Soy isoflavones ( Glycine max ) ameliorate hypertriglyceridemia and hepatic steatosis in high fat-fed ovariectomized Wistar rats (an experimental model of postmenopausal obesity)

Exercise-Induced cytokines, diet, and inflammation and their role in adipose tissue metabolism

BACKGROUND

Obesity poses a significant global health challenge, necessitating effective prevention and treatment strategies. Exercise and diet are recognized as pivotal interventions in combating obesity. This study reviews the literature concerning the impact of exercise-induced cytokines, dietary factors, and inflammation on adipose tissue metabolism, shedding light on potential pathways for therapeutic intervention.

METHODOLOGY

A comprehensive review of relevant literature was conducted to elucidate the role of exercise-induced cytokines, including interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-15 (IL-15), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), irisin, myostatin, fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21), follistatin (FST), and angiopoietin-like 4 (ANGPTL4), in adipose tissue metabolism. Various databases were systematically searched using predefined search terms to identify relevant studies. Articles selected for inclusion underwent thorough analysis to extract pertinent data on the mechanisms underlying the influence of these cytokines on adipose tissue metabolism.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Exercise-induced cytokines exert profound effects on adipose tissue metabolism, influencing energy expenditure (EE), thermogenesis, fat loss, and adipogenesis. For instance, IL-6 activates AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), promoting fatty acid oxidation and reducing lipogenesis. IL-15 upregulates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta (PPARδ), stimulating fatty acid catabolism and suppressing lipogenesis. BDNF enhances AMPK-dependent fat oxidation, while irisin induces the browning of white adipose tissue (WAT), augmenting thermogenesis. Moreover, myostatin, FGF21, FST, and ANGPTL4 each play distinct roles in modulating adipose tissue metabolism, impacting factors such as fatty acid oxidation, adipogenesis, and lipid uptake. The elucidation of these pathways offers valuable insights into the complex interplay between exercise, cytokines, and adipose tissue metabolism, thereby informing the development of targeted obesity management strategies.

CONCLUSION

Understanding the mechanisms by which exercise-induced cytokines regulate adipose tissue metabolism is critical for devising effective obesity prevention and treatment modalities. Harnessing the therapeutic potential of exercise-induced cytokines, in conjunction with dietary interventions, holds promise for mitigating the global burden of obesity. Further research is warranted to delineate the precise mechanisms underlying the interactions between exercise, cytokines, and adipose tissue metabolism.

The effect of soy isoflavones on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and the level of fibroblast growth factor-21 and fetuin A

A two-arm randomized open labeled controlled clinical trial was conducted on 50 patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Subjects were randomized to either receive two tablets of soy isoflavone (100 mg/day) or placebo. At week 12, the serum levels of alanine amino transferase (ALT), aspartate amino transferase (AST) and controlled attenuation parameter (CAP) score were significantly decreased only in the soy isoflavone group (P < 0.05). A significant decline in the gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT) level was observed only in the placebo group (P = 0.017). A significant increase in the serum level of fetuin A was shown in both groups at the end of the trial with a significantly greater increment in the soy isoflavone group compared to the placebo group (P < 0.05). The changes in the serum level of FGF-21 were not significant in any of the two groups. Steatosis grade significantly improved only in the soy isoflavone group (P = 0.045). There was no significant change in the fibrosis grade in the groups. Soy isoflavone intake led to a decrease in ALT, AST, CAP score, steatosis grade and an increase in the level of fetuin A. However, no significant changes were observed in the fibrosis grade and serum levels of GGT and FGF-21.

Vitamin D inhibits tamoxifen-induced non-alcoholic fatty liver disease through a nonclassical estrogen receptor/liver X receptor pathway

Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) is one of the common side effects of tamoxifen treatment for estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer, and is representative of disorders of energy metabolism. Fatty liver is induced after tamoxifen (TAM) inhibition of estrogen receptor activity, but the exact mechanism is not clear. This study investigated the effects and mechanisms of TAM-induced steatosis in the liver. The effects and mechanisms of TAM on hepatocyte lipid metabolism were assessed using C57BL/6 female mice and human hepatoma cells. TAM promoted fat accumulation in the liver by upregulation of Srebp-1c expression. Regarding the molecular mechanism, TAM promoted the recruitment of the auxiliary transcriptional activator, p300, and dissociated the auxiliary transcriptional repressor, nuclear receptor corepressor (NCOR), of the complexes, which led to enhancement of Srebp-1c transcription and an increase of triglyceride (TG) synthesis. Vitamin D (VD), a common fat-soluble vitamin, can decrease TAM-induced NAFLD by promoting p300 dissociation and NCOR recruitment. Tamoxifen promoted the recruitment and dissociation of co-transcription factors on the LXR/ER/RXR receptor complex, leading to a disorder of liver lipid metabolism. VD interfered with TAM-induced liver lipid metabolism disorders by reversing this process.

