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Adamo S. The Integrated Defense System: Optimizing Defense against Predators, Pathogens, and Poisons. Integr Comp Biol 2022; 62:1536-1546. [PMID: 35511215 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icac024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Revised: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Insects, like other animals, have evolved defense responses to protect against predators, pathogens, and poisons (i.e., toxins). This paper provides evidence that these three defense responses (i.e., fight-or-flight, immune, and detoxification responses) function together as part of an Integrated Defense System (IDS) in insects. The defense responses against predators, pathogens, and poisons are deeply intertwined. They share organs, resources, and signaling molecules. By connecting defense responses into an IDS, animals gain flexibility, and resilience. Resources can be redirected across fight-or-flight, immune, and detoxification defenses to optimize an individual's response to the current challenges facing it. At the same time, the IDS reconfigures defense responses that are losing access to resources, allowing them to maintain as much function as possible despite decreased resource availability. An IDS perspective provides an adaptive explanation for paradoxical phenomena such as stress-induced immunosuppression, and the observation that exposure to a single challenge typically leads to an increase in the expression of genes for all three defense responses. Further exploration of the IDS will require more studies examining how defense responses to a range of stressors are interconnected in a variety of species. Such studies should target pollinators and agricultural pests. These studies will be critical for predicting how insects will respond to multiple stressors, such as simultaneous anthropogenic threats, for example, climate change and pesticides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelley Adamo
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada
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2
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Nunes C, Sucena É, Koyama T. Endocrine regulation of immunity in insects. FEBS J 2020; 288:3928-3947. [PMID: 33021015 DOI: 10.1111/febs.15581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2020] [Revised: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Organisms have constant contact with potentially harmful agents that can compromise their fitness. However, most of the times these agents fail to cause serious disease by virtue of the rapid and efficient immune responses elicited in the host that can range from behavioural adaptations to immune system triggering. The immune system of insects does not comprise the adaptive arm, making it less complex than that of vertebrates, but key aspects of the activation and regulation of innate immunity are conserved across different phyla. This is the case for the hormonal regulation of immunity as a part of the broad organismal responses to external conditions under different internal states. In insects, depending on the physiological circumstances, distinct hormones either enhance or suppress the immune response integrating individual (and often collective) responses physiologically and behaviourally. In this review, we provide an overview of our current knowledge on the endocrine regulation of immunity in insects, its mechanisms and implications on metabolic adaptation and behaviour. We highlight the importance of this multilayered regulation of immunity in survival and reproduction (fitness) and its dependence on the hormonal integration with other mechanisms and life-history traits.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Élio Sucena
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Oeiras, Portugal.,Departamento de Biologia Animal, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Takashi Koyama
- Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Animals have a Plan B: how insects deal with the dual challenge of predators and pathogens. J Comp Physiol B 2020; 190:381-390. [PMID: 32529590 DOI: 10.1007/s00360-020-01282-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Revised: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
When animals are faced with a life-threatening challenge, they mount an organism-wide response (i.e. Plan A). For example, both the stress response (i.e. fight-or-flight) and the immune response recruit molecular resources from other body tissues, and induce physiological changes that optimize the body for defense. However, pathogens and predators often co-occur. Animals that can optimize responses for a dual challenge, i.e. simultaneous predator and pathogen attacks, will have a selective advantage. Responses to a combined predator and pathogen attack have not been well studied, but this paper summarizes the existing literature in insects. The response to dual challenges (i.e. Plan B) results in a suite of physiological changes that are different from either the stress response or the immune response, and is not a simple summation of the two. It is also not a straight-forward trade-off of one response against the other. The response to a dual challenge (i.e. Plan B) appears to resolve physiological trade-offs between the stress and immune responses, and reconfigures both responses to provide the best overall defense. However, the dual response appears to be more costly than either response occurring singly, resulting in greater damage from oxidative stress, reduced growth rate, and increased mortality.
