Gender differences in personal, social and environmental influences on active travel to and from school for Australian adolescents

Children's active school transportation: an international scoping review of psychosocial factors

BACKGROUND

Over the last decades, the prevalence of AST has decreased significantly. Barriers to active school transport (AST) have been extensively examined in the literature, while psychosocial factors that facilitate AST have received less attention. To our best knowledge, there are currently no reviews on this subject. Therefore, the objective of this review was to scope the literature and identify published research about psychosocial factors related to AST.

METHODS

Systematic searches conducted in PubMed, Web of Science, TRID, Scopus, and ERIC resulted in a total of 1933 publications, and 77 of them were considered eligible for this review.

RESULTS

The results of the included articles were categorised into four psychosocial factors: confidence in ability, attitudes, social support, and social norms, which were all generally positively related to AST, with a few exceptions.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this review indicate that these psychosocial factors may be important to consider when developing interventions and highlight that both children and parents should be involved in the process. This knowledge can serve as a valuable guide for developing interventions to promote AST. However, the evidence base supporting these psychosocial factors requires further investigation to fully understand how and when to incorporate them to maximise AST efficacy.

Perceived Safety Influencing Active Travel to School-A Built Environment Perspective

Despite the many research studies on active school travel (AST), the number of children walking/cycling to school is decreasing as there is a lack of implementable research evidence. This review through database searches from 2000 to 2020 aims to identify research gaps and explore new perspectives. The articles are selected and screened methodically for systematic presentation of the review. An existing active school travel framework is used to structure and discuss this review paper on mediating factors influencing children's active travel to school, that is the perceived traffic safety, neighborhood safety, and distance to school. Perception of traffic safety could be ameliorated through lateral separation from the traffic, and this could be a new area of research. The neighborhood safety perception may require more research to validate the previous findings. Schools should be located within high-density residential development so that many children can walk to school.

Trends and determinants of active school travel among Australian secondary school students: national cross-sectional data from 2009 to 2018

OBJECTIVE

To examine active school travel trends and predictors among Australian secondary school students (aged 12-17) between 2009 and 2018.

METHODS

Three cross-sectional surveys (2009-10: N=13,790; 2012-13: N=10,309; and 2018: N=9,102) using a web-based self-report questionnaire. Logistic regression was used to identify differences in active travel (to and/or from school every weekday) between survey years and predictors.

RESULTS

From 2009-10 to 2012-13 to 2018, active travel decreased from 33.6% to 32.3% to 29.5% among females, and from 37.4% to 36.6% to 32.6% among males. Distance, female sex and regional location were associated with a lower likelihood of active travel. Students with pocket money, those who spoke a language other than English at home, and Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander students were more likely to actively travel.

CONCLUSIONS

Between 2009-10 and 2018, active school travel among secondary students in Australia declined. Several factors were found to be associated with active travel.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PUBLIC HEALTH

This is the first national study on active travel trends among secondary students in Australia. The recent decline requires action given the increasing prevalence of overweight and climate change.

Exploring the intersectionality of family SES and gender with psychosocial, behavioural and environmental correlates of physical activity in Dutch adolescents: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Examining the correlates of adolescent's physical activity (PA) and how they may differ according to the intersection of gender and family socioeconomic status (SES) can support the development of tailored interventions to more effectively promote adolescents' PA. This study explored how the associations between psychosocial, behavioural and environmental factors and adolescent's PA differed according to gender and family SES.

METHODS

This study used data from the Dutch Youth Health Survey 2015. Adolescents (n = 9068) aged 12-19 were included in the study. The associations between psychosocial, behavioural, and environmental factors and PA (days per week engaging in at least one hour of PA) were examined with multilevel linear regression analysis. Potential interactions between these correlates, gender and family SES were explored.

RESULTS

On average, adolescents engaged in at least one hour of PA for 4,2 days per week. Poor self-perceived health, low peer social support, and a weak connection with the environment were all associated with lower PA in adolescents. Daily smoking, cannabis use, risk of problematic gaming and social media use, as well as lack of daily consumption of fruit, vegetables, water and breakfast were associated with lower PA, whereas binge drinking was not. Interactions revealed that poor self-perceived health was associated with lower PA in adolescents from moderate- and high-SES families, but not in low-SES adolescents, whereas cannabis use was only associated with lower PA amongst low-SES adolescents. Low peer social support was associated with lower PA across all groups, but it was most strongly associated with lower PA amongst male adolescents from low-SES families than in other subgroups. Amongst low-SES males, low peer social support was associated with a 1.47 reduction in days engaging in sufficient PA, compared with a 0.69 reduction for high-SES males.