Protective effect of phytoestrogens on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in postmenopausal women

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a progressive metabolic disease characterized by hepatic steatosis, inflammation, and fibrosis that seriously endangers global public health. Epidemiological studies have shown that the incidence of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in postmenopausal women has significantly increased. Studies have shown that estrogen deficiency is the main reason for this situation, and supplementing estrogen has become a new direction for preventing the occurrence of postmenopausal fatty liver. However, although classical estrogen replacement therapy can reduce the incidence of postmenopausal NAFLD, it has the risk of increasing stroke and cardiovascular diseases, so it is not suitable for the treatment of postmenopausal NAFLD. More and more recent studies have provided evidence that phytoestrogens are a promising method for the treatment of postmenopausal NAFLD. However, the mechanism of phytoestrogens in preventing and treating postmenopausal NAFLD is still unclear. This paper summarizes the clinical and basic research evidence of phytoestrogens and reviews the potential therapeutic effects of phytoestrogens in postmenopausal NAFLD from six angles: enhancing lipid metabolism in liver and adipose tissue, enhancing glucose metabolism, reducing oxidative stress, reducing the inflammatory response, regulating intestinal flora, and blocking liver fibrosis (Graphical Abstract).

The Role of Choline, Soy Isoflavones, and Probiotics as Adjuvant Treatments in the Prevention and Management of NAFLD in Postmenopausal Women

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a prevalent condition among postmenopausal women that can lead to severe liver dysfunction and increased mortality. In recent years, research has focused on identifying potential lifestyle dietary interventions that may prevent or treat NAFLD in this population. Due to the complex and multifactorial nature of NAFLD in postmenopausal women, the disease can present as different subtypes, with varying levels of clinical presentation and variable treatment responses. By recognizing the significant heterogeneity of NAFLD in postmenopausal women, it may be possible to identify specific subsets of individuals who may benefit from targeted nutritional interventions. The purpose of this review was to examine the current evidence supporting the role of three specific nutritional factors-choline, soy isoflavones, and probiotics-as potential nutritional adjuvants in the prevention and treatment of NAFLD in postmenopausal women. There is promising evidence supporting the potential benefits of these nutritional factors for NAFLD prevention and treatment, particularly in postmenopausal women, and further research is warranted to confirm their effectiveness in alleviating hepatic steatosis in this population.

Dietary Soy Isoflavones Prevent Metabolic Disturbs Associated with a Deleterious Combination of Obesity and Menopause

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of soy isoflavone supplementation (25 mg/kg) on insulin resistance and inflammation in adipose tissue in an experimental model of menopause-obesity. Twenty-four female Wistar rats were ovariectomized (O) and distributed among the groups: OSD-ovariectomized rats submitted to normocaloric standard diet (n = 6); OHF-ovariectomized rats submitted to high-fat diet (n = 9); and OHFI-ovariectomized rats submitted to high-fat diet with isoflavones (n = 9). Weight gain, body adiposity, food and caloric intake, blood pressure, and glucose tolerance were assessed. After 24 weeks, the rats were euthanized; the thoracic blood collected for serum insulin determination and the homeostatic model assessment-insulin resistance) (HOMA-IR) and homeostatic model assessment-β cell (HOMA-β) indices were calculated. Abdominal adipose tissues were removed, weighed, and fixed for immunohistochemical and morphometric studies. Isoflavones decreased weight gain and blood pressure without changing the food and caloric intake (P < .05). Isoflavones did not affect the weight of the abdominal adipose tissue depots (P < .05). Although they did not alter glucose tolerance, the isoflavones reduced HOMA-IR and HOMA-β, serum insulin levels, in addition to reducing adipocytes' size (P < .05). The number of macrophages, lymphocytes, and crown-like structures in adipose tissue was lower in the group treated with isoflavones (P < .05). In conclusion, our data show that dietary soy isoflavones' supplementation prevents many of well-known deleterious combination of obesity and menopause on metabolism, such as body overweight, adipocyte hypertrophy, and hypertension, as well as insulin resistance and adipose tissue inflammation.

Irisin improves adiposity and exercise tolerance in a rat model of postmenopausal obesity through enhancing adipo-myocyte thermogenesis

The prevalence of obesity and its associated metabolic disorders, along with their healthcare costs, is rising exponentially. Irisin, an adipomyokine, may serve as a critical cross-organ messenger, linking skeletal muscle with adipose tissue and the liver to integrate the energy homeostasis under diet-induced obesity. We aimed to explore the putative role of irisin in the protection against obesity in a postmenopausal rat model by modulating energy expenditure (EE). Bilateral ovariectomy (OVX) was performed. After 3 weeks of recovery, the OVX rats were classified according to their dietary protocol into rats maintained on normal diets (ND) (OVX) or high-fat diet (HFD) groups. The HFD-fed animals were equally divided into OVX/HFD, or irisin-treated OVX/HFD groups. Sham rats, maintained on ND, were selected as the control group. We evaluated anthropometric, EE, and molecular biomarkers of browning and thermogenesis in inguinal white adipose tissue and skeletal muscle, and the activity of the proteins related to mitochondrial long chain fatty acid transport, oxidation, and glycolysis. HFD of OVX further deteriorated the disturbed glucose homeostasis, lipid profile, and the reduced irisin, thermogenic parameters in adipose tissue and skeletal muscle, and EE. Irisin treatment improved the lipid profile and insulin resistance. That was associated with reduced hepatic gluconeogenic enzyme activities and restored hepatic glycogen content. Irisin reduced ectopic lipid infiltration. Irisin augmented EE by activating non-shivering thermogenesis in muscle and adipose tissues and decreasing metabolic efficiency. Our experimental evidence suggests irisin's use as a potential thermogenic agent, therapeutically targeting obesity in postmenopausal patients. Irisin modulates the non-shivering thermogenesis in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue in postmenopausal model.