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Hasan MA, Ahmed S, Kim Y. Biosynthetic pathway of arachidonic acid in Spodoptera exigua in response to bacterial challenge. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2019; 111:103179. [PMID: 31255640 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2019.103179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2019] [Revised: 06/24/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Eicosanoids play crucial roles in mediating insect immune responses. In vertebrates, phospholipase A2 (PLA2) releases arachidonic acid (AA) from phospholipids (PLs) for biosynthesis of various eicosanoids. However, little AA is found in PLs of lepidopteran insects. Spodoptera exigua, a lepidopteran insect, is known to use eicosanoids to mediate immunity. Although AA was not detected in PLs of hemocytes and fat body (two immune tissues) of naïve larvae, it was detected at small but significant level after bacterial infection, suggesting induction of AA biosynthesis for immunity. Based on a mammalian AA biosynthetic pathway, this study hypothesizes that AA is synthesized from C18 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) precursor by subsequent desaturation and elongation reactions because PLs of S. exigua larvae are rich in linoleic acid. After inhibiting PLA2 activity to prevent release of free fatty acids, different PUFA precursors were injected to S. exigua larvae followed by assessment of eicosanoid-mediated cellular immune response. ω-6 PUFAs were effective in inducing immune response whereas α-linolenic acid (an ω-3 PUFA) was not. Several fatty acyl desaturases (SeDESs) have been predicted from S. exigua transcriptomes. Specific inhibitors against Δ5 or Δ6 DESs inhibited eicosanoid-mediated immune responses. Furthermore, RNA interference (RNAi) specific to Δ5 or Δ6 DES genes significantly suppressed eicosanoid-mediated immune responses. Four very long chain fatty acid elongase genes (SeEloV-A ∼ SeEloV-D) were predicted. Among respective RNAi treatments of these genes, only one RNAi treatment specific to type 5 elongase (SeEloV-B) suppressed eicosanoid-mediated immune response. These results suggest that S. exigua larvae can synthesize AA from linoleic acid via Δ5- and Δ6-desaturations by SeDESs along with chain elongation by SeEloV-B. Finally, this study showed significant fitness cost of uncontrolled AA biosynthesis. AA injection alone without bacterial challenge significantly induced both cellular and humoral immune responses. This unnecessary energy expense due to free AA resulted in reduced pupal size and decreased adult egg production. The detrimental effect of free AA explains physiological significance of little AA content in lepidopteran insects except for life-or-death situation such as pathogen infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Ariful Hasan
- Department of Plant Medicals, College of Life Sciences, Andong National University, Andong, 36729, South Korea
| | - Shabbir Ahmed
- Department of Plant Medicals, College of Life Sciences, Andong National University, Andong, 36729, South Korea
| | - Yonggyun Kim
- Department of Plant Medicals, College of Life Sciences, Andong National University, Andong, 36729, South Korea.
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Lipid-bound apoLp-III is less effective in binding to lipopolysaccharides and phosphatidylglycerol vesicles compared to the lipid-free protein. Mol Cell Biochem 2019; 458:61-70. [PMID: 31016454 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-019-03530-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2018] [Accepted: 04/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Apolipophorin III (apoLp-III) is an insect apolipoprotein that is predominantly present in a lipid-free state in the hemolymph. ApoLp-III from Galleria mellonella is able to interact with membrane components of Gram-negative bacteria, as part of an innate immune response to infection. The protein also exists in a lipoprotein-associated state when large amounts of lipids are mobilized. Therefore, lipid-bound apoLp-III was generated to analyze the binding interaction with lipopolysaccharides and phosphatidylglycerol, both abundantly present in membranes of Gram-negative bacteria. G. mellonella apoLp-III was lipidated with palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-glycero-3-phosphocholine to form lipid-protein complexes. The particle shape was discoidal with a 16.4 nm diameter, a molecular mass of 460 kDa, and contained 4 apoLp-III molecules. These discoidal lipoproteins were used to compare the lipopolysaccharide and phosphatidylglycerol binding activity with lipid-free apoLp-III. Lipopolysaccharide binding interaction was analyzed by non-denaturing PAGE, showing reduced ability of the lipid-bound protein to form lipopolysaccharide-protein complexes and to disaggregate lipopolysaccharide micelles. The apoLp-III-induced release of calcein from phosphatidylglycerol vesicles was decreased approximately fivefold when the protein was in the lipid-bound form, indicating reduced binding interaction with the phosphatidylglycerol membrane surface. These results show that when apoLp-III adopts a lipid-bound conformation, it is markedly less effective in interacting with lipopolysaccharides and phosphatidylglycerol vesicles. Thus, in order to be an effective antimicrobial protein, apoLp-III needs to be in a lipid-free state.
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Adamo SA. The stress response and immune system share, borrow, and reconfigure their physiological network elements: Evidence from the insects. Horm Behav 2017; 88:25-30. [PMID: 27746212 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2016.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2016] [Revised: 10/04/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The classic biomedical view is that stress hormone effects on the immune system are largely pathological, especially if the stress is chronic. However, more recent interpretations have focused on the potential adaptive function of these effects. This paper examines stress response-immune system interactions from a physiological network perspective, using insects because of their simpler physiology. For example, stress hormones can reduce disease resistance, yet activating an immune response results in the release of stress hormones in both vertebrates and invertebrates. From a network perspective, this phenomenon is consistent with the 'sharing' of the energy-releasing ability of stress hormones by both the stress response and the immune system. Stress-induced immunosuppression is consistent with the stress response 'borrowing' molecular components from the immune system to increase the capacity of stress-relevant physiological processes (i.e. a trade off). The insect stress hormones octopamine and adipokinetic hormone can also 'reconfigure' the immune system to help compensate for the loss of some of the immune system's molecular resources (e.g. apolipophorin III). This view helps explain seemingly maladaptive interactions between the stress response and immune system. The adaptiveness of stress hormone effects on individual immune components may be apparent only from the perspective of the whole organism. These broad principles will apply to both vertebrates and invertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelley A Adamo
- Dept. Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS,Canada, B3H4R2.
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Adamo SA. Stress responses sculpt the insect immune system, optimizing defense in an ever-changing world. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2017; 66:24-32. [PMID: 27288849 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2016.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2015] [Revised: 06/03/2016] [Accepted: 06/07/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
A whole organism, network approach can help explain the adaptive purpose of stress-induced changes in immune function. In insects, mediators of the stress response (e.g. stress hormones) divert molecular resources away from immune function and towards tissues necessary for fight-or-flight behaviours. For example, molecules such as lipid transport proteins are involved in both the stress and immune responses, leading to a reduction in disease resistance when these proteins are shifted towards being part of the stress response system. Stress responses also alter immune system strategies (i.e. reconfiguration) to compensate for resource losses that occur during fight-or flight events. In addition, stress responses optimize immune function for different physiological conditions. In insects, the stress response induces a pro-inflammatory state that probably enhances early immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelley Anne Adamo
- Dept. Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada.
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Contreras E, Rausell C, Real MD. Tribolium castaneum Apolipophorin-III acts as an immune response protein against Bacillus thuringiensis Cry3Ba toxic activity. J Invertebr Pathol 2013; 113:209-13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2013.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2013] [Revised: 04/04/2013] [Accepted: 04/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Malik ZA, Amir S, Venekei I. SERINE proteinase like activity in apolipophorin III from the hemolymph of desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria. ARCHIVES OF INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2012; 80:26-41. [PMID: 22499434 DOI: 10.1002/arch.21020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Apolipophorin III (apoLp-III) has been known as a lipid transport protein of insects. Recent studies indicated the involvement of apoLp-III in immune reactions and in the control of cell destruction, but no enzymatic activity has so far been detected. In the present study, a protease from the hemolymph of Schistocerca gregaria was purified to homogeneity and its enzymatic activity was examined. Identity as chymotrypsin-like proteinase was established by its high affinity toward bulky aromatic substrates and its catalytic specificity for amide or ester bonds on the synthetic substrates, Suc-Ala-Ala-Pro-Xaa-AMC (where Xaa was Phe, Tyr, Trp, and Lys, and AMC is 7-amino-4-methyl-coumarin) and thiolbenzyl ester substrate Suc-Ala-Ala-Pro-Phe-SBzl. The sensitivity for serine protease and chymotrypsin-specific covalent inhibitors, PMSF, TPCK, and noncovalent inhibitors SGCI, showed that it is a chymotrypsin-like proteinase. It showed its maximum activity at pH 8.0 and 55°C for the hydrolysis of Suc-Ala-Ala-Pro-Tyr-AMC. According to similarities in the amino terminal sequence, molar mass (19 kDa) and retention on reversed-phase analytical high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) column, this protein is S. gregaria homologue of Locusta migratoria apoLp-III. Our data suggest that apoLp-III also has an inherent proteolytic activity. Results indicated that S. gregaria apoLp-III is a good catalyst and could be used as a biotechnological tool in food processing and in agricultural biotechnology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zulfiqar A Malik
- Department of Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA.
