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Kuerban G, Turak A, Begmatov NB, Zhao J, Aisa HA. Chemical Composition of Artemisia Scoparia and Their Bioactivities. Chem Biodivers 2024; 21:e202400414. [PMID: 38500337 DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.202400414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2024] [Revised: 03/15/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
Three undescribed sesquiterpenes (1-3), two enantiomeric pairs of monoterpenes (4a/4b-5a/5b), one alkyne (6), two known alkynes (7-8) and eight known coumarins (9-16) were isolated from the aerial parts extracts of Artemisia scoparia. The structures of these compounds were fully elucidated by their 1D and 2D NMR, HRESIMS spectral data analyses, and comparison with literature. The absolute configurations of compounds were determined by single-crystal X-ray crystallography (1), a comparison of experimental and calculated electronic circular dichroism (ECD) data (2-6). 15 showed moderate inhibitory activity with the NO release in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells. 9-16 showed varying degrees of promoting melanogenesis and tyrosinase activity in B16 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guziliayi Kuerban
- State Key Laboratory Basis of Xinjiang Indigenous Medicinal Plants Resource Utilization and Key Laboratory of Plant Resources and Chemistry of Arid Zone, Xinjiang Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi, 830011, PR China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, PR China
| | - Ablajan Turak
- State Key Laboratory Basis of Xinjiang Indigenous Medicinal Plants Resource Utilization and Key Laboratory of Plant Resources and Chemistry of Arid Zone, Xinjiang Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi, 830011, PR China
| | - Nurmirza Boymirzayevich Begmatov
- S.Yu.Yunusov Institute of the Chemistry of Plant Substances, Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
| | - Jiangyu Zhao
- State Key Laboratory Basis of Xinjiang Indigenous Medicinal Plants Resource Utilization and Key Laboratory of Plant Resources and Chemistry of Arid Zone, Xinjiang Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi, 830011, PR China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, PR China
| | - Haji Akber Aisa
- State Key Laboratory Basis of Xinjiang Indigenous Medicinal Plants Resource Utilization and Key Laboratory of Plant Resources and Chemistry of Arid Zone, Xinjiang Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi, 830011, PR China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, PR China
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Kuerban G, Turak A, Zhao J, Aisa HA. Diprenylated phenolic enantiomers from Artemisia scoparia. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2024; 219:113991. [PMID: 38242272 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2024.113991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Revised: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 01/21/2024]
Abstract
Investigation on the chemical constituents of Artemisia scoparia resulted in the isolation of sixteen compounds, including undescribed six pairs of diprenylated phenolic enantiomers (±)-scopacoumaricin A-F, and two pairs of cis-trans isomers cis/trans-scopacoumaricin G and cis/trans-artepillin A. Trans-artepillin A was obtained from this plant for the first time. The structures of the isolates were proposed by analysis of their 1D, 2D-NMR and HRESIMS spectroscopic data. Their absolute configurations were determined by comparison of their experimental and calculated electronic circular dichroism spectra. Evaluations of the anti-inflammatory activity revealed that (-)-scopacoumaricin D, (+)-scopacoumaricin F and cis-scopacoumaricin G showed moderate anti-inflammatory activity on lipopolysaccharide-induced nitric oxide production in RAW264.7 cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guziliayi Kuerban
- State Key Laboratory Basis of Xinjiang Indigenous Medicinal Plants Resource Utilization and the Key Laboratory of Plant Resources and Chemistry of Arid Zone, Xinjiang Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Ablajan Turak
- State Key Laboratory Basis of Xinjiang Indigenous Medicinal Plants Resource Utilization and the Key Laboratory of Plant Resources and Chemistry of Arid Zone, Xinjiang Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China
| | - Jiangyu Zhao
- State Key Laboratory Basis of Xinjiang Indigenous Medicinal Plants Resource Utilization and the Key Laboratory of Plant Resources and Chemistry of Arid Zone, Xinjiang Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Haji Akber Aisa
- State Key Laboratory Basis of Xinjiang Indigenous Medicinal Plants Resource Utilization and the Key Laboratory of Plant Resources and Chemistry of Arid Zone, Xinjiang Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
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Lee JI, Oh JH, Karadeniz F, Kong CS, Seo Y. Inhibitory Effects of Sesquiterpenoids Isolated from Artemisia scoparia on Adipogenic Differentiation of 3T3-L1 Preadipocytes. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 25:200. [PMID: 38203371 PMCID: PMC10779302 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25010200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Obesity and related complications are significant health issues in modern society, largely attributed to a sedentary lifestyle and a carbohydrate-rich diet. Since anti-obesity drugs often come with severe side effects, preventative measures are being sought globally, including dietary changes and functional foods that can counteract weight gain. In this context, plant-based metabolites are extensively studied for their advantageous biological effects against obesity. Several plants within the Artemisia genus have been reported to possess anti-adipogenic properties, preventing adipocytes from maturing and accumulating lipids. The present study investigated the anti-adipogenic potential of two sesquiterpenoids, reynosin and santamarine, isolated from A. scoparia in adipose-induced 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. Differentiating 3T3-L1 adipocytes treated with these isolated compounds displayed fewer adipogenic characteristics compared to untreated mature adipocytes. The results indicated that cells treated with reynosin and santamarine accumulated 55.0% and 52.5% fewer intracellular lipids compared to untreated control adipocytes, respectively. Additionally, the mRNA expression of the key adipogenic marker, transcription factor PPARγ, was suppressed by 87.2% and 91.7% following 60 μM reynosin and santamarine treatment, respectively, in differentiated adipocytes. Protein expression was also suppressed in a similar manner, at 92.7% and 82.5% by 60 μM reynosin and santamarine treatment, respectively. Likewise, SERBP1c and C/EBPα were also downregulated at both gene and protein levels in adipocytes treated with samples during differentiation. Further analysis suggested that the anti-adipogenic effect of the compounds might be a result of AMPK activation and the subsequent suppression of MAPK phosphorylation. Overall, the present study suggested that sesquiterpenoids, reynosin, and santamarine were two potential bioactive compounds with anti-adipogenic properties. Further research is needed to explore other bioactive agents within A. scoparia and elucidate the in vivo action mechanisms of reynosin and santamarine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung Im Lee
- Incheon Regional Office, National Fishery Products Quality Management Service Incheon, Incheon 22346, Republic of Korea;
| | - Jung Hwan Oh
- Nutritional Education, Graduate School of Education, Silla University, Busan 46958, Republic of Korea;
- Marine Biotechnology Center for Pharmaceuticals and Foods, Silla University, Busan 46958, Republic of Korea; (F.K.); (C.-S.K.)
| | - Fatih Karadeniz
- Marine Biotechnology Center for Pharmaceuticals and Foods, Silla University, Busan 46958, Republic of Korea; (F.K.); (C.-S.K.)
| | - Chang-Suk Kong
- Marine Biotechnology Center for Pharmaceuticals and Foods, Silla University, Busan 46958, Republic of Korea; (F.K.); (C.-S.K.)
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Silla University, Busan 46958, Republic of Korea
| | - Youngwan Seo
- Division of Convergence on Marine Science, Korea Maritime and Ocean University, Busan 49112, Republic of Korea
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Zou Q, Chen Y, Qin H, Tang R, Han T, Guo Z, Zhao J, Xu D. The role and mechanism of TCM in the prevention and treatment of infectious diseases. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1286364. [PMID: 38033575 PMCID: PMC10682724 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1286364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The constant presence of infectious diseases poses an everlasting threat to the entire world. In recent years, there has been an increased attention toward the application of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in the treatment of emerging infectious diseases, as it has played a significant role. The aim of this article is to provide a concise overview of the roles and mechanisms of TCM in treating infectious diseases. TCM possesses the ability to modulate relevant factors, impede signaling pathways, and inhibit microbial growth, thereby exhibiting potent antiviral, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory effects that demonstrate remarkable efficacy against viral and bacterial infections. This article concludes that the comprehensive regulatory features of Chinese herbal medicines, with their various components, targets, and pathways, result in synergistic effects. The significance of Chinese herbal medicines in the context of infectious diseases should not be underestimated; however, it is crucial to also acknowledge their underutilization. This paper presents constructive suggestions regarding the challenges and opportunities faced by Chinese medicines. Particularly, it emphasizes the effectiveness and characteristics of Chinese medicines in the treatment of infectious diseases, specifying how these medicines' active substances can be utilized to target infectious diseases. This perspective is advantageous in facilitating researchers' pharmacological studies on Chinese medicines, focusing on the specific points of action. The mechanism of action of Chinese herbal medicines in the treatment of infectious diseases is comprehensively elucidated in this paper, providing compelling evidence for the superior treatment of infectious diseases through Chinese medicine. This information is favorable for advancing the development of TCM and its potential applications in the field of infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qifei Zou
- Department of Medical Instrumental Analysis, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Yitong Chen
- Department of Medical Instrumental Analysis, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Huanxin Qin
- Department of Medical Instrumental Analysis, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Rui Tang
- Department of Medical Instrumental Analysis, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Taojian Han
- Department of Medical Instrumental Analysis, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Ziyi Guo
- Department of Medical Instrumental Analysis, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Juanjuan Zhao
- Department of Immunology, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Delin Xu
- Department of Medical Instrumental Analysis, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