Hypolipidemic Effects of Soy Protein and Isoflavones in the Prevention of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease- A Review

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most common chronic liver disease and affects about 25% of the population globally. Obesity and diabetes are the main causes of the disease characterized by excessive accumulation of lipids in the liver. There is currently no direct pharmacological treatments for NAFLD. Dietary intervention and lifestyle modification are the key strategies in the prevention and treatment of the disease. Soy consumption is associated with many health benefits such as decreased incidence of coronary heart disease, type-2 diabetes, atherosclerosis and obesity. The hypolipidemic functions of soy components have been shown in both animal studies and human clinical trials. Dietary soy proteins and associated isoflavones suppressed the formation and accumulation of lipid droplets in the liver and improved NAFLD-associated metabolic syndrome. The molecular mechanism(s) underlying the effects of soy components are mainly through modulation of transcription factors, sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1 and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ2, and expressions of their target genes involved in lipogenesis and lipolysis as well as lipid droplet-promoting protein, fat-specific protein-27. Inclusion of appropriate amounts of soy protein and isoflavones in the diets might be a useful approach to decrease the prevalence of NAFLD and mitigate disease burden.

The G-Protein-Coupled Estrogen Receptor Agonist Prevents Cardiac Lipid Accumulation by Stimulating Cardiac Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor α: A Preclinical Study in Ovariectomized-Diabetic Rat Model

BACKGROUND

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is associated with cardiometabolic changes, and menopause exacerbates these conditions, leading to a greater risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). The G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER), which mediates the rapid effects of estrogen, has beneficial cardiac effects in both T2DM and menopause, but its mechanism of action is not well understood.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to determine whether G1 as a selective GPER-agonist has beneficial effects on cardiac lipid metabolism in ovariectomized rats with T2DM.

METHODS

Female Wistar rats were divided into 5 groups (n = 7 in each group): Sham-control (Sh-Ctl), T2DM, ovariectomized-T2DM (OVX-T2DM), OVX-T2DM-G1 (GPER-agonist), and OVX-T2DM-vehicle (OVX-T2DM-Veh). After stabilization of T2DM, G1 (200 μg/Kg) was administrated for 6 weeks. Then, the levels of free fatty acids (FFAs), CD36, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα), and lipid accumulation in the cardiac tissue were determined.

RESULTS

Compared with the Sh-Ctl group, cardiac FFAs (P < 0.001), CD36 (P < 0.05), and lipid accumulation (P < 0.001) increased, and cardiac PPARα (P < 0.01) decreased in T2DM animals; ovariectomy intensified these changes. Also, cardiac FFAs, PPARα, and lipid accumulation (P < 0.05) significantly decreased in the OVX-T2DM-G1 group compared to the OVX-T2DM-Veh group. However, cardiac CD36 levels did not change.

CONCLUSIONS

G1 as a selective GPER-agonist affects lipid metabolism in T2DM animals. It also plays a vital role in improving cardiac metabolism during postmenopausal diabetic conditions.

Xiaoyao San attenuates hepatic steatosis through estrogen receptor α pathway in ovariectomized ApoE-/- mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Xiaoyao San (XYS) is a famous prescription in traditional Chinese medicine, which is used in the treatment of "liver depression and spleen deficiency" syndrome. It is often used clinically to treat chronic hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, various symptoms of postmenopausal women, especially mental disorders and digestive system diseases. However, the effect of XYS on hepatic steatosis in postmenopausal women remains unclear. In this research, we investigated the effects of XYS on hepatic steatosis in ovariectomized (OVX) apolipoprotein E knockout (ApoE-/-) mice, as well as the molecular mechanisms in vitro and in vivo.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fifty female ApoE-/- mice were divided into 5 groups: control group (Sham), model group (OVX), OVX + β-estradiol (E2, 0.4 mg/kg) group, OVX + XYS (13.0 g/kg) group, and OVX + XYS (6.5 g/kg) group. The control group received a standard diet, while the other groups received a high-fat diet (HFD). The hepatic pathologies of the mice were examined with Oil red O staining and HE staining after 12 week treatment. Blood and liver variables were determined enzymatically. Transmission electron microscopy was used to examine the ultrastructure of hepatocytes. The expression of estrogen receptor α (ERα) and lipid metabolism genes was analyzed by real-time PCR and/or Western blot. In in vitro studies, we investigated the effect of XYS-medicated serum on the expression and activity of ERα in L02 cells by immunofluorescence and luciferase reporter assays, and examined the protection of XYS-medicated serum against free fatty acid (FFA)-induced steatosis of L02 cells. Intracellular lipid accumulation were measured by Oil red O staining and Nile red staining assay. Finally, the influence of ICI 182,780, a specific antagonist of ERα, on the protective effect of XYS-medicated serum on FFA-induced steatosis of L02 cells was investigated.