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Catalán TP, Wozniak A, Niemeyer HM, Kalergis AM, Bozinovic F. Interplay between thermal and immune ecology: effect of environmental temperature on insect immune response and energetic costs after an immune challenge. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2012; 58:310-317. [PMID: 22019347 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2011.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2011] [Revised: 10/04/2011] [Accepted: 10/10/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Although the study of thermoregulation in insects has shown that infected animals tend to prefer higher temperatures than healthy individuals, the immune response and energetic consequences of this preference remain unknown. We examined the effect of environmental temperature and the energetic costs associated to the activation of the immune response of Tenebrio molitor larvae following a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge. We measured the effect of temperature on immune parameters including phenoloxidase (PO) activity and antibacterial responses. Further as proximal and distal costs of the immune response we determined the standard metabolic rate (SMR) and the loss of body mass (m(b)), respectively. Immune response was stronger at 30°C than was at 10 or 20°C. While SMR at 10 and 20°C did not differ between immune treatments, at 30°C SMR of LPS-treated larvae was almost 25-60% higher than SMR of PBS-treated and naïve larvae. In addition, the loss in m(b) was 1.9 and 4.2 times higher in LPS-treated larvae than in PBS-treated and naïve controls. The immune responses exhibited a positive correlation with temperature and both, SMR and m(b) change, were sensitive to environmental temperature. These data suggest a significant effect of environmental temperature on the immune response and on the energetic costs of immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamara P Catalán
- Center for Advanced Studies in Ecology & Biodiversity, LINC-Global and Departamento de Ecología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile.
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Abstract
In a search for more environmentally benign alternatives to chemical pesticides, insect neuropeptides have been suggested as ideal candidates. Neuropeptides are neuromodulators and/or neurohormones that regulate most major physiological and behavioral processes in insects. The major neuropeptide structures have been identified through peptide purification in insects (peptidomics) and insect genome projects. Neuropeptide receptors have been identified and characterized in Drosophila and similar receptors are being targeted in other insects considered to be economically detrimental pests in agriculture and forestry. Defining neuropeptide action in different insect systems has been more challenging and as a consequence, identifying unique targets for potential pest control is also a challenge. In this chapter, neuropeptide biosynthesis as well as select physiological processes are examined with a view to pest control targets. The application of molecular techniques to transform insects with neuropeptide or neuropeptide receptor genes, or knockout genes to identify potential pest control targets, is a relatively new area that offers promise to insect control. Insect immune systems may also be manipulated through neuropeptides which may aid in compromising the insects ability to defend against foreign invasion.
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Demas GE, Adamo SA, French SS. Neuroendocrine‐immune crosstalk in vertebrates and invertebrates: implications for host defence. Funct Ecol 2011. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2435.2010.01738.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gregory E. Demas
- Department of Biology, Program in Neuroscience and Center for the Integrative Study of Animal Behavior, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405 USA
| | - Shelley A. Adamo
- Department of Psychology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3H 4J1
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Chu FJ, Jin XB, Zhu JY. Housefly maggots (Musca domestica) protein-enriched fraction/extracts (PE) inhibit lipopolysaccharide-induced atherosclerosis pro-inflammatory responses. J Atheroscler Thromb 2010; 18:282-90. [PMID: 21157115 DOI: 10.5551/jat.5991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM To investigate the effects of housefly maggot (Musca domestica) protein-enriched fraction/extracts (PE) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced atherosclerosis (AS) pro-inflammatory responses in mice and macrophages. METHODS The mouse model of AS was established by feeding a cholesterol-enriched diet and inducing by LPS. Changes in the levels of blood lipids (total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL) and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL)) and pro-inflammatory cytokines (interferon-gamma (IFNγ), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) and interleukin-1alpha (IL-1α)) were determined. Histomorphometric analysis of the pathological condition of the artery was also carried out. The macrophages were stimulated by LPS in the presence or absence of PE, and then the levels of TNFα, IL-1α and monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP-1) in cell culture supernatant were measured. RESULTS Compared with the negative control group, the levels of three pro-inflammatory cytokines were significantly enhanced in the PE treatment group (p< 0.01). The concentrations of TC, TG and LDL were lower in the PE treatment group than in the negative control group (p< 0.01). HDL concentration in the PE treatment group was higher than in the negative control group (p< 0.01). Histomorphometric analysis showed that the thickness of the intima and media area, as well as the area ratio of the intima to media in the PE treatment group were lower than in the negative control group (p< 0.01). The expression of TNFα, IL-1α and MCP-1 in LPS-induced macrophages was inhibited by different concentrations of PE (p< 0.01). CONCLUSION These results indicate that PE potently inhibited multiple pro-inflammatory responses in experimental atherosclerosis lesions in vivo, and possessed anti-pro-inflammatory properties in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fu-Jiang Chu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Bioactive Drugs Research, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou, China
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Gupta L, Noh JY, Jo YH, Oh SH, Kumar S, Noh MY, Lee YS, Cha SJ, Seo SJ, Kim I, Han YS, Barillas-Mury C. Apolipophorin-III mediates antiplasmodial epithelial responses in Anopheles gambiae (G3) mosquitoes. PLoS One 2010; 5:e15410. [PMID: 21072214 PMCID: PMC2970580 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0015410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2010] [Accepted: 09/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Apolipophorin-III (ApoLp-III) is known to play an important role in lipid transport and innate immunity in lepidopteran insects. However, there is no evidence of involvement of ApoLp-IIIs in the immune responses of dipteran insects such as Drosophila and mosquitoes. Methodology/Principal Findings We report the molecular and functional characterization of An. gambiae apolipophorin-III (AgApoLp-III). Mosquito ApoLp-IIIs have diverged extensively from those of lepidopteran insects; however, the predicted tertiary structure of AgApoLp-III is similar to that of Manduca sexta (tobacco hornworm). We found that AgApoLp-III mRNA expression is strongly induced in the midgut of An. gambiae (G3 strain) mosquitoes in response to Plasmodium berghei infection. Furthermore, immunofluorescence stainings revealed that high levels of AgApoLp-III protein accumulate in the cytoplasm of Plasmodium-invaded cells and AgApoLp-III silencing increases the intensity of P. berghei infection by five fold. Conclusion There are broad differences in the midgut epithelial responses to Plasmodium invasion between An. gambiae strains. In the G3 strain of An. gambiae AgApoLp-III participates in midgut epithelial defense responses that limit Plasmodium infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lalita Gupta
- Mosquito Immunity and Vector Competence Unit, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Ju Young Noh
- Department of Agricultural Biology, College of Agriculture and Life Science, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, South Korea
| | - Yong Hun Jo
- Department of Agricultural Biology, College of Agriculture and Life Science, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, South Korea
| | - Seung Han Oh
- Department of Agricultural Biology, College of Agriculture and Life Science, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, South Korea
| | - Sanjeev Kumar
- Mosquito Immunity and Vector Competence Unit, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Mi Young Noh
- Department of Agricultural Biology, College of Agriculture and Life Science, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, South Korea
| | - Yong Seok Lee
- Department of Parasitology, College of Medicine and Frontier Inje Research for Science and Technology, Inje University, Busan, Korea
| | - Sung-Jae Cha
- Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology and Malaria Research Institute, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Sook Jae Seo
- Division of Applied Life Science, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, Korea
| | - Iksoo Kim
- Department of Agricultural Biology, College of Agriculture and Life Science, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, South Korea
| | - Yeon Soo Han
- Department of Agricultural Biology, College of Agriculture and Life Science, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, South Korea
- * E-mail: (YSH); (CB-M)
| | - Carolina Barillas-Mury
- Mosquito Immunity and Vector Competence Unit, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail: (YSH); (CB-M)
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Goldsworthy G. Locusts as model organisms in which to study immunogen-induced anorectic behaviour. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2010; 56:991-997. [PMID: 20416315 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2010.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2010] [Revised: 04/13/2010] [Accepted: 04/14/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
When injected into adult or nymphal Locusta that have been deprived of food for 2h, immunogens such as laminarin and bacterial LPS can induce an almost immediate dose-dependent state of anorexia for at least 1h. Such anorexia is a component of a medley of physiological and behavioural changes called collectively 'sickness behaviour' that occurs in a wide range of animals in response to infection or immune challenge. Sub-optimal amounts of injected laminarin allow some locusts to feed, but with a longer latency than in controls, although the length of the first meal is unaffected. The feeding behaviour of fifth instar nymphs is more sensitive to laminarin than that of adults, but both stages respond to amounts of immunogen that are lower than those required to activate the phenoloxidase cascade. Injection of adipokinetic hormone (AKH) before the period of food deprivation prevents the anorexigenic action of the laminarin in adults but not in nymphs. It is argued that the effect of the AKH may be indirect, through its lipid-mobilising action. The insecticide pymetrozine increases the latency to feed but also reduces the length of the first meal, and its anorexigenic activity is not affected by injection of AKH. The present data support the concept that laminarin-induced anorexia involves a central lack of motivation to eat, rather than a 'stop eating' signal. Others have shown that the mechanism of action of pymetrozine involves the serotonergic system and can be blocked by mianserin, so it is intriguing that in the present study injection of mianserin prior to that of laminarin modulates the anorexigenic effect of the immunogen. This suggests that biogenic amines are involved in the control of appetitive behaviour in locusts, as they are in vertebrates. The possible usefulness of the locust model in studying sickness-induced anorexia is discussed briefly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graham Goldsworthy
- Biology Department, School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Birkbeck College, University of London, Malet Street, London W1CE 7HX, UK.