CONCLUSIONS

This study identified several psychosocial, behavioural and environmental factors that can be targeted to potentially increase adolescent's PA. We also found that correlates of PA differed according to the intersection of gender and family SES. Our findings suggest that PA interventions should be tailored according to gender and SES to address the specific needs, barriers and facilitators of different subgroups.

Active Commuting and Healthy Behavior among Adolescents in Neighborhoods with Varying Socioeconomic Status: The NESLA Study

(1) Background: The World Health Organization recommends active commuting as a source of physical activity. Active commuting is determined by various factors, including the socioeconomic status (SES) of families and neighborhoods, distance to schools, perceived neighborhood safety, lifestyles and availability of walkways and biking paths. This study aimed to assess factors associated with modes of transportation to and from school among adolescents aged 16–19 living in a middle-sized city in Sweden. (2) Method: Three hundred and fourteen students, of whom 55% were females, from schools in the city of Västerås participated in the study. Printed as well as web-based self-administered questionnaires were used to collect the data. (3) Results: Adolescents living in high SES neighborhoods were 80% more likely to bike or walk to school (OR = 1.80; CI: 1.01, 3.20) than adolescents living in low SES neighborhoods. Furthermore, active commuting was associated with higher consumption of fruits and vegetables (OR = 1.77; CI: 1.05, 2.97) and less consumption of junk foods (OR = 0.43; CI: 0.26, 0.71), as compared to passive commuting. (4) Conclusions: Active commuting is a cost-effective and sustainable source of regular physical activity and should be encouraged at a societal level.

Impact of COVID-19 on adolescent travel behavior

INTRODUCTION

The outbreak of COVID-19 has significantly impacted travel behavior. However, few studies have analyzed the impact of COVID-19 on adolescent travel behavior. This article analyzed the impact of COVID-19 on adolescent travel behavior using questionnaire survey data.

METHODS

This paper first used confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to explore the psychological factors related to the adolescents' perceptions about the severity of COVID-19. The study then established a logit model to study the effects of COVID-19 in different phases (before, during, and after the epidemic peak), demographic characteristics, and the role of psychological factors on their travel behavior.

RESULTS

The results show that the phase of COVID-19 did not significantly impact the adolescents' choice of short-distance travel. The frequency of outings per week, the number of exercise sessions per week, and willingness to travel by public transportation decreased significantly in the outbreak phase. Meanwhile, the perception of the severity of COVID-19 significantly impacted adolescent travel behavior.

CONCLUSION

This research demonstrates that COVID-19 has led adolescents to reduce their frequency of outings, and they try not to use public transportation. Adolescents appear to be traveling more cautiously in the outbreak phase and the post-epidemic phase.

Individual, parental and built environmental features as influencing factors of active travel to school in northeast China: findings from a cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVES

Active travel to school (ATS)-associated factors had been studied in some developed countries but rarely in China. We studied the associated factors of ATS at individual, parental and built environment domains in northeast China.

DESIGN AND PARTICIPANTS

A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 4-6 grade students in 2017. Sociodemographic features and information of parents were collected using questionnaires, and SuperMap (a geographical information system software) was used to catch built environment features. Logistic regression models were used to examine the relationship between multilevel factors and ATS.

RESULTS

Our study sample comprised 3670 primary school students aged from 8 to 15 (boys=51.0%, ATS=48.8%). Perceived to be fat (OR 1.25, 95% CI 1.00 to 1.55, p<0.05), feeling easy to walk for a short distance (OR 1.63, 95% CI 1.21 to 2.20, p<0.05), mother unemployed (OR 1.52, 95% CI 1.13 to 2.06, p<0.05), higher land use mix (OR 1.23, 95% CI 1.11 to 1.37, p<0.001) and higher density of public transport stations (OR 1.22, 95% CI 1.09 to 1.37, p<0.05) were positively associated with increased possibility of ATS, while higher household annual income (OR 0.60, 95% CI 0.44 to 0.83, p<0.05) and possession of private vehicles (OR 0.56, 95% CI 0.45 to 0.69, p<0.001) were negatively associated with possibility of ATS.

CONCLUSIONS

The significant factors associated with ATS were at every examined level, which implies multilevel interventions are needed to encourage ATS. Further interventions could focus on the children's willingness to lead students to opt for healthy behaviours, and children from wealthier families should be encouraged to choose ATS. Also, the government should improve built environment walkability so as to encourage ATS.

Adolescents' Physical Activity and the Association With Perceived Social Support of Parents and Peers in Indonesia

This study examined the trends of adolescents' physical activity (PA) and its association with parental and peer support, based on the Indonesia Global School-Based Health Survey. Between 2007 and 2015, prevalence of PA in adolescents declined from 24.4% to 16.5%. Prevalence of active transportation (AT) decreased from 47.2% to 32.3%. Prevalence of sedentary leisