aims to systematically summarize and evaluate the experimental and clinical evidences of the efficacy of multi-component herbal products in improving chemotherapy-induced side effect. Literature was retrieved from PubMed database and evaluated based on the side effects described. Multi-component herbal products were found to be effective in ameliorating the neurotoxicity, gastrointestinal toxicity, hematological toxicity, cardiotoxicity, hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity. Both experimental and clinical evidences were found, indicating the potential of applying multicomponent herbal products in the clinical treatment of chemotherapy-induced side effects. However, the lack of mechanistic and pharmacokinetic studies, inconsistency in product quality, as well as insufficient clinical evidence suggested that more investigations are urgently necessary. In all, our review shed light on the potential of using multi-component herbal products in the clinical management of chemotherapy-induced toxicity and side effects. We also discussed the potential threats of natural products for cancer treatment and compared the advantages of using herbs to conventional chemical drugs.

Bioactive fraction of Rhodiola algida against chronic hypoxia-induced pulmonary arterial hypertension and its anti-proliferation mechanism in rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Rhodiola algida var. tangutica (Maxim.) S.H. Fu is a perennial plant of the Crassulaceae family that grows in the mountainous regions of Asia. The rhizome and roots of this plant have been long used as Tibetan folk medicine for preventing high latitude sickness.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of bioactive fraction from R. algida (ACRT) on chronic hypoxia-induced pulmonary arterial hypertension (HPAH) and to understand the possible mechanism of its pharmacodynamic actions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Male Sprague-Dawley rats were separated into five groups: control group, hypoxia group, and hypoxia+ACRT groups (62.5, 125, and 250mg/kg/day of ACRT). The chronic hypoxic environment was created in a hypobaric chamber by adjusting the inner pressure and oxygen content for 4 weeks. After 4 weeks, major physiological parameters of pulmonary arterial hypertension such as mPAP, right ventricle index (RV/LV+S, RVHI), hematocrit (Hct) levels and the medial vessel thickness (wt%) were measured. Protein and mRNA expression levels of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), cyclin D1, p27Kip1 and cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4)) were detected by western blotting and real time PCR respectively. Chemical profile of ACRT was revealed by ultra performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS).

RESULTS

The results showed that a successful HPAH rat model was established in a hypobaric chamber for 4 weeks, as indicated by the significant increase in mPAP, RV/LV+S, RV/BW and wt%. Compared with the normal group, administration of ACRT reduced mPAP, right ventricular hypertrophy, pulmonary small artery wall thickness, and damage in ultrastructure induced by hypoxia in rats. PCNA, cyclin D1, and CDK4 expression was reduced (p<0.05), and p27Kip1 expression increased (p<0.05) in hypoxia+ACRT groups compared to hypoxia. 38 constituents in bioactive fraction were identified by UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that ACRT could alleviate chronic hypoxia-induced pulmonary arterial hypertension. And its anti-proliferation mechanism in rats based on decreasing PCNA, cyclin D1, CDK4 expression level and inhibiting p27Kip1 degradation.

Salidroside improves brain ischemic injury by activating PI3K/Akt pathway and reduces complications induced by delayed tPA treatment

Cerebral ischemia causes blood-brain barrier (BBB) injury and thus increases the risk of complications secondary to thrombolysis, which limited its clinical application. This study aims to clarify the role and mechanism of salidroside (SALD) in alleviating brain ischemic injury and whether pretreatment of it could improve prognosis of delayed treatment of tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA). Rats were subjected to 3 h of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) and were intraperitoneally administered with 10, 20 or 40 mg/kg SALD before ischemia. 1.5% 5-triphenyl-2H-tetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining and neurological studies were performed to observe the effectiveness of SALD. The expressions and the distribution of phosphoinositide-3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt) signaling were analyzed. Experiments were further conducted in isolated microvessels and human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMECs) to explore the protective mechanism of SALD. Finally, rats were subjected to 6 h of MCAO and 24 h of reperfusion. tPA was given with or without the pretreatment of SALD. Various approaches including gelatin zymography, western blot and immunofluorescence were used to evaluate the effect of this combination therapy. SALD could reduce cerebral ischemic injury and enhance HBMECs viability subjected to OGD. In vivo and in vitro studies showed the mechanism might be related to the activation of PI3K/Akt signaling by phosphorylating Akt on Ser473. Pretreatment of SALD could alleviate BBB injury and improve the outcome of delayed treatment of tPA. These results provide evidence that SALD might be an effective adjuvant to reduce the complications induced by delayed tPA treatment for brain ischemia.

Rhodiola rosea L. and Alzheimer's Disease: From Farm to Pharmacy

Rhodiola rosea L. (roseroot) is a common member of the family Crassulaceae, known as one of the most important popular medicinal plants in the northern region of Europe. The roots of R. rosea possess a wide range of pharmacological activities such as antioxidant, antiinflammatory, anticancer, cardioprotective, and neuroprotective effects that are because of the presence of different phytochemicals such as phenols and flavonoids. In addition, the presence of salidroside, rosavins, and p-tyrosol are responsible for its beneficial effects for the treatment of on depression, fatigue, and cognitive dysfunction. A plethora of studies report that R. rosea has potent neuroprotective effects through the suppression of oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and excitotoxicity in brain tissues and antagonism of oncogenic p21-activated kinase. However, to our knowledge, no review articles have been published addressing the neuroprotective effects of R. rosea. Therefore, the present article aims at critically reviewing the available literature on the beneficial effects of R. rosea on as a therapeutic strategy for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative diseases where oxidative stress plays a major role in disease development and progression. We also discuss the cultivation, phytochemistry, clinical impacts, and adverse effects of R. rosea to provide a broader insight on the therapeutic potential for this plant.

Effects of the aqueous extract of a Tibetan herb, Rhodiola algida var. tangutica on proliferation and HIF-1α, HIF-2α expression in MCF-7 cells under hypoxic condition in vitro

Ethnopharmacological relevance

Rhodiola algida var. tangutica is a traditional Tibetan herb. Its root and rhizome have been successfully used as an effective clinical remedy for the prevention and treatment of cancer and high-altitude sickness. This study aimed to investigate the effect of Rhodiola algida var. tangutica on hypoxic MCF-7 breast cancer cells and the underlying mechanisms.

Materials and methods

The antiproliferative effects of R. algida on MCF-7 breast cancer cells were compared in vitro under hypoxic and normal conditions by using MTT analysis. The influence of R. algida on cancer cell apoptosis was determined by flow cytometry. The expression levels of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α and HIF-2α were evaluated by western blot analysis.

Results

R. algida inhibited the proliferation of MCF-7 breast cancer cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. The results of flow cytometry indicated that the antiproliferative effect of R. algida was mediated by apoptosis induction. Pretreatment with R. algida significantly suppressed the hypoxia-induced proliferation and expression of HIF-1α and HIF-2α in MCF-7 breast cancer cells.

Conclusions

R. algida might exert an anti-carcinogenic effect on MCF-7 breast cancer cells by decreasing the protein levels of HIF-1α and HIF-2α, which are overexpressed under hypoxic conditions. This effect might be elicited by inhibiting the hypoxia-induced proliferation of MCF-7 breast cancer cells.

Rhodiola rosea suppresses thymus T-lymphocyte apoptosis by downregulating tumor necrosis factor-α-induced protein 8-like-2 in septic rats