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Moiketsi BN, Makale KPP, Rantong G, Rahube TO, Makhzoum A. Potential of Selected African Medicinal Plants as Alternative Therapeutics against Multi-Drug-Resistant Bacteria. Biomedicines 2023; 11:2605. [PMID: 37892979 PMCID: PMC10604549 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11102605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Revised: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance is considered a "One-Health" problem, impacting humans, animals, and the environment. The problem of the rapid development and spread of bacteria resistant to multiple antibiotics is a rising global health threat affecting both rich and poor nations. Low- and middle-income countries are at highest risk, in part due to the lack of innovative research on the surveillance and discovery of novel therapeutic options. Fast and effective drug discovery is crucial towards combatting antimicrobial resistance and reducing the burden of infectious diseases. African medicinal plants have been used for millennia in folk medicine to cure many diseases and ailments. Over 10% of the Southern African vegetation is applied in traditional medicine, with over 15 species being partially or fully commercialized. These include the genera Euclea, Ficus, Aloe, Lippia. And Artemisia, amongst many others. Bioactive compounds from indigenous medicinal plants, alone or in combination with existing antimicrobials, offer promising solutions towards overcoming multi-drug resistance. Secondary metabolites have different mechanisms and modes of action against bacteria, such as the inhibition and disruption of cell wall synthesis; inhibition of DNA replication and ATP synthesis; inhibition of quorum sensing; inhibition of AHL or oligopeptide signal generation, broadcasting, and reception; inhibition of the formation of biofilm; disruption of pathogenicity activities; and generation of reactive oxygen species. The aim of this review is to highlight some promising traditional medicinal plants found in Africa and provide insights into their secondary metabolites as alternative options in antibiotic therapy against multi-drug-resistant bacteria. Additionally, synergism between plant secondary metabolites and antibiotics has been discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Teddie O. Rahube
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Botswana International University of Science and Technology (BIUST), Private Bag 16, Palapye, Botswana; (B.N.M.); (K.P.P.M.); (G.R.)
| | - Abdullah Makhzoum
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Botswana International University of Science and Technology (BIUST), Private Bag 16, Palapye, Botswana; (B.N.M.); (K.P.P.M.); (G.R.)
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Nikitin E, Fitsev I, Egorova A, Logvinenko L, Terenzhev D, Bekmuratova F, Rakhmaeva A, Shumatbaev G, Gatiyatullina A, Shevchuk O, Kalinnikova T. Five Different Artemisia L. Species Ethanol Extracts' Phytochemical Composition and Their Antimicrobial and Nematocide Activity. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:14372. [PMID: 37762675 PMCID: PMC10532408 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241814372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Revised: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Among the plants that exhibit significant or established pharmacological activity, the genus Artemisia L. deserves special attention. This genus comprises over 500 species belonging to the largest Asteraceae family. Our study aimed at providing a comprehensive evaluation of the phytochemical composition of the ethanol extracts of five different Artemisia L. species (collected from the southwest of the Russian Federation) and their antimicrobial and nematocide activity as follows: A. annua cv. Novichok., A. dracunculus cv. Smaragd, A. santonica cv. Citral, A. abrotanum cv. Euxin, and A. scoparia cv. Tavrida. The study of the ethanol extracts of the five different Artemisia L. species using the methods of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and high-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) allowed establishing their phytochemical profile. The obtained data on the of five different Artemisia L. species ethanol extracts' phytochemical composition were used to predict the antibacterial and antifungal activity against phytopathogenic microorganisms and nematocidal activity against the free-living soil nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. The major compounds found in the composition of the Artemisia L. ethanol extracts were monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, flavonoids, flavonoid glycosides, coumarins, and phenolic acids. The antibacterial and antifungal activity of the extracts began to manifest at a concentration of 150 µg/mL. The A. dracunculus cv. Smaragd extract had a selective effect against Gram-positive R. iranicus and B. subtilis bacteria, whereas the A. scoparia cv. Tavrida extract had a selective effect against Gram-negative A. tumefaciens and X. arboricola bacteria and A. solani, R. solani and F. graminearum fungi. The A. annua cv. Novichok, A. dracunculus cv. Smaragd, and A. santonica cv. Citral extracts in the concentration range of 31.3-1000 µg/mL caused the death of nematodes. It was established that A. annua cv. Novichok affects the UNC-63 protein, the molecular target of which is the nicotine receptor of the N-subtype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evgeny Nikitin
- A.E. Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, Kazan Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Arbuzov Str. 8, 420088 Kazan, Russia; (E.N.)
| | - Igor Fitsev
- A.M. Butlerov Chemical Institute, Kazan Federal University, Kremlevskaya Str. 18, 420008 Kazan, Russia
| | - Anastasia Egorova
- Research Institute for Problems of Ecology and Mineral Wealth Use of Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Daurskaya Str. 28, 420087 Kazan, Russia
| | - Lidia Logvinenko
- Nikitsky Botanic Gardens, National Scientific Center of Russian Academy of Sciences, 298648 Yalta, Russia (O.S.)
| | - Dmitriy Terenzhev
- A.E. Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, Kazan Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Arbuzov Str. 8, 420088 Kazan, Russia; (E.N.)
| | - Feruzakhon Bekmuratova
- Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution «Federal Center for Toxicological, Radiation, and Biological Safety», Nauchny Gorodok-2, 420075 Kazan, Russia;
| | - Adelya Rakhmaeva
- A.E. Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, Kazan Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Arbuzov Str. 8, 420088 Kazan, Russia; (E.N.)
| | - Georgiy Shumatbaev
- A.E. Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, Kazan Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Arbuzov Str. 8, 420088 Kazan, Russia; (E.N.)
| | - Alsu Gatiyatullina
- Research Institute for Problems of Ecology and Mineral Wealth Use of Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Daurskaya Str. 28, 420087 Kazan, Russia
| | - Oksana Shevchuk
- Nikitsky Botanic Gardens, National Scientific Center of Russian Academy of Sciences, 298648 Yalta, Russia (O.S.)
| | - Tatiana Kalinnikova
- Research Institute for Problems of Ecology and Mineral Wealth Use of Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Daurskaya Str. 28, 420087 Kazan, Russia
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Chen T, Hu J, Wang H, Tan N, Qi J, Wang X, Wang L. Combination of bioaffinity ultrafiltration-UFLC-ESI-Q/TOF-MS/MS, in silico docking and multiple complex networks to explore antitumor mechanism of topoisomerase I inhibitors from Artemisiae Scopariae Herba. BMC Complement Med Ther 2023; 23:317. [PMID: 37700261 PMCID: PMC10496380 DOI: 10.1186/s12906-023-04146-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Artemisiae Scopariae Herba (ASH) has been widely used as plant medicine in East Asia with remarkable antitumor activity. However, the underlying mechanisms have not been fully elucidated. METHODS This study aimed to construct a multi-disciplinary approach to screen topoisomerase I (topo I) inhibitors from ASH extract, and explore the antitumor mechanisms. Bioaffinity ultrafiltration-UFLC-ESI-Q/TOF-MS/MS was used to identify chemical constitution of ASH extract as well as the topo I inhibitors, and in silico docking coupled with multiple complex networks was applied to interpret the molecular mechanisms. RESULTS Crude ASH extract exhibited toxicogenetic and antiproliferative activities on A549 cells. A series of 34 ingredients were identified from the extract, and 6 compounds were screened as potential topo I inhibitors. Docking results showed that the formation of hydrogen bond and π-π stacking contributed most to their binding with topo I. Interrelationships among the 6 compounds, related targets and pathways were analyzed by multiple complex networks model. These networks displayed power-law degree distribution and small-world property. Statistical analysis indicated that isorhamnetin and quercetin were main active ingredients, and that chemical carcinogenesis-reactive oxygen species was the critical pathway. Electrophoretic results showed a therapeutic effect of ASH extract on the conversion of supercoiled DNA to relaxed forms, as well as potential synergistic effect of isorhamnetin and quercetin. CONCLUSIONS The results improved current understanding of Artemisiae Scopariae Herba on the treatment of tumor. Moreover, the combination of multi-disciplinary methods provided a new strategy for the study of bioactive constituents in medicinal plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tong Chen
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Baoji University of Arts and Sciences, High-tech Avenue 1#, Baoji, 721013, China
| | - Jingbo Hu
- College of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Baoji University of Arts and Sciences, Baoji, 721013, China
| | - Huan Wang
- College of Computer Science and Technology, Baoji University of Arts and Sciences, Baoji, 721013, China
| | - Nana Tan
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Baoji University of Arts and Sciences, High-tech Avenue 1#, Baoji, 721013, China
| | - Jianzhao Qi
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Natural Products & Chemical Biology, College of Chemistry & Pharmacy, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, 712100, China
| | - Xiaoling Wang
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Baoji University of Arts and Sciences, High-tech Avenue 1#, Baoji, 721013, China
| | - Le Wang
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Baoji University of Arts and Sciences, High-tech Avenue 1#, Baoji, 721013, China.
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Lin JG, Huang GJ, Su YC. Efficacy analysis and research progress of complementary and alternative medicines in the adjuvant treatment of COVID-19. J Biomed Sci 2023; 30:30. [PMID: 37138292 PMCID: PMC10155165 DOI: 10.1186/s12929-023-00923-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has impacted human lifestyles around the world, causing huge distress in terms of public health systems, emergency response capacity and economic development. The causative agent of COVID-19, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is associated with respiratory involvement, cardiovascular-related diseases, and ultimately causes multiple organ failure and death in severely affected individuals. Thus, effective prevention or early treatment of COVID-19 is critical. An effective vaccine offers a way out of the pandemic for governments, the scientific community and people worldwide, but we still lack effective drug therapies, including treatments for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19. This had led to a high global demand for many complementary and alternative medicines (CAMs). Moreover, many healthcare providers are now requesting information about CAMs that prevent, relieve, or treat the symptoms of COVID-19 and even alleviate vaccine-related side effects. Experts and scholars must therefore become familiar with the use of CAMs in COVID-19, current research directions and effectiveness of CAMs for COVID-19. This narrative review updates the current status and research worldwide on the use of CAMs for COVID-19. The review provides reliable evidence on theoretical viewpoints and therapeutic efficacies of CAM combinations, and evidence in support of the therapeutic strategy of Taiwan Chingguan Erhau (NRICM102) against moderate-to-severe novel coronavirus infectious disease in Taiwan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaung-Geng Lin
- School of Chinese Medicine, College of Chinese Medicine, China Medical University, No.91, Hsueh-Shih Road, Taichung, 40402, Taiwan
- Chinese Medicine Research Center, China Medical University, No.91, Hsueh-Shih Road, Taichung, 40402, Taiwan
| | - Guan-Jhong Huang
- Department of Chinese Pharmaceutical Sciences and Chinese Medicine Resources, College of Chinese Medicine, China Medical University, No.91, Hsueh-Shih Road, Taichung, 40402, Taiwan.
- Department of Food Nutrition and Healthy Biotechnology, Asia University, No. 500, Lioufeng Road, Taichung, 41354, Taiwan.
| | - Yi-Chang Su
- National Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, Ministry of Health and Welfare, No.155-1, Section 2, Linong Street, Beitou District, Taipei, 11221, Taiwan
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Ge L, Xie Q, Wei X, Li Y, Shen W, Hu Y, Yao J, Wang S, Du X, Zeng X. Five undescribed plant-derived bisphenols from Artemisia capillaris aerial parts: Structure elucidation, anti-hepatoma activities and plausible biogenetic pathway. ARAB J CHEM 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.arabjc.2023.104580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
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10
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Huang X, Du L, Liu T, Ma R, Liu X, Yuan H, Liu S. Insecticidal Activity of a Component, (-)-4-Terpineol, Isolated from the Essential Oil of Artemisia lavandulaefolia DC. against Plutella xylostella (L.). INSECTS 2022; 13:1126. [PMID: 36555036 PMCID: PMC9783381 DOI: 10.3390/insects13121126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Revised: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 12/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Plutella xylostella (L.) is one of the most serious pests of cruciferous vegetables. Our previous work demonstrated that the essential oil of Artemisia lavandulaefolia DC. exhibits promising insecticidal activities against P. xylostella. This study further characterizes the key components that are responsible for the insecticidal effect. In total, 47 compounds (96.52% of the total compounds) were identified from the total oil using GC-MS, and the major compounds were eucalyptol (21.57%), D(+)-camphor (17.33%), (-)-4-terpineol (9.96%) and caryophyllene oxide (10.96%). Among them, (-)-4-terpineol showed significantly larvicidal and fumigant activities against P. xylostella. The LD50 of (-)-4-terpineol was 43.15 mg/mL at 12 h and 31.22 mg/mL at 24 h for 3rd instar larvae, and the LC50 for adults was 8.34 mg/mL at 12 h and 7.35 mg/mL at 24 h. In addition, the adults treated with (-)-4-terpineol showed varying degrees of inhibitory activity toward glutathione S-transferase, catalase, acetylcholinesterase and Na+/K+-ATPase at different post-treatment intervals and concentrations. The results indicate that (-)-4-terpineol has promising insecticidal activities against P. xylostella, and it has good inhibitory effects on the four enzymes of P. xylostella adults.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Haibin Yuan
- Correspondence: (H.Y.); (S.L.); Tel.: +86-0431-8433-3719 (H.Y.)
| | - Shuai Liu
- Correspondence: (H.Y.); (S.L.); Tel.: +86-0431-8433-3719 (H.Y.)
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11
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Phytochemical Profiling, Antioxidant, Antimicrobial and Cholinesterase Inhibitory Effects of Essential Oils Isolated from the Leaves of Artemisia scoparia and Artemisia absinthium. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15101221. [PMID: 36297333 PMCID: PMC9607455 DOI: 10.3390/ph15101221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Revised: 09/27/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The current studies were focused on the phytochemical profiling of two local wild Artemisia species, Artemisia scoparia and Artemisia absinthium leaves’ essential oils, extracted via the hydro distillation method along with evaluation of their antioxidant as well as antimicrobial effects. The constituents of EOs were identified using a combined gas chromatography-mass spectrometric (GC-MS) technique. A total of 25 compounds in A. scoparia essential oil (EOAS) were identified, and 14 compounds with percentage abundance of >1% were tabulated, the major being tocopherol derivatives (47.55%). A total of nine compounds in Artemisia absinthium essential oil (EOAA) were enlisted (% age > 1%), the majority being oleic acid derivatives (41.45%). Strong antioxidant effects were pronounced by the EOAS in DPPH (IC50 = 285 ± 0.82 µg/mL) and in ABTS (IC50 = 295 ± 0.32 µg/mL) free radical scavenging assays. Both the EOs remained potent in inhibiting the growth of bacterial species; Escherichia coli (55−70%) and Shigella flexneri (60−75%) however remained moderately effective against Bacillus subtilis as well as Staphylococcus aureus. Both EOAS and EOAA strongly inhibited the growth of the tested fungal species, especially Aspergillus species (up to 70%). The oils showed anti-cholinesterase potential by inhibiting both Acetylcholinesterase (AChE; IC50 = 30 ± 0.04 µg/mL (EOAS), 32 ± 0.05 µg/mL (EOAA) and Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE; IC50 = 34 ± 0.07 µg/mL (EOAS), 36 ± 0.03 µg/mL (EOAA). In conclusion, the essential oils of A. scoparia and A. absinthium are promising antioxidant, antimicrobial and anticholinergic agents with a different phytochemical composition herein reported for the first time.