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Adamo SA. Why should an immune response activate the stress response? Insights from the insects (the cricket Gryllus texensis). Brain Behav Immun 2010; 24:194-200. [PMID: 19679179 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2009.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2009] [Revised: 07/24/2009] [Accepted: 08/06/2009] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Mediators of the stress response (e.g. glucocorticoids and norepinephrine) can be immunosuppressive. Nevertheless, immune challenge leads to the release of these compounds in vertebrates. To resolve this paradox, it has been suggested that stress hormones help restore immune homeostasis, preventing self-damage. A comparative approach may provide additional hypotheses as to why an immune challenge induces the release of stress hormones/neurohormones. Octopamine, a neurohormonal mediator of the stress response in the cricket Gryllus texensis, increased in concentration in the hemolymph during an immune challenge. Therefore, the release of stress hormones during an immune response occurs in animals across phyla. Octopamine induced an increase in lipid concentration in the hemolymph. After an acute stress (flying or running) the total number of hemocytes in the hemolymph increased. Injections of octopamine had the same effect, suggesting that it may enhance hemocyte-dependent immune functions. On the other hand, octopamine decreased lysozyme-like activity in vitro, suggesting that it inhibits some immune functions. However, lysozyme-like activity was increased by the presence of heat-killed bacteria in vitro and this increase was significantly augmented by the presence of octopamine. Therefore, the effect of octopamine on immune function differed depending on the presence of pathogens. Stress hormones may help shift immune function into the most optimal configuration depending on the physiological context.
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Affiliation(s)
- S A Adamo
- Dept. Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, 1355 Oxford St, Halifax, NS, Canada B3H 4J1.
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Adamo SA, Roberts JL, Easy RH, Ross NW. Competition between immune function and lipid transport for the protein apolipophorin III leads to stress-induced immunosuppression in crickets. J Exp Biol 2008; 211:531-8. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.013136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
Intense physical activity results in transient immunosuppression in a wide range of animals. We tested the hypothesis that competition between immune function and lipid transport for the protein apolipophorin III (apoLpIII) can cause transient immunosuppression in crickets. Both flying, an energetically demanding behavior, and an immune challenge reduced the amount of monomeric(free) apoLpIII in the hemolymph of crickets. Because both immune function and flying depleted free apoLpIII, these two phenomena could be in competition for this protein. We showed that immune function was sensitive to the amount of free apoLpIII in the hemolymph. Reducing the amount of free apoLpIII in the hemolymph using adipokinetic hormone produced immunosuppression. Increasing apoLpIII levels after flight by pre-loading animals with trehalose reduced immunosuppression. Increasing post-flight apoLpIII levels by injecting purified apoLpIII also reduced flight-induced immunosuppression. These results show that competition between lipid transport and immune function for the same protein can produce transient immunosuppression after flight-or-fight behavior. Intertwined physiological systems can produce unexpected trade-offs.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. A. Adamo
- Department of Psychology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4J1,Canada
| | - J. L. Roberts
- Department of Psychology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4J1,Canada
| | - R. H. Easy
- Institute for Marine Biosciences, National Research Council of Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - N. W. Ross
- Institute for Marine Biosciences, National Research Council of Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, NS, Canada
