Evaluation of the Maillard reaction in potato crisps by acrylamide, antioxidant capacity and color

Atmospheric immersion and vacuum impregnation of gallotannins and hydrolysed gallotannins from tara pods (Caesalpinia spinosa) mitigate acrylamide and enhances the antioxidant power in potato chips

This research aimed to evaluate atmospheric pressure immersion (API) and vacuum impregnation (VI) of non-hydrolyzed and hydrolyzed tara gallotannins (TE and THE) extracts and the purification process by leaching with ethyl acetate (TE-L and THE-L) and absorption chromatography on the acrylamide (AA) mitigation in potato chips. Better results were obtained with THE-L at hydrolysis degrees of 48.5 and 99.8 % and API with AA reduction of 57.9 and 61.7 %, respectively (p > 0.05), while with TE-L, AA reduction was 29.2 %. Instead, THE-L and TE-L with VI reduced AA by 70.3 and 66.4 %, respectively. In potato chips subjected to THE-L treatment, phenolic compounds and ABTS AC increased in 86.5-91.0 % and 71.0-103.2 %, respectively compared to the control. The main antioxidants were identified in the extracts and in potato chips. Tara gallotannins are an interesting alternative to mitigate AA formation and to enhance the antioxidant power of potato chips.

Effect of different stress conditions on the formation of amino acid derivatives by Brewer's and Baker's yeast during fermentation

The effects of environmental stresses on the formation of amino acid derivatives by Saccharomyces cerevisiae NCYC 88 and Saccharomyces cerevisiae NCYC 79 were investigated. Fermentation was performed in model systems under different temperature, pH, alcohol, phenolic, and osmotic stress conditions, as well as in beer and dough. According to stress response molecules, yeasts were more affected by osmotic, temperature, and alcohol stresses. Both yeast strains increased the formation of kynurenic acid, tryptophan ethyl ester, tryptophol, and gamma-aminobutyric acid under osmotic stress conditions in model systems. Indole-3-acetic acid was found to be higher in the ferulic acid stress dough (262 µg/kg dry weight, d.w.) compared to the control dough (132 µg/kg d.w.) at the end of the fermentation. The results may enable the development of new strategies for designing novel foods with a desired composition of bioactive amino acid derivatives.

The Antioxidant Potential of Various Wheat Crusts Correlates with AGE Content Independently of Acrylamide

Epidemiological studies have indicated that the consumption of whole-grain products is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular diseases, type II diabetes, and cancer. In the case of bread, high amounts of antioxidants and advanced glycation end products (AGEs) are formed during baking by the Maillard reaction in the bread crust; however, the formation of potentially harmful compounds such as acrylamide also occurs. This study investigated the antioxidant responses of different soluble extracts from whole-grain wheat bread crust extracts (WBCEs) in the context of the asparagine, AGE, and acrylamide content. For that, we analyzed nine bread wheat cultivars grown at three different locations in Germany (Hohenheim, Eckartsweier, and Oberer Lindenhof). We determined the asparagine content in the flour of the 27 wheat cultivars and the acrylamide content in the crust, and measured the antioxidant potential using the induced expression of the antioxidant genes GCLM and HMOX1 in HeLa cells. Our study uncovered, for the first time, that the wheat crust's antioxidant potential correlates with the AGE content, but not with the acrylamide content. Mass spectrometric analyses of WBCEs for identifying AGE-modified proteins relevant to the antioxidant potential were unsuccessful. However, we did identify the wheat cultivars with a high antioxidant potential while forming less acrylamide, such as Glaucus and Lear. Our findings indicate that the security of BCEs with antioxidative and cardioprotective potential can be improved by choosing the right wheat variety.