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Shin J, Kang E, Park J, Cho B, Jang S. Anti‑inflammatory effect of red ginseng marc, Artemisia scoparia, Paeonia japonica and Angelica gigas extract mixture in LPS‑stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Biomed Rep 2022; 17:63. [PMID: 35719838 PMCID: PMC9198992 DOI: 10.3892/br.2022.1546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A normal inflammatory response is essential in protecting the body from foreign substances. However, excessive inflammation contributes to diseases such as oxidative stress, heart disease, and cancer. In this study, we evaluated the anti-inflammatory effects of RAPA (red ginseng marc, Artemisia scoparia Waldst.et Kit, Paeonia japonica Miyabe & Takeda, and Angelica gigas Nakai extract mixture) in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells (macrophages). RAPA suppressed the expression of inflammatory factors such as iNOS and COX-2 and decreased the production of nitric oxide. In addition, RAPA decreased the expression of the inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-6. Furthermore, RAPA inhibited the phosphorylation of MAPKs such as JNK and ERK as well as IκB and NF-κB. In conclusion, RAPA inhibited production of inflammatory mediators via downregulation of the MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. The results of this study demonstrated that RAPA regulates excessive inflammatory responses at the cellular level. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate whether the same effect is observed in vivo through further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae Shin
- Institute of Health and Science, Jeonju University, Jeonju‑si, Jeollabuk‑do 55069, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun Kang
- Institute of Health and Science, Jeonju University, Jeonju‑si, Jeollabuk‑do 55069, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji Park
- Institute of Health and Science, Jeonju University, Jeonju‑si, Jeollabuk‑do 55069, Republic of Korea
| | - Byoung Cho
- Institute of Health and Science, Jeonju University, Jeonju‑si, Jeollabuk‑do 55069, Republic of Korea
| | - Seon Jang
- Institute of Health and Science, Jeonju University, Jeonju‑si, Jeollabuk‑do 55069, Republic of Korea
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Schepetkin IA, Özek G, Özek T, Kirpotina LN, Khlebnikov AI, Klein RA, Quinn MT. Neutrophil Immunomodulatory Activity of Farnesene, a Component of Artemisia dracunculus Essential Oils. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:642. [PMID: 35631467 PMCID: PMC9143003 DOI: 10.3390/ph15050642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 05/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite their reported therapeutic properties, not much is known about the immunomodulatory activity of essential oils present in Artemisia species. We isolated essential oils from the flowers and leaves of five Artemisia species: A. tridentata, A. ludoviciana, A. dracunculus, A. frigida, and A. cana. The chemical composition of the Artemisia essential oil samples had similarities and differences as compared to those previously reported in the literature. The main components of essential oils obtained from A. tridentata, A. ludoviciana, A. frigida, and A. cana were camphor (23.0-51.3%), 1,8-cineole (5.7-30.0%), camphene (1.6-7.7%), borneol (2.3-14.6%), artemisiole (1.2-7.5%), terpinen-4-ol (2.0-6.9%), α-pinene (0.8-3.9%), and santolinatriene (0.7-3.5%). Essential oils from A. dracunculus were enriched in methyl chavicol (38.8-42.9%), methyl eugenol (26.1-26.4%), terpinolene (5.5-8.8%), (E/Z)-β-ocimene (7.3-16.0%), β-phellandrene (1.3-2.2%), p-cymen-8-ol (0.9-2.3%), and xanthoxylin (1.2-2.2%). A comparison across species also demonstrated that some compounds were present in only one Artemisia species. Although Artemisia essential oils were weak activators of human neutrophils, they were relatively more potent in inhibiting subsequent neutrophil Ca2+ mobilization with N-formyl peptide receptor 1 (FPR1) agonist fMLF- and FPR2 agonist WKYMVM, with the most potent being essential oils from A. dracunculus. Further analysis of unique compounds found in A. dracunculus showed that farnesene, a compound with a similar hydrocarbon structure as lipoxin A4, inhibited Ca2+ influx induced in human neutrophils by fMLF (IC50 = 1.2 μM), WKYMVM (IC50 = 1.4 μM), or interleukin 8 (IC50 = 2.6 μM). Pretreatment with A. dracunculus essential oils and farnesene also inhibited human neutrophil chemotaxis induced by fMLF, suggesting these treatments down-regulated human neutrophil responses to inflammatory chemoattractants. Thus, our studies have identified farnesene as a potential anti-inflammatory modulator of human neutrophils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor A. Schepetkin
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA; (I.A.S.); (L.N.K.)