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Wang C, Cao Y, Wang Z, Yin Y, Peng G, Li Z, Zhao H, Xia Y. Differentially-expressed glycoproteins in Locusta migratoria hemolymph infected with Metarhizium anisopliae. J Invertebr Pathol 2007; 96:230-6. [PMID: 17658547 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2007.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2007] [Revised: 05/21/2007] [Accepted: 05/21/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Glycoproteins play important roles in insect physiology. Infection with pathogen always results in the differential expression of some glycoproteins, which may be involved in host-pathogen interactions. In this report, differentially-expressed glycoproteins from the hemolymph of locusts infected with Metarhizium anisopliae were analyzed by two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE) and PDQuest software. The results showed that 13 spots were differentially expressed, of which nine spots were upregulated and four were downregulated. Using MS/MS with de novo sequencing and NCBI database searches, three upregulated proteins were identified as locust transferrin, apolipoprotein precursor, and hexameric storage protein 3. These proteins have been reported to be involved in the insect innate immune response to microbial challenge. Due to the limited available genome information and protein sequences of locusts, the possible functions of the other 10 differentially-expressed spots remain unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chutao Wang
- Genetic Engineering Research Center, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400030, PR China
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Kodrík D, Krishnan N, Habustová O. Is the titer of adipokinetic peptides in Leptinotarsa decemlineata fed on genetically modified potatoes increased by oxidative stress? Peptides 2007; 28:974-80. [PMID: 17353065 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2007.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2006] [Revised: 01/26/2007] [Accepted: 01/26/2007] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The level of adipokinetic hormones (AKHs) (Peram-CAH-I and II) in the corpora cardiaca and the hemolymph of Leptinotarsa decemlineata enormously increases in the adults fed on genetically modified potatoes containing either GNA lectin or Cry 3Aa toxin concomitant with increased oxidative stress in gut tissues. A similar enhancement of the AKH titer is achieved when the adults are injected with paraquat that evokes oxidative stress. On the other hand, an injection of exogenous AKH reduces oxidative stress biomarkers in the hemolymph by reducing protein carbonyls and enhancing reduced glutathione levels. These facts indicate that there is a feedback regulation between an oxidative stressor action and the level of AKH in the insect body, and that AKHs might be involved in the activation of an antioxidant protection mechanism. These results are to our knowledge, the first evidence for the involvement of AKHs in oxidative stress mitigation, in addition to a plethora of other roles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dalibor Kodrík
- Institute of Entomology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, Branisovská 31, Ceské Budejovice, Czech Republic.
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Adamo SA, Fidler TL, Forestell CA. Illness-induced anorexia and its possible function in the caterpillar, Manduca sexta. Brain Behav Immun 2007; 21:292-300. [PMID: 17126528 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2006.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2006] [Revised: 09/26/2006] [Accepted: 10/11/2006] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Although many animals exhibit illness-induced anorexia when immune-challenged, the adaptive significance of this behavior remains unclear. Injecting Manduca sexta larvae (caterpillars) with live bacteria (Serratia marcescens), heat-killed bacteria or bacterial lipopolysaccharides resulted in a decline in feeding, demonstrating illness-induced anorexia in this species. We used M. sexta to test four commonly suggested adaptive functions for illness-induced anorexia. (1) Food deprivation did not reduce the iron content of the hemolymph. (2) Immune-challenged M. sexta were not more likely to move to a different part of the plant. Therefore, the decline in feeding is unlikely to be an adaptive response allowing the animal to move away from a patch of contaminated food. (3) M. sexta force-fed S. marcescens bacteria were not more susceptible to a S. marcescens systemic infection than were M. sexta force-fed nutrient broth. (4) Force-feeding infected M. sexta during illness-induced anorexia did not increase mortality and short-term food deprivation did not enhance survival. However, force-feeding M. sexta with a high lipid diet (linseed oil and water) resulted in an increase in mortality when challenged with S. marcescens. Force-feeding sucrose or water did not reduce resistance. Force-feeding a high lipid diet into healthy animals did not reduce weight gain, suggesting that it was not toxic. We hypothesize that there is a conflict between lipid metabolism and immune function, although whether this conflict has played a role in the evolution of illness-induced anorexia remains unknown. The adaptive function of illness-induced anorexia requires further study in both vertebrates and invertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelley A Adamo
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada.
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Abstract
Interactions between immune systems, nervous systems, and behavior are well established in vertebrates. A comparative examination of these interactions in other animals will help us understand their evolution and present adaptive functions. Insects show immune-behavioral interactions similar to those seen in vertebrates, suggesting that many of them may have a highly conserved function. Activation of an immune response in insects results in illness-induced anorexia, behavioral fever, changes in reproductive behavior, and decreased learning ability in a broad range of species. Flight-or-fight behaviors result in a decline in disease resistance. In insects, illness-induced anorexia may enhance immunity. Stress-induced immunosuppression is probably due to physiological conflicts between the immune response and those of other physiological processes. Because insects occupy a wide range of ecological niches, they will be useful in examining how some immune-behavioral interactions are sculpted by an animal's behavioral ecology.
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Rahman MM, Ma G, Roberts HLS, Schmidt O. Cell-free immune reactions in insects. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2006; 52:754-62. [PMID: 16753175 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2006.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2006] [Revised: 04/04/2006] [Accepted: 04/04/2006] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Insects, like many other multicellular organisms, are able to recognise and inactivate potential pathogens and toxins in the absence of cells. Here we show that the recognition and inactivation of lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and bacteria is mediated by lipophorin particles, which are the lipid carrier in insects. In immune-induced insects sub-populations of lipophorin particles are associated with pattern recognition proteins and regulatory proteins that activate prophenoloxidase. Moreover, interactions with lectins result in the assembly of lipophorin particles into cage-like coagulation products, effectively protecting the surrounding tissues and cells from the potentially damaging effects of pathogens and phenoloxidase products. The existence of cell-free defence reactions implies that immune signals exist upstream of cell-bound receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Mahbubur Rahman
- Insect Molecular Biology, University of Adelaide, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia
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Kaufmann C, Brown MR. Adipokinetic hormones in the African malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae: identification and expression of genes for two peptides and a putative receptor. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2006; 36:466-81. [PMID: 16731343 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2006.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2005] [Revised: 03/02/2006] [Accepted: 03/10/2006] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Adipokinetic hormones (AKHs) are neuropeptides that mobilize stored fuels for flight in insects, and thus, may regulate flight by mosquitoes that transmit pathogens of human diseases. Our study of AKHs in the African malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae, identified and characterized the expression of genes encoding two AKHs, Anoga-AKH-I (pQLFTPAWa) and Anoga-AKH-II (pQVTFSRDWNAa), and a putative homolog for an AKH G-protein coupled receptor. Gene transcripts for both Anoga-AKHs and the AKH receptor were present in eggs, larvae, pupae, and adults of An. gambiae. In females, these transcripts were apparent in heads and thoraces for up to 72 h after blood or sugar feeding, as revealed by RT-PCR. With immunocytochemistry, a cluster of neurosecretory cells posterior to the corpus cardiacum and specific cells in the brain and thoracic ganglia of females were immunostained with an AKH antibody, which recognizes both Anoga-AKHs. Accordingly, Anoga-AKH-I was detected in extracts of female heads and thoraces by HPLC and an AKH radioimmunoassay, whereas Anoga-AKH-II was detected only in heads.
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Goldsworthy GJ, Opoku-Ware K, Mullen LM. Adipokinetic Hormone and the Immune Responses of Locusts to Infection. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006; 1040:106-13. [PMID: 15891013 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1327.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Injections of Bacillus, or of blastospores from the entomopathogenic fungus, Metarhizium anisopliae, activate the prophenoloxidase (PPO) cascade, and coinjection of adipokinetic hormone-I (AKH) enhances and prolongs these responses. When injected concurrently with an immunizing dose of live bacteria, AKH suppresses the appearance of antimicrobial activity and, after a short delay, increases the growth of bacteria within the hemocoel. Injections of live Escherichia coli or Pseudomonas aeruginosa into locusts fail to activate PPO in the hemolymph, even when coinjected with AKH. The coinjection of bacteria and hormone is rarely lethal to the locust. However, if locusts are injected with AKH when they are infected with Metarhizium, they die more rapidly than if no AKH is administered.
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Affiliation(s)
- G J Goldsworthy
- Department of Biology, Birkbeck College, University of London, UK.
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