RESULTS

Treatment of Ovx/ApoE-/- mice with XYS significantly decreased HFD-induced increases in hepatic steatosis and triglyceride (TG) content, accompanied by inhibition of liver X receptor α (LXRα), sterol regulatory element binding protein (SREBP)-1c and its target lipogenic genes transcription. Similarly, XYS-medicated serum reduced the size and number of lipid droplets and the cellular TG content in FFA-induced L02 cells. In addition, XYS significantly increased the ERα expression in hepatocytes in vivo and in vitro and enhanced the transcriptional activity of ERα promoter in L02 cells. And these effects could be partly reversed by the antiestrogen ICI 182,780.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that XYS has an estrogen-like effect and inhibits steatosis in postmenopausal animal models by reducing the expression of genes related to TG synthesis through ERα pathway.

Dietary syringic acid reduces fat mass in an ovariectomy-induced mouse model of obesity

OBJECTIVE

Postmenopausal women are at increased risk of metabolic diseases such as obesity and diabetes. Therefore, the chemoprevention of postmenopausal changes in health via dietary supplements is important. Syringic acid (SA) is a phenolic compound present in the fruit of the assai palm, Euterpe oleracea, and in the mycelium of the shiitake mushroom, Lentinula edodes. This compound shows no affinity for estrogen receptors and may exert disease-preventive effects. Reportedly, dietary SA ameliorates high-fat diet-induced obesity in mice; however, its effects on estrogen deficiency-induced obesity are still unclear. Therefore, in this study, we investigated whether and how dietary SA affects these factors in ovariectomized (OVX) mice.

METHODS

Ten-week-old OVX mice were fed SA-containing diets (100 mg/kg body weight/d) for 12 weeks. Their body weights, food intake, and uterus weights as well as other parameters were measured and comparisons were made with mice in the control group.

RESULTS

Dietary SA did not affect the body weight, food intake, or uterus weight of OVX mice over the study period; however, the SA-fed group showed lower fat mass (ie, visceral, subcutaneous, and total fat) than the OVX-control group (11.1 ± 3.3 vs. 8.3 ± 2.4, P < 0.05; 7.9 ± 1.1 vs. 5.9 ± 1.6, P < 0.05; 19.0 ± 4.2 vs. 14.1 ± 3.8, P < 0.05, respectively). Furthermore, blood analysis revealed that SA-treatment resulted in a dose-dependent decrease and increase in serum triglyceride (59.2 ± 8.3 vs. 43.9 ± 12.2 mg/dL P < 0.05) and adiponectin (7.7 ± 0.3 vs. 9.5 ± 0.6 μg/mL, P < 0.05) levels, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that the SA diet improves lipid metabolism without affecting the uterus in OVX mice. Therefore, dietary SA has potential applicability for the prevention of postmenopausal obesity and type 2 diabetes.

Ameliorative Effects of Pueraria lobata Extract on Postmenopausal Symptoms through Promoting Estrogenic Activity and Bone Markers in Ovariectomized Rats

Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi, known as kudzu, is one of the most popular traditional medicines in Asian countries. It has been widely used as a natural alternative to hormone replacement therapy for treating postmenopausal symptoms. This study aimed to investigate the estrogenic effect of P. lobata extract (PE) against postmenopausal osteoporosis in ovariectomized (OVX) rats. OVX rats were treated with PE (25–1600 mg/kg) for 8 weeks. Biochemical parameters, estradiol, and bone turnover markers (e.g., osteocalcin, C-terminal telopeptide fragment of type I collagen, deoxypyridinoline, and pyridinoline) were measured in plasma samples. In addition, estrogen receptor-alpha (ER-α) protein expression and morphology of uterine were evaluated. Long-term treatment with PE did not cause liver damage in OVX rats. PE supplementation reduced body weight gain in obese rats with high lipid accumulation induced by ovariectomy. Furthermore, PE exhibited a protective effect against insulin resistance, hyperlipidemia, and hepatic lipid peroxidation. PE treatment increased uterine weight and thickness of the uterine layers in cases of uterus atrophy due to removal of ovaries. The levels of bone turnover markers, which were significantly increased in OVX rats, were decreased by PE treatment. Western blotting analysis showed that ER-α protein expression was upregulated in PE-treated rats compared with OVX rats. These results suggest that PE could be a promising alternative functional food for improving menopausal symptoms.