| | - Gulmira Özek
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Eskisehir 26470, Turkey; (G.Ö.); (T.Ö.)
| | - Temel Özek
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Eskisehir 26470, Turkey; (G.Ö.); (T.Ö.)
| | - Liliya N. Kirpotina
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA; (I.A.S.); (L.N.K.)
| | | | - Robyn A. Klein
- Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA;
| | - Mark T. Quinn
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA; (I.A.S.); (L.N.K.)
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Sharifi-Rad J, Herrera-Bravo J, Semwal P, Painuli S, Badoni H, Ezzat SM, Farid MM, Merghany RM, Aborehab NM, Salem MA, Sen S, Acharya K, Lapava N, Martorell M, Tynybekov B, Calina D, Cho WC. Artemisia spp.: An Update on Its Chemical Composition, Pharmacological and Toxicological Profiles. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2022; 2022:5628601. [PMID: 36105486 PMCID: PMC9467740 DOI: 10.1155/2022/5628601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Revised: 08/07/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Artemisia plants are traditional and ethnopharmacologically used to treat several diseases and in addition in food, spices, and beverages. The genus is widely distributed in all continents except the Antarctica, and traditional medicine has been used as antimalarial, antioxidant, anticancer, antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, and antiviral agents. This review is aimed at systematizing scientific data on the geographical distribution, chemical composition, and pharmacological and toxicological profiles of the Artemisia genus. Data from the literature on Artemisia plants were taken using electronic databases such as PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, and Web of Science. Selected papers for this updated study included data about phytochemicals, preclinical pharmacological experimental studies with molecular mechanisms included, clinical studies, and toxicological and safety data. In addition, ancient texts and books were consulted. The essential oils and phytochemicals of the Artemisia genus have reported important biological activities, among them the artemisinin, a sesquiterpene lactone, with antimalarial activity. Artemisia absinthium L. is one of the most famous Artemisia spp. due to its use in the production of the absinthe drink which is restricted in most countries because of neurotoxicity. The analyzed studies confirmed that Artemisia plants have many traditional and pharmacological applications. However, scientific data are limited to clinical and toxicological research. Therefore, further research is needed on these aspects to understand the full therapeutic potential and molecular pharmacological mechanisms of this medicinal species.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jesús Herrera-Bravo
- 2Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Santo Tomas, Chile
- 3Center of Molecular Biology and Pharmacogenetics, Scientific and Technological Bioresource Nucleus, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco 4811230, Chile
| | - Prabhakar Semwal
- 4Department of Life Sciences, Graphic Era Deemed To Be University, Dehradun, 248002, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Sakshi Painuli
- 5Uttarakhand Council for Biotechnology (UCB), Prem Nagar, Dehradun, 248007 Uttarakhand, India
| | - Himani Badoni
- 6Department of Biotechnology, School of Applied and Life Sciences, Uttaranchal University, Prem Nagar, Dehradun, 248007, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Shahira M. Ezzat
- 7Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo 11562, Egypt
- 8Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, October University for Modern Sciences and Arts (MSA), Giza 12451, Egypt
| | - Mai M. Farid
- 9Department of Phytochemistry and Plant Systematics, National Research Centre, 33 El Bohouth St., Dokki, P. O. 12622, Giza, Egypt
| | - Rana M. Merghany
- 10Pharmacognosy Department, Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research Institute, National Research Centre (NRC), 33 El-Bohouth street, Dokki, Giza, Egypt
| | - Nora M. Aborehab
- 11Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, October University for Modern Sciences and Arts (MSA), Giza 12451, Egypt
| | - Mohamed A. Salem
- 12Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Menoufia University, Gamal Abd El Nasr St., Shibin El Kom, 32511 Menoufia, Egypt
| | - Surjit Sen
- 13Molecular and Applied Mycology and Plant Pathology Laboratory, Department of Botany, University of Calcutta, Kolkata 700019, India
- 14Department of Botany, Fakir Chand College, Diamond Harbour, West Bengal 743331, India
| | - Krishnendu Acharya
- 13Molecular and Applied Mycology and Plant Pathology Laboratory, Department of Botany, University of Calcutta, Kolkata 700019, India
| | - Natallia Lapava
- 15Medicine Standardization Department, Vitebsk State Medical University, Belarus
| | - Miquel Martorell
- 16Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Pharmacy, And Centre for Healthy Living, University of Concepción, Concepción, Chile
- 17Universidad de Concepción, Unidad de Desarrollo Tecnológico (UDT), 4070386 Concepción, Chile
| | - Bekzat Tynybekov
- 18Department of Biodiversity of Bioresources, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty, Kazakhstan
| | - Daniela Calina
- 19Department of Clinical Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 200349 Craiova, Romania
| | - William C. Cho
- 20Department of Clinical Oncology, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Kowloon, Hong Kong