Acylated anthocyanin inhibited the formation of heterocyclic amines in hybrid chemical model system and its underlying mechanism

Enzymatic acylation was employed to synthesize acylated anthocyanin, and a hybrid chemical model system was used for the formation of heterocyclic amines. And the inhibition effect and underline mechanism were investigated by analyzing the variations in important precursors and intermediates. Results confirmed that cyanidin-3-(6-cinnamoyl) -glycosidase (C3(6C)G) with a purity of 98.9% was obtained. HPLC identified seven types of heterocyclic amines (IQ, MeIQx, 4, 8-DimeiqX, Norharman, Harman, PhIP, and AαC) generated in the chemical model. (C3(6C)G) showed a good concentration-dependent manner for the inhibition effect on most HCAs except for MeIQx and PhIP. It also suppressed the glucose content, showed a dose-dependent manner in creatine/creatinine inhibition, and could scavenge formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and phenylacetaldehyde. Two potential pathways might be involved: 1. by inhibiting the content of precursors (glucose and creatinine), competing with the formation of amino acids, to suppress HCAs generation; 2 through the removal of reactive carbonyl, reducing its reaction with creatinine.

Inhibitory effect of acylated anthocyanins on heterocyclic amines in grilled chicken breast patty and its mechanism

Heterocyclic amines (HCAs) are a group of carcinogenic substances produced in protein-rich poultry meat under high-temperature. Enzymatic acylation of anthocyanins (ACNs) is a reliable way to improve their stability, and we recently found the acylated cyaniding-3-O-glucose (cyanidin-3-6-cinnamoyl-glucoside, C3(6C)G) could effective inhibit the HCAs formation, but the underline mechanism was still obscure. Thus, the present study investigated the inhibitory effect ofC3(6C)G on HCAs formation in the food system (chicken breast) and to explore the potential mechanism. The results showed that C3(6C)G with different concentrations (0.1, 0.5 and 1.0 mg/mL) could significantly inhibit lipid oxidation and decrease the total HCAs content (P<0.05) in chicken breast meat patty after roasting. The samples with 0.1 mg/mL C3(6C)G had the best inhibition effect on total HCAs, with an inhibition rate of 28%, and the inhibition rates for IQ, Harman, TRP-P-2, PhIP and AαC were 34%, 46%, 100%, 54% and 41%, respectively.

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Enzymatic acylation is a reliable way to improve the stability of anthocyanins.

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Acylated cyaniding-3-O-glucose(C3(6C)G) could significantly decrease heterocyclic amines (HCAs) content.

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Variations in the precursors indicated the inhibition mechanism of C3(6C)G.

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C3(6C)G could alleviate lipid peroxidation during the cooking process.

The Effect of Thermal Treatment on Selected Properties and Content of Biologically Active Compounds in Potato Crisps

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of blanching and frying on selected properties of potato crisps of yellow- and purple-fleshed cultivars. The material used was yellow flesh cv. Ismena and purple flesh cv. Provita. Potato slices were blanched (1–5 min at 80–90 °C) and then fried (155–175 °C). The control sample was comprised of crisps that were not blanched. The fat content and color parameters were determined in crisps, while in defatted samples, the following were determined: the content of total polyphenols; antioxidant capacity, measured by the ability to scavenge the ABTS•+ radical cations (TEAC ABTS) and by the FRAP method; and the level of fluorescent intermediary compounds (FICs) and browning index (BI), as indicators of the progress of the Maillard reaction. The content of kynurenic acid (KYNA) was examined in the raw material, in slices, in the water after blanching and in the crisps. Blanching affected the fat absorption, with time being more critical than temperature. The color of crisps from yellow flesh potatoes after blanching lightened, while the color in the purple samples darkened. The content of total polyphenols was higher in purple crisps. Increasing the temperature and shortening the time of blanching increased the polyphenol content and the antioxidant capacity. Blanching decreased the level of FICs, while frying increased FICs. Higher BI values characterized the crisps from cv. Provita. Blanching reduced BI values by 50%, while frying at highest temperature increased these values. The content of KYNA in purple potatoes was almost three times higher than in yellow ones. Blanching and frying decreased the KYNA content in potatoes and fried crisps.

Dietary exposure to acrylamide: A critical appraisal on the conversion of disregarded intermediates into acrylamide and possible reactions during digestion

The amount of acrylamide in asparagine rich thermally processed foods has been broadly monitored over the past two decades. Acrylamide exposure can be estimated by using the concentration of acrylamide found in foods and alternatively, biomarkers of exposure are correlated. A better estimation of dietary acrylamide exposure is crucial for a proper food safety assessment, regulations, and public health research. This review addresses the importance of the presence of neglected Maillard reaction intermediates found in foods, that may convert into acrylamide during digestion and the fate of acrylamide in the gastrointestinal tract as a reactive compound. Therefore, it is questioned in this review whether acrylamide concentration in ingested foods is directly correlated with the dietary exposure to acrylamide.