Atherogenic Risk Factors among Young Indian Adults with Epilepsy on Treatment with Phenytoin: Need for Novel Therapeutic Strategies

Background

Risk for the development of coronary heart disease and diabetes is found to be more among people with epilepsy especially when on treatment. Redox imbalance contributes to this risk especially in India as it is the diabetic capital of the world with higher prevalence of inflammation.

Objectives

The aim of this study was to evaluate atherogenic risk factors; dyslipidemia, oxidative stress, and systemic inflammation among young Indian adults with epilepsy on treatment with Phenytoin.

Material and Methods

Three groups of age and gender-matched young subjects were recruited. Group 1-Healthy control subjects, Group 2- Newly diagnosed epileptic young adults with recent epileptic seizures, Group 3- Epileptic adults on treatment with Phenytoin for more than 6 months were recruited.

Results

Dyslipidemia was found among the newly diagnosed epileptic subjects in comparison to healthy subjects. The LDL-cholesterol further increased, and HDL-cholesterol further decreased in the third group treated with Phenytoin. Body mass index of these treated epileptic subjects was more in comparison to healthy control. Low-grade inflammation as assessed by hsCRP and oxidative stress were significantly higher among the newly diagnosed epileptic subjects when compared to the healthy controls which further increased on treatment with phenytoin. We found dyslipidemia, oxidative stress, and low-grade inflammation among newly diagnosed epileptic subjects which further increased on treatment with Phenytoin for more than 6 months.

Conclusion

From this study, we conclude that dyslipidemia, oxidative stress and low-grade inflammation are identified among the newly diagnosed young adult Indian epileptic patients. Phenytoin treatment further augmented these complications.

Isoflavone-enriched soybean leaves attenuate ovariectomy-induced osteoporosis in rats by anti-inflammatory activity

BACKGROUND

With an increasing aging population, postmenopausal osteoporosis has become a global public health problem. Previous evidence has shown that postmenopausal osteoporosis is a skeletal disease mainly caused by estrogen deficiency, generally accompanied by inflammation, and dietary isoflavones may ameliorate postmenopausal osteoporosis by anti-inflammatory activity. We have generated isoflavone-enriched soybean leaves (IESLs), but their anti-inflammatory activity and effect on attenuating osteoporosis are still obscure. Here, we determined the isoflavone profiles of IESLs and evaluated their anti-inflammatory activity in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells and anti-osteoporotic effects on ovariectomy-induced osteoporosis in rats.

RESULTS

IESLs had a high content of total isoflavone. Hydrolysate of IESLs (HIESLs) was rich with the aglycones daidzein and genistein, and HIESLs can significantly inhibit lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation by reducing messenger RNA expression of iNOS, COX-2, IL6, and IL1β. Moreover, ovariectomized rats receiving aqueous extracts of IESLs (HIESLs) orally maintained more bone mass than control rats did, which was attributed to inhibition of osteoclastogenesis by downregulating the messenger RNA expression of the bone-specific genes RANKL/OPG, OC, and cathepsin K, and the inflammation-related genes IL6, NFκB, and COX-2.

CONCLUSION

IESLs may attenuate postmenopausal osteoporosis by suppressing osteoclastogenesis with anti-inflammatory activity and be a potential source of functional food ingredients for the prevention of osteoporosis. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Germinated Soybean Embryo Extract Ameliorates Fatty Liver Injury in High-Fat Diet-Fed Obese Mice

Soybean is known to have diverse beneficial effects against human diseases, including obesity and its related metabolic disorders. Germinated soybean embryos are enriched with bioactive phytochemicals and known to inhibit diet-induced obesity in mice, but their effect on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) remains unknown. Here, we germinated soybean embryos for 24 h, and their ethanolic extract (GSEE, 15 and 45 mg/kg) was administered daily to mice fed with a high-fat diet (HFD) for 10 weeks. HFD significantly increased the weight of the body, liver and adipose tissue, as well as serum lipid markers, but soyasaponin Ab-rich GSEE alleviated these changes. Hepatic injury and triglyceride accumulation in HFD-fed mice were attenuated by GSEE via decreased lipid synthesis (SREBP1c) and increased fatty acid oxidation (p-AMPKα, PPARα, PGC1α, and ACOX) and lipid export (MTTP and ApoB). HFD-induced inflammation (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, CD14, F4/80, iNOS, and COX2) was normalized by GSEE in mice livers. In adipose tissue, GSEE downregulated white adipose tissue (WAT) differentiation and lipogenesis (PPARγ, C/EBPα, and FAS) and induced browning genes (PGC1α, PRDM16, CIDEA, and UCP1), which could also beneficially affect the liver via lowering adipose tissue-related circulating lipid levels. Thus, our results suggest that GSEE can prevent HFD-induced NAFLD via inhibition of hepatic inflammation and restoration of lipid metabolisms in both liver and adipose tissue.