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PARK JH, SHIN JY, CHO BO, HAO S, WANG F, LIM YT, SHIN DJ, JANG SI. Pectinase halophyte complex extract protects hairless mice skin damaged by UV-irradiation. FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1590/fst.72121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Feng WANG
- Jeonju University, Republic of Korea
| | - Yi Teak LIM
- Jinandang Agricultural Corp., Republic of Korea
| | - Da Jeong SHIN
- Research Institute, Ato Q&A Co., LTD, Republic of Korea
| | - Seon Il JANG
- Jeonju University, Republic of Korea; Jeonju University, Republic of Korea
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Santamarine Shows Anti-Photoaging Properties via Inhibition of MAPK/AP-1 and Stimulation of TGF-β/Smad Signaling in UVA-Irradiated HDFs. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26123585. [PMID: 34208202 PMCID: PMC8230857 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26123585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic UVA exposure results in elevated reactive oxygen species in skin which leads to photoaging characterized as upregulated matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-1 and loss of collagen. Therefore, natural antioxidants are hailed as promising agents to be utilized against photoaging. In the current study, reynosin and santamarine, two known sesquiterpene lactones isolated from Artemisia scoparia, were analyzed for their anti-photoaging properties in UVA-irradiated human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs). Results showed that UVA irradiation (8 J/cm2) upregulated the MMP-1 secretion and expression, and suppressed collagen production, which were significantly reverted by santamarine treatment (10 µM). Although both reynosin and santamarine exhibited ROS scavenging abilities, reynosin failed to significantly diminish UVA-stimulated MMP-1 release. UVA-irradiated HDFs showed increased collagen production when treated with santamarine. As a mechanism to suppress MMP-1, santamarine significantly suppressed the UVA-induced phosphorylation of p38 and JNK and nuclear translocation of p-c-Fos and p-c-Jun. Santamarine promoted collagen I production via relieving the UVA-induced suppression on TGF-β and its downstream activator Smad2/3 complex. Antioxidant properties of santamarine were also shown to arise from stimulating Nrf2-dependent expression of antioxidant enzymes SOD-1 and HO-1 in UVA-irradiated HDFs. In conclusion, santamarine was found to be a promising natural antioxidant with anti-photoaging properties against UVA-induced damages in HDFs.
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Boudreau A, Richard AJ, Harvey I, Stephens JM. Artemisia scoparia and Metabolic Health: Untapped Potential of an Ancient Remedy for Modern Use. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2021; 12:727061. [PMID: 35211087 PMCID: PMC8861327 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2021.727061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Botanicals have a long history of medicinal use for a multitude of ailments, and many modern pharmaceuticals were originally isolated from plants or derived from phytochemicals. Among these, artemisinin, first isolated from Artemisia annua, is the foundation for standard anti-malarial therapies. Plants of the genus Artemisia are among the most common herbal remedies across Asia and Central Europe. The species Artemisia scoparia (SCOPA) is widely used in traditional folk medicine for various liver diseases and inflammatory conditions, as well as for infections, fever, pain, cancer, and diabetes. Modern in vivo and in vitro studies have now investigated SCOPA's effects on these pathologies and its ability to mitigate hepatotoxicity, oxidative stress, obesity, diabetes, and other disease states. This review focuses on the effects of SCOPA that are particularly relevant to metabolic health. Indeed, in recent years, an ethanolic extract of SCOPA has been shown to enhance differentiation of cultured adipocytes and to share some properties of thiazolidinediones (TZDs), a class of insulin-sensitizing agonists of the adipogenic transcription factor PPARγ. In a mouse model of diet-induced obesity, SCOPA diet supplementation lowered fasting insulin and glucose levels, while inducing metabolically favorable changes in adipose tissue and liver. These observations are consistent with many lines of evidence from various tissues and cell types known to contribute to metabolic homeostasis, including immune cells, hepatocytes, and pancreatic beta-cells. Compounds belonging to several classes of phytochemicals have been implicated in these effects, and we provide an overview of these bioactives. The ongoing global epidemics of obesity and metabolic disease clearly require novel therapeutic approaches. While the mechanisms involved in SCOPA's effects on metabolic, anti-inflammatory, and oxidative stress pathways are not fully characterized, current data support further investigation of this plant and its bioactives as potential therapeutic agents in obesity-related metabolic dysfunction and many other conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anik Boudreau
- Adipocyte Biology Laboratory, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
| | - Allison J. Richard
- Adipocyte Biology Laboratory, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
| | - Innocence Harvey
- Adipocyte Biology Laboratory, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
| | - Jacqueline M. Stephens
- Adipocyte Biology Laboratory, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
- *Correspondence: Jacqueline M. Stephens,
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