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Neglected Maillard reaction intermediates play role in acrylamide formation in gut.

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Exposure may increase when intermediates are converted into acrylamide in the gut.

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Nucleophiles cause elimination of acrylamide in the intestinal phase.

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The fate of acrylamide during digestion could be important for exposure estimation.

The retention and bioavailability of phytochemicals in the manufacturing of baked snacks

There is a growing body of evidence supporting the role that phytochemicals play in reducing the risk of various chronic diseases. Although there has been a rise in health products marketed as being "supergrains," "superfood," or advertising their abundance in antioxidants, these food items are often limited to powdered blends, dried fruit, nuts, or seeds, rarely intercepting the market of baked snacks. This is in part due to the still limited understanding of the impact that different industrial processes have on phytochemicals in a complex food matrix and their corresponding bioavailability. This review brings together the current data on how various industrial dehydration processes influence the retention and bioaccessibility of phytochemicals in baked snacks. It considers the interplay of molecules in an intricate snack matrix, limitations of conventional technologies, and constraints with consumer acceptance preventing wider utilization of novel technologies. Furthermore, the review takes a holistic approach, encompassing each stage of production-discussing the potential for inclusion of by-products to promote a circular economy and the proposal for a shift in agriculture toward biofortification or tailored growing of crops for their nutritional and post-harvest attributes.

Effect of consumer's decisions on acrylamide exposure during the preparation of French fries. Part 2: Color analysis

Two observational tests were designed to investigate the influence of consumer decisions during the preparation of French fries from fresh potatoes on acrylamide formation. In both tests, color was of paramount importance to volunteers with regards to the decision to stop the frying process. CIE-Lab* color parameters and visual color assessments of French fries were associated with general acrylamide content and its classification according to the EU benchmark levels (BL, 500 μg/kg). Binary logistic regression analysis revealed that color parameter a* was the main factor in determining the probability of acrylamide content being above BL, regardless of the culinary practices applied. A cut-off of 0.855 for a* produced the greatest sensitivity (81.1%) and specificity (99.9%) for classifying samples with acceptable BL of acrylamide content. An increase of one unit of a* more than quadruple the risk of acrylamide content not falling within BL. When no external color reference was provided, volunteers misclassified 33.6% of fries as having a golden color. Harmonized criteria based on a reference color chart that indicates a golden color are necessary for producing fries with reduced acrylamide contents and, in this way, limit the risk of exposure to acrylamide in domestic settings.

Optimization of processing parameters to control Maillard browning in ready-to-eat processed potatoes

Relationship among pH, a_w and Maillard browning was investigated in processed potatoes ready-to-eat during cooking and sterilization in autoclave to prevent their colors changes. Central composite rotational design was used for optimization of color (L*, a* and b*), browning index and intermediate compounds index. Reduction in the L* value and increase in the a*, b* value and browning index, indicators for Maillard browning of the processed potatoes were mitigated at pH 4.0-5.0 and a_w 0.96-1.00 and accelerated at pH less than 3.0 or more than 7.0 and a_w less than 0.84. Formation of intermediate compounds was intensified at pH 5.0 and a_w 0.99 and mitigated at pH 7.0 and a_w 0.84. Adjustment of the pH to 5.0 and keeping a_w at to 0.99 were the most effective parameters of to control Maillard browning in processed potatoes ready-to-eat.

Effect of Microwave Heating on the Acrylamide Formation in Foods

Acrylamide (AA) is a neurotoxic and carcinogenic substance that has recently been discovered in food. One of the factors affecting its formation is the heat treatment method. This review discusses the microwave heating as one of the methods of thermal food processing and the influence of microwave radiation on the acrylamide formation in food. In addition, conventional and microwave heating were compared, especially the way they affect the AA formation in food. Available studies demonstrate differences in the mechanisms of microwave and conventional heating. These differences may be beneficial or detrimental depending on different processes. The published studies showed that microwave heating at a high power level can cause greater AA formation in products than conventional food heat treatment. The higher content of acrylamide in microwave-heated foods may be due to differences in its formation during microwave heating and conventional methods. At the same time, short exposure to microwaves (during blanching and thawing) at low power may even limit the formation of acrylamide during the final heat treatment. Considering the possible harmful effects of microwave heating on food quality (e.g., intensive formation of acrylamide), further research in this direction should be carried out.

Electrochemical flow injection analysis for the rapid determination of reducing sugars in potatoes

Non-enzymatic electrochemical sensors for the monitoring of reducing sugars in foods has great potential as a rapid in-situ detection method. This development involved the assembly of a nanoporous platinum structure on a screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE). The modified electrode was then employed as an amperometric sensing element in a flow injection analysis (FIA) manifold. The system was successfully applied to the rapid detection of reducing sugars in potatoes, without the need for sample preparation. Optimal signals were achieved in phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) at a flow rate of 0.5 mL min^-1 and an applied potential of 0.6 V. Experimental results demonstrated the sensor's long-term stability and high selectivity for reducing sugars. This method provides high sample throughput due to a rapid response time of less than five seconds. Reducing sugar values determined were in good agreement with those recorded using a commercially available enzymatic assay kit.

Functional and biological properties of Maillard conjugates and their potential application in medical and food: A review

Protein and peptides are usually sensitive to environmental stresses, such as pH changes, high temperature, ionic strength, and digestive enzymes amongst other, which limit their food and medicinal applications. Maillard reaction (also called Maillard conjugation or glycation) occurs naturally without the addition of chemical agents and has been vastly applied to boost protein/peptide/amino acid functionalities and biological properties. Protein/peptide-saccharide conjugates are currently used as emulsifiers, antioxidants, antimicrobials, gelling agents, and anti-browning compounds in food model systems and products. The conjugates also possess the excellent stabilizing ability as a potent delivery system to enhance the stability and bioaccessibility of many bioactive compounds. Carbonyl scavengers such as polyphenols are able to significantly inhibit the formation of advanced glycation end products without a significant effect on early Maillard reaction products (MRPs) and melanoidins, which are currently applied as functional ingredients. This review paper highlights the technological functionality and biological properties of glycoconjugates in food model systems and products. Recent applications of MRPs in medical sciences are also presented.

Acrylamide and Thermal-Processing Indexes in Market-Purchased Food

Determining acrylamide (AA) content in foods using chromatographic methods is expensive and time-consuming. Therefore, there is a need to develop a simple, economical method for monitoring the content of acrylamide in foods. This study analysed whether there is a relationship between acrylamide levels with some heat-induced parameters, such as 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) and browning, in order to assess their usefulness in predicting the potential acrylamide levels in market-purchased food. Sixty plant-based food products were tested. The correlation coefficients for AA levels with L*, a* and b* values and HMF content were significant (p < 0.05) for French fries and potato chips. There was no statistically significant correlation between thermal-processing indexes (HMF and colour parameters) and acrylamide levels in commercial bread, breakfast cereals and biscuits. The results indicate that these classical thermal-processing indexes are not directly related to the acrylamide content in commercial cereal-based food and they cannot be indicators of AA level. Thus, the correlation between HMF and colour parameters with acrylamide content depends on the type of food and it is difficult to estimate the amount of AA based on these classical thermal-processing indexes of market-purchased food.

Effect of buckwheat extracts on acrylamide formation and the quality of bread

BACKGROUND

The presence of acrylamide in food has attracted wide attention and has raised concerns due to its potential toxic and carcinogenic effects. The phenolic compounds in buckwheat display strong antioxidant activity, which may affect the acrylamide levels. The aims of this study were to evaluate the effect of buckwheat extracts on acrylamide formation and the quality of the bread, and to investigate possible inhibitory mechanisms.

RESULTS

The extracts from Tartary buckwheat seeds, Tartary buckwheat sprouts, common buckwheat seeds, and common buckwheat sprouts reduced acrylamide level in bread by 23.5, 27.3, 17.0, and 16.7%, respectively. In addition, all four buckwheat extracts significantly (P < 0.05) reduced acrylamide levels in the asparagine / glucose system. There were significant positive correlations between total phenolic compound content, the antioxidant activity of the extracts, and the reduction in the acrylamide level. Evaluation of the organoleptic and textural properties indicated that the addition of the extracts did not significantly affect the crust color, aroma, taste, crumb appearance, and hardness of the bread.