Ovariectomized rodents as a menopausal metabolic syndrome model. A minireview

Bilateral ovariectomy is the best characterized and the most reported animal model of human menopause. Ovariectomized rodents develop insulin resistance (IR) and visceral obesity, the main risk factors in the pathophysiology of metabolic syndrome (MS). These alterations are a consequence of hypoestrogenic status, which produces an augment of visceral fat, high testosterone levels (hyperandrogenism), as well as inflammation, oxidative stress, and metabolic complications, such as dyslipidemia, hepatic steatosis, and endothelial dysfunction, among others. Clinical trials have reported that menopause per se increases the severity and incidence of MS, and causes the highest mortality due to cardiovascular disease in women. Despite all the evidence, there are no reports that clarify the influence of estrogenic deficiency as a cause of MS. In this review, we provide evidence that ovariectomized rodents can be used as a menopausal metabolic syndrome model for evaluating and discovering new, safe, and effective therapeutic approaches in the treatment of cardiometabolic complications associated to MS during menopause.

Standardized rice bran extract improves hepatic steatosis in HepG2 cells and ovariectomized rats

BACKGROUD/OBJECTIVES

Hepatic steatosis is the most common liver disorder, particularly in postmenopausal women. This study investigated the protective effects of standardized rice bran extract (RBS) on ovariectomized (OVX)-induced hepatic steatosis in rats.

MATERIALS/METHODS

HepG2 cells were incubated with 200 µM oleic acid to induce lipid accumulation with or without RBS and γ-oryzanol. OVX rats were separated into three groups and fed a normal diet (ND) or the ND containing 17β-estradiol (E2; 10 µg/kg) and RBS (500 mg/kg) for 16 weeks.

RESULTS

RBS supplementation improved serum triglyceride and free fatty acid levels in OVX rats. Histological analysis showed that RBS significantly attenuated hepatic fat accumulation and decreased hepatic lipid, total cholesterol, and triglyceride levels. Additionally, RBS suppressed the estrogen deficiency-induced upregulation of lipogenic genes, such as sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP1), acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1, fatty acid synthase, glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase, and stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1.

CONCLUSIONS

RBS and γ-oryzanol effectively reduced lipid accumulation in a HepG2 cell hepatic steatosis model. RBS improves OVX-induced hepatic steatosis by regulating the SREBP1-mediated activation of lipogenic genes, suggesting the benefits of RBS in preventing fatty liver in postmenopausal women.

Menopause and Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: A Review Focusing on Therapeutic Perspectives

There is increasing evidence that menopause is associated with the progression and severity of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Estrogen deficiency worsens non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) in mice models with fatty liver. The prevalence of NAFLD seems to be higher in postmenopausal compared with premenopausal women. Although more data are needed, lower serum estradiol levels are associated with NASH in postmenopausal women. Apart from estrogen deficiency, relative androgen excess and decrease in sex hormone-binding protein are observed in postmenopausal women. These hormonal changes seem to interplay with an increase in abdominal adipose mass, also observed in postmenopausal women, and aging, which are both closely related to the severity and progressive forms of NAFLD. NAFLD adds extra morbidity to postmenopausal women, possibly increasing the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease. Improving parameters of the metabolic syndrome via modifications in diet and physical exercise may reduce the risk of NAFLD and its related morbidity. Limited studies have shown a beneficial effect of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) on NAFLD, although adverse hepatic effects have been attributed to progesterone in one study. Phytoestrogens may be alternatives to HRT, but their long-term efficacy and safety remain to be shown. The aim of this review was to summarize evidence linking menopause with NAFLD with a special focus on potential therapeutic perspectives.

Phytoestrogens and NAFLD: Possible Mechanisms of Action

Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) includes a variety of changes including nonalcoholic fatty liver, cirrhosis and Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC), which are associated with metabolic disorders and cardiovascular diseases. The pathogenesis of NAFLD is complex and multifactorial. Many studies have shown that estrogen has a protective effect on premenopausal women with metabolic disorders and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Estrogen supplements may, at least in theory, prevent the development and progression of NAFLD. Phytoestrogen is extracted from plants, especially legumes, whose molecular structure and biological activity are similar to those of mammals estrogen, therefore it could replace the role of estrogen and prevent the occurrence of adverse reactions to estrogen. In this article, we review the published literature related to phytoestrogens and NAFLD as well as suggest the possible mechanisms that may underlie the association between phytoestrogens and NAFLD.

WITHDRAWN: Soy isoflavones (from Glycine max) preserves hepatocellular free radical defense system potential and ameliorates inflammatory response in high fat fed ovariectomised Wistar rats: The molecular mechanisms

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Estrogen-mediated gut microbiome alterations influence sexual dimorphism in metabolic syndrome in mice

BACKGROUND

Understanding the mechanism of the sexual dimorphism in susceptibility to obesity and metabolic syndrome (MS) is important for the development of effective interventions for MS.