In recent years, several studies have shown that Rhodiola rosea can enhance cellular immunity and humoral immune function in mice, and thus, it has become a research hotspot. However, its underlying mechanism of action has remained elusive. The present study investigated whether Rhodiola rosea was able to downregulate the expression of tumor necrosis factor-α-inducible protein 8-like 2 (TIPE2), thereby inhibiting the expression of apoptotic genes, attenuating T-lymphocyte apoptosis and improving immunity in septic mice. A mouse model of caecal ligation and puncture (CLP)-induced sepsis was established, and animals in the treatment group were pre-treated with an intraperitoneal injection of Rhodiola rosea extract, while animals in the control group and sham-operated group were injected with an equivalent amount of normal saline. TIPE2, B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2), Fas and Fas ligand (FasL) mRNA and protein levels in thymic T cells were determined using reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blot analysis, respectively. Furthermore, the thymus T-lymphocyte apoptosis rate, thymus T-lymphocyte count and thymus T-lymphocyte sub-sets were assessed using flow cytometry. Levels of T-helper cell type 1 (Th1) cytokines [Interleukin (IL)-2, IL-12 and interferon (IFN)-γ] and Th2 cytokines (IL-4 and IL-10) were determined using ELISA. The results showed that, compared to that in the CLP group, the expression of TIPE2, Fas and FasL in the treatment group was significantly decreased, while the expression of Bcl-2 was increased (P<0.05). The thymus lymphocyte count in the CLP group was significantly higher compared with that in the treatment group (P<0.05). Furthermore, the apoptotic rate of thymus T-lymphocytes in the treatment group was significantly lower than that in the CLP group (P<0.05). In addition, treatment with Rhodiola rosea rescued decreased in the counts of the CD3⁺ T and CD4⁺ T sub-sets of thymus T lymphocytes in the CLP group (P<0.05), while not affecting the increased levels of Th2 cytokines (IL-4 and IL-10) in the CLP group compared with those in the control groups. In addition, the Th1 cytokines (IL-12, IL-2 and IFN-γ) were significantly increased (P<0.05) in the CLP group, and treatment with Rhodiola rosea led to further increases. The thymus index of septic mice treated with Rhodiola rosea as well as their survival rate were improved as compared with those in the CLP group. These findings suggested that Rhodiola rosea has protective effects against sepsis by decreasing apoptosis, increasing Th1 cytokines and enhancing the host’s immunity via the regulation of TIPE2 expression.

Salidroside prevents cognitive impairment induced by chronic cerebral hypoperfusion in rats

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effects of salidroside on cognitive dysfunction induced by chronic cerebral hypoperfusion in rats.

METHODS

Male Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 36) were divided into three groups (n = 12 per group): sham operation; bilateral permanent occlusion of the common carotid arteries (2-VO); 2-VO + salidroside. Rats received 20 mg/kg per day salidroside or vehicle intraperitoneal injection beginning the day before surgery and continuing until 34 days postoperatively. Cognitive function was evaluated by Morris water maze test and hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP) measurement. Hippocampal neuronal apoptosis was evaluated via immunofluorescence.

RESULTS

Chronic cerebral hypoperfusion caused marked cognitive deficit and LTP inhibition. These effects were largely ameliorated by salidroside administration. Salidroside prevented caspase-3 activation, increased the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2, and reversed hippocampal neuronal loss induced by chronic cerebral hypoperfusion.

CONCLUSIONS

Salidroside prevents cognitive deficits caused by chronic cerebral hypoperfusion in rats, and alleviates apoptosis in the hippocampal CA1 area.

Salidroside attenuates concanavalin A-induced hepatitis via modulating cytokines secretion and lymphocyte migration in mice

Salidroside, isolated from the medicinal plant Rhodiola, was reported to serve as an “adaptogen.” This study was designed to explore the protective effect of salidroside on concanavalin A- (Con A-) induced hepatitis in mice and investigate potential mechanisms. C57BL/6 mice were randomly divided into control group, Con A group, and salidroside group. Salidroside (50 mg/kg) was injected intravenously followed by Con A administration. The levels of ALT, AST, inflammatory cytokines and CXCL-10 were examined. The pathological damage of livers was assessed, the amounts of phosphorylated IκBα and p65 were measured, and the numbers of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T lymphocytes in the blood, spleen and infiltrated in the liver were calculated. Our results showed that salidroside pretreatment reduced the levels of ALT, AST dramatically and suppressed the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines through downregulating the activity of NF-κB partly. Salidroside altered the distribution of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T lymphocyte in the liver and spleen through regulating CXCL-10 and decreased the severity of liver injuries. In conclusion, these results confirm the efficacy of salidroside in the prevention of immune mediated hepatitis in mice.