CONCLUSION

This study showed that proper use of buckwheat extracts can reduce acrylamide levels in bread without having a significant impact on their properties. The study also revealed that a possible acrylamide formation inhibitory mechanism involved the Maillard reaction through the asparagine / glucose pathway. The study also provided useful information for the further application of buckwheat in improving food safety. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effects of maltose and lysine treatment on coffee aroma by flash gas chromatography electronic nose and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

BACKGROUND

Arabica coffee is a sub-tropical agricultural product in China. Coffee undergoes a series of thermal reactions to form abundant volatile profiles after roasting, so it loses a lot of reducing sugars and amino acids. Adding carbonyl compounds with amino acids before roasting could ensure the nutrition and flavour of coffee. The technology is versatile for the development of coffee roasting process. This investigation evaluates the effects of combining maltose and lysine (Lys) to modify coffee aroma and the possibly related mechanisms. Arabica coffee was pretreated with a series of solvent ratios of maltose and Lys with an identical concentration (0.25 mol L^-1 ) before microwave heating.

RESULTS

It was found that the combination of maltose and Lys significantly (P ≤ 0.05) influenced quality indices of coffee (pH and browning degree). Ninety-six aromatic volatiles have been isolated and identified. Twelve volatile profiles revealed the relationship between fragrance difference and compound content in coffee. Moreover, coffee aroma was modified by a large number of volatiles with different chemical classes and character.

CONCLUSION

Thus, our results suggest that the combination of reagents changed overall aroma quality through a series of complex thermal reactions, especially the ratio of Lys/maltose over 2:1. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Inhibitory effect of hawthorn extract on heterocyclic aromatic amine formation in beef and chicken breast meat

This study focused on the inhibitory effect of different levels of hawthorn extract (0, 0.5, and 1%) on the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) in beef and chicken breast cooked by either pan-cooking or oven-cooking. All meat samples were cooked at three different temperatures (150, 200, and 250°C) and the levels of twelve HAAs were assessed (IQ, IQx, MeIQ, MeIQx, 4,8-DiMeIQx, 7,8-DiMeIQx, PhIP, harman, norharman, AαC, MeAαC, and Trp-P-2). Varying levels of IQ (up to 4.47ng/g), IQx (up to 0.69ng/g), MeIQ (up to 0.82ng/g), MeIQx (up to 1.01ng/g), 4,8-DiMeIQx (up to 0.10ng/g), 7,8-DiMeIQx (up to 0.23ng/g), PhIP (up to 0.75ng/g), harman (up to 2.15ng/g), norharman (up to 1.08ng/g), AαC (up to 1.86ng/g), MeAαC (up to 0.48ng/g), and Trp-P-2 (up to 12.88ng/g), were detected. Samples cooked at 150°C had very low amounts of HAAs, and the levels of HAAs increased gradually when the cooking temperature rose from 150 to 250°C. The total HAA content in chicken breast and beef ranged between not detectable to 17.60ng/g, and not detectable to 11.38ng/g, respectively. The inhibitory effects of hawthorn extract at 0.5% and 1% on total HAAs levels were found to be 12-100% and 19-97% in chicken breast, respectively, and 42-100% and 20-35% in beef, respectively. This study demonstrated that hawthorn extracts at 0.5% and 1% could mitigate HAA formation, especially at high cooking temperatures.

Microwave thawing and green tea extract efficiency for the formation of acrylamide throughout the production process of chicken burgers and chicken nuggets

BACKGROUND

Initially, we measured the acrylamide (AA) levels of chicken burgers (CBs) and chicken nuggets (CNs) purchased from fast food restaurants. After the determination of AA in these products, we aimed to investigate whether the use of green tea extract in the covering material, and microwave thawing before frying, mitigated the formation of AA in CBs and CNs during the production process.

RESULTS

According to our study, AA concentrations of CBs and CNs purchased from fast food restaurants were in the range of 13.43-118.97 and 32.92-134.90 ng g^-1 coating, respectively. In our experiment, AA levels varied between 19.61 and 40.08 ng g^-1 coating for CBs and 7.92-49.60 ng g^-1 coating for CNs. Green tea extract reduced the AA formation in CBs and CNs at the pan frying and steam oven cooking heat treatment steps (P < 0.05). However, microwave thawing did not affect AA level of CBs and CNs.

CONCLUSION

When the AA levels of commercial CBs and CNs are compared with those produced in our experiment, the use of green tea extract could be a novel, easy and practical application for fast food producers to minimise AA levels in the first two steps of the production without changes to the sensory properties of the final products. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Acrylamide: inhibition of formation in processed food and mitigation of toxicity in cells, animals, and humans

Potentially toxic acrylamide is largely derived from the heat-inducing reactions between the amino group of the amino acid asparagine and carbonyl groups of glucose and fructose in plant-derived foods including cereals, coffees, almonds, olives, potatoes, and sweet potatoes. This review surveys and consolidates the following dietary aspects of acrylamide: distribution in food, exposure and consumption by diverse populations, reduction of the content in different food categories, and mitigation of adverse in vivo effects. Methods to reduce acrylamide levels include selecting commercial food with a low acrylamide content, selecting cereal and potato varieties with low levels of asparagine and reducing sugars, selecting processing conditions that minimize acrylamide formation, adding food-compatible compounds and plant extracts to food formulations before processing that inhibit acrylamide formation during processing of cereal products, coffees, teas, olives, almonds, and potato products, and reducing multiorgan toxicity (antifertility, carcinogenicity, neurotoxicity, teratogenicity). The herein described observations and recommendations are of scientific interest for food chemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology, but also have the potential to benefit nutrition, food safety, and human health.

Acrylamide in potato crisps prepared from 20 UK-grown varieties: effects of variety and tuber storage time

Twenty varieties of field-grown potato were stored for 2 months and 6 months at 8 °C. Mean acrylamide contents in crisps prepared from all varieties at both storage times ranged from 131 μg/kg in Verdi to 5360 μg/kg in Pentland Dell. In contrast to previous studies, the longer storage period did not affect acrylamide formation significantly for most varieties, the exceptions being Innovator, where acrylamide formation increased, and Saturna, where it decreased. Four of the five varieties designated as suitable for crisping produced crisps with acrylamide levels below the European Commission indicative value of 1000 μg/kg (Saturna, Lady Rosetta, Lady Claire, and Verdi); the exception was Hermes. Two varieties more often used for French fries, Markies and Fontane, also produced crisps with less than 1000 μg/kg acrylamide. Correlations between acrylamide, its precursors and crisp colour are described, and the implications of the results for production of potato crisps are discussed.

Evaluation of Phenolic Antioxidant Capacity in Grains of Modern and Old Durum Wheat Genotypes by the Novel QUENCHERABTS Approach

The QUENCHERABTS (QUick, Easy, New, CHEap and Reproducible) approach for antioxidant capacity (AC) determination is based on the direct reaction of 2,2'-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radical cation with fine solid food particles. So, it may resemble the antioxidant action in foods or in human gastrointestinal trait. Here, the QUENCHER approach was used to study AC of durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) grains. Firstly, it was assessed which kind of antioxidants determines QUENCHER response. This has been performed by comparing AC measured by QUENCHERABTS and that measured by classical TEACABTS (Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity) in four different extracts from whole flour of 10 durum wheat varieties containing: lipophilic, hydrophilic, insoluble-bound phenolic (IBP) and free-soluble phenolic (FSP) compounds. QUENCHERABTS data were unrelated to AC of water-extractable antioxidants and weakly correlated (r = 0.405, P < 0.05) to AC of the lipophilic ones; on the contrary, QUENCHERABTS response was mainly related to AC of IBP (r = 0.907, P < 0.001) and to a lesser extent of FSP extracts (r = 0.747, P < 0.001). Consistently, correlation was also found with the phenolic content of IBP and FSP (r = 0.760, P < 0.001 and r = 0.522, P < 0.01, respectively), thus confirming that QUENCHERABTS assay mainly assesses AC due to IBP. So, this assay was used in a first screening study to compare AC of bioactive IBP of thirty-six genotypes/landraces covering a century of cultivation in Italy. Interestingly, no relevant AC difference between modern and old genotypes was found, thus suggesting that a century of plant breeding did not decrease phenol-dependent health potential in durum wheat.