RESULTS

Here we show that gut microbiome mediates the preventive effect of estrogen (17β-estradiol) on metabolic endotoxemia (ME) and low-grade chronic inflammation (LGCI), the underlying causes of MS and chronic diseases. The characteristic profiles of gut microbiome observed in female and 17β-estradiol-treated male and ovariectomized mice, such as decreased Proteobacteria and lipopolysaccharide biosynthesis, were associated with a lower susceptibility to ME, LGCI, and MS in these animals. Interestingly, fecal microbiota-transplant from male mice transferred the MS phenotype to female mice, while antibiotic treatment eliminated the sexual dimorphism in MS, suggesting a causative role of the gut microbiome in this condition. Moreover, estrogenic compounds such as isoflavones exerted microbiome-modulating effects similar to those of 17β-estradiol and reversed symptoms of MS in the male mice. Finally, both expression and activity of intestinal alkaline phosphatase (IAP), a gut microbiota-modifying non-classical anti-microbial peptide, were upregulated by 17β-estradiol and isoflavones, whereas inhibition of IAP induced ME and LGCI in female mice, indicating a critical role of IAP in mediating the effects of estrogen on these parameters.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, we have identified a previously uncharacterized microbiome-based mechanism that sheds light upon sexual dimorphism in the incidence of MS and that suggests novel therapeutic targets and strategies for the management of obesity and MS in males and postmenopausal women.

Salvianolic acids improve liver lipid metabolism in ovariectomized rats via blocking STAT-3/SREBP1 signaling

Postmenopausal women, who have reduced circulating estrogen levels, are more prone to develop obesity and related metabolic diseases than premenopausal women. The absence of safe and effective treatments for postmenopausal obesity has changed the focus to natural products as alternative remedies. Total salvianolic acids (TSA) are the major water-soluble ingredients of Danshen. Salvianolic acid (SA) is the major constituent of the TSA. Salvianolic acids, including TSA and SA, are widely used in traditional Chinese medicine. In the present study, ovariectomized rats and LO2 cells were used to study the effects of salvianolic acids on body weight gain and hepatic steatosis. Salvianolic acids reduced ovariectomy (OVX)-induced body weight gain, attenuated the expressions of hepatic lipogenic genes, such as sterol regulatory element binding protein (SREBP)1, fatty acid synthase (FAS), and stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD)1, and decreased the liver triglyceride (TG) and total cholesterol (TC). For the molecular mechanisms, OVX and high glucose-induced phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)-3 was inhibited by salvianolic acids treatment. In LO2 cells, inhibition of STAT-3 by siRNA attenuated the increased expression of SREBP1 and TG induced by high glucose. Salvianolic acids reduced the upregulation of SREBP1 and TG induced by high glucose in LO2 cells. In conclusion, these findings illustrated that salvianolic acids markedly alleviated the lipid metabolism disorders and protected against the postmenopausal obesity. The underlying mechanism was probably associated with the regulation of STAT-3 signaling.

Blocking of STAT-3/SREBP1-mediated glucose-lipid metabolism is involved in dietary phytoestrogen-inhibited ovariectomized-induced body weight gain in rats

Postmenopausal women have a decline in circulating estrogen levels and are more prone to obesity and its related metabolic diseases than premenopausal women are. The absence of safe and effective conventional treatments for postmenopausal obesity has changed the focus to natural products as alternative remedies. Here, ovariectomized rats and LO2 cells were used to study the molecular basis of the effect of dietary phytoestrogens on body weight gain and hepatic steatosis. Dietary phytoestrogens can inhibit ovariectomy (OVX)-induced body weight gain, blood glucose concentration, expression of hepatic lipogenic genes, such as sterol regulatory element binding protein (SREBP)1, acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC)1, fatty acid synthase (FAS), and stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD)1, and decrease liver triglyceride (TG) content, but later estradiol withdrawal increased expression of SREBP1. Histological analysis of liver showed that dietary phytoestrogens improved OVX-induced morphological abnormalities. OVX and high glucose-induced phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)-3 were inhibited by phytoestrogens treatment. In LO2 cells, inhibition of STAT-3 by siRNA attenuated the increased TG content and expression of SREBP1 induced by high glucose. Phytoestrogens reduced the upregulation of SREBP1 and TG induced by high glucose in LO2 cells. In conclusion, these findings illustrated that dietary phytoestrogens markedly alleviated the derangement of lipid metabolism. The underlying mechanism is probably associated with regulating STAT-3/SREBP1 signaling.

Comparing isolated soy protein with flaxseed oil vs isolated soy protein with corn oil and wheat flour with corn oil consumption on muscle catabolism, liver function, blood lipid, and sugar in burn patients: a randomized clinical trial

BACKGROUND

There is controversy regarding whether increasing isolated soy protein (ISP) with or without flaxseed oil (FO), as functional foods, would lead to reduce muscle catabolism and cachexia in burn patients.

METHODS

One hundred and eighty-eight patients were assessed for eligibility in this randomized controlled trial. Of these, seventy-three eligible patients (total burn surface area 20-50%) were randomly assigned to three groups, labeled as Control (wheat flour [WF] + corn oil [CO]), ISP + FO, and ISP + CO, to receive these nutrients for three weeks. Weight, body mass index (BMI), serum hepatic enzymes (alanine transaminase [ALT], aspartate transaminase [AST], alkaline phosphatase [ALP]), systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS), 24-h urinary urea nitrogen excretion (UUN), serum creatinine, 24-h urinary creatinine (UUC) excretion, fasting blood sugar (FBS), triglyceride (TG), and cholesterol were measured.

RESULTS

Using analysis of covariance models in the intention-to-treat population (n = 73), we found that at three weeks, patients in the ISP groups had lost significantly less in weight and BMI compared to those in the control group (all P < 0.01). Nitrogen retention and serum creatinine (primary outcomes) increased significantly in the ISP groups compared with the control group. Even after controlling for potential covariates in ANCOVA models, changes in these indices were still statistically significant (P = 0.008 and P = 0.005 for nitrogen balance and serum creatinine, respectively). However, no such significant differences were found between the ISP groups. On the other hand, 24-h UUN, and UUC excretion, serum hepatic enzymes, FBS, TG, and cholesterol were not significant between the groups (P > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

ISP and FO compared to WF and CO reduced muscle catabolism and increased body weight in burn patients.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials, IRCT2014051817740N1 . Registered on 27 June 2014.

Honokiol Improves Liver Steatosis in Ovariectomized Mice

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most common liver disease, and is associated with the development of metabolic syndrome. Postmenopausal women with estrogen deficiency are at a higher risk of progression to NAFLD. Estrogen has a protective effect against the progression of the disease. Currently, there are no safe and effective treatments for these liver diseases in postmenopausal women. Honokiol (Ho), a bioactive natural product derived from Magnolia spp, has anti-inflammatory, anti-angiogenic, and anti-oxidative properties. In our study, we investigated the beneficial effects of Ho on NAFLD in ovariectomized (OVX) mice. We divided the mice into four groups, as follows: SHAM, OVX, OVX+β-estradiol (0.4 mg/kg of bodyweight), and OVX+Ho (50 mg/kg of diet). Mice were fed diets with/without Ho for 12 weeks. The bodyweight, epidermal fat, and weights of liver tissue were lower in the OVX group than in the other groups. Ho improved hepatic steatosis and reduced proinflammatory cytokine levels. Moreover, Ho markedly downregulated plasma lipid levels. Our results indicate that Ho ameliorated OVX-induced fatty liver and inflammation, as well as associated lipid metabolism. These findings suggest that Ho may be hepatoprotective against NAFLD in postmenopausal women.

Effects of soy isoflavone on hepatic steatosis in high fat-induced rats

Soy isoflavone has benefits for metabolic syndrome but the mechanism is not completely understood. This study was designed to determine the effects of soy isoflavone on hepatic fat accumulation in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) rats induced by high fat diet (HFD). Sprague-Dawley rats were administrated with a normal fat diet (control), HFD (NAFLD model), HFD with 10 or 20 mg/kg soy isoflavone daily for 12 weeks. Hepatic and serum lipid contents, liver histopathological examination, serum alanine transaminase (ALT), protein and mRNA expression of sterol regulatory element binding protein (SREBP)-1c, fatty acid synthase (FAS), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) α were assayed respectively. Our study found that soy isoflavone reduced HFD-induced lipid accumulation in liver, serum ALT and improved liver lobule structure. In addition, the expression of SREBP-1c and FAS was lower, whereas protein level of PPARα was higher in two soy isoflavone groups than that of the HFD group. Collectively, these results demonstrate that soy isoflavone is capable of alleviating hepatic steatosis and delaying the progression of NAFLD via inhibiting lipogenesis and promoting fatty acid oxidation in liver.

Genistein has beneficial effects on hepatic steatosis in high fat-high sucrose diet-treated rats

Genistein, a kind of phytoestrogen abundant in soybeans, is beneficial for alleviating non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), but the specific mechanism was not clearly understood. This study was designed to determine the effect of genistein on NAFLD and explore the possible mechanism. 36 male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into 4 groups: the control group, high fat-high sucrose diet (HFS) group, HFS with 4mg/kg body weight genistein, and HFS with 8mg/kg body weight genistein. 12 weeks later, serum and hepatic lipid profiles, liver histopathological examination were characterized. The protein levels of liver AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), phosphorylation of AMPK (p-AMPK), acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), phosphorylation of ACC (p-ACC) and sterol regulatory element binding protein 1 (SREBP-1) were determined by western blot. mRNA expressions of fatty acid synthase gene (FAS) and glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase (GPAT), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα), carnitine palmitoyl transfer enzyme-1 (CPT-1) and acyl-CoA oxidase (ACO) were measured by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Results showed that genistein effectively improved serum and hepatic lipid metabolism and diminished fat accumulation in liver. And the protein level of hepatic p-AMPK and p-ACC were increased, but SREBP-1 was decreased by genistein. Meanwhile, the mRNA levels of FAS and GPAT were lower, but PPARα, CPT-1, ACO were higher in rats treated with genistein compared with HFS group. Collectively, genistein can improve hepatic steatosis via activating AMPK, thus promoting fatty acid oxidation and inhibiting lipid synthesis in liver.