A survey of chinese medicinal herbal treatment for chemotherapy-induced oral mucositis

Oral mucositis is one of the common side effects of chemotherapy treatment with potentially severe implications. Despite several treatment approaches by conventional and complementary western medicine, the therapeutic outcome is often not satisfactory. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) offers empirical herbal formulas for the treatment of oral ulceration which are used in adaptation to chemotherapy-induced mucositis. While standard concepts for TCM treatment do not exist and acceptance by conventional oncologists is still low, we conducted a review to examine the evidence of Chinese herbal treatment in oral mucositis. Eighteen relevant studies on 4 single herbs, 2 combinations of 2 herbs, and 11 multiherbal prescriptions involving 3 or more compounds were included. Corresponding molecular mechanisms were investigated. The knowledge about detailed herbal mechanisms, especially in multi-herbal prescriptions is still limited. The quality of clinical trials needs further improvement. Meta-analysis on the existent database is not possible but molecular findings on Chinese medicinal herbs indicate that further research is still promising for the treatment of chemotherapy-induced oral mucositis.

Changes of cytokines during a spaceflight analog--a 45-day head-down bed rest

Spaceflight is associated with deregulation in the immune system. Head-down bed rest (HDBR) at -6° is believed to be the most practical model for examining multi-system responses to microgravity in humans during spaceflight. In the present study, a 45-day HDBR was performed to investigate the alterations in human immune cell distributions and their functions in response to various stimuli. The effect of countermeasure, Rhodiola rosea (RR) treatment, was also examined. A significant decrease of interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and interleukin-17 (IL-17) productions by activated T cells, increase of IL-1β and IL-18 by activated B and myeloid cells were observed during HDBR. The upregulation of serum cortisol was correlated with the changes of IL-1 family cytokines. In addition, a significant increase of memory T and B cell and regulatory T cells (Treg) were also detected. The uptake of RR further decreased IFN-γ level and slowed down the upregulation of IL-1 family cytokines. These data suggest that for prolonged HDBR and spaceflight, the decreased protective T cell immunity and enhanced proinflammatory cytokines should be closely monitored. The treatment with RR may play an important role in suppressing proinflammatory cytokines but not in boosting protective T cell immunity.

Salidroside improves behavioral and histological outcomes and reduces apoptosis via PI3K/Akt signaling after experimental traumatic brain injury

Background

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) induces a complex sequence of apopototic cascades that contribute to secondary tissue damage. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of salidroside, a phenolic glycoside with potent anti-apoptotic properties, on behavioral and histological outcomes, brain edema, and apoptosis following experimental TBI and the possible involvement of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K)/Akt signaling pathway.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Mice subjected to controlled cortical impact injury received intraperitoneal salidroside (20, or 50 mg/kg) or vehicle injection 10 min after injury. Behavioral studies, histology analysis and brain water content assessment were performed. Levels of PI3K/Akt signaling-related molecules, apoptosis-related proteins, cytochrome C (CytoC), and Smac/DIABLO were also analyzed. LY294002, a PI3K inhibitor, was administered to examine the mechanism of protection. The protective effect of salidroside was also investigated in primary cultured neurons subjected to stretch injury. Treatment with 20 mg/kg salidroside_significantly improved functional recovery and reduced brain tissue damage up to post-injury day 28. Salidroside_also significantly reduced neuronal death, apoptosis, and brain edema at day 1. These changes were associated with significant decreases in cleaved caspase-3, CytoC, and Smac/DIABLO at days 1 and 3. Salidroside increased phosphorylation of Akt on Ser473 and the mitochondrial Bcl-2/Bax ratio at day 1, and enhanced phosphorylation of Akt on Thr308 at day 3. This beneficial effect was abolished by pre-injection of LY294002. Moreover, delayed administration of salidroside at 3 or 6 h post-injury reduced neuronal damage at day 1. Salidroside treatment also decreased neuronal vulnerability to stretch-induced injury in vitro.

Conclusions/Significance

Post-injury salidroside improved long-term behavioral and histological outcomes and reduced brain edema and apoptosis following TBI, at least partially via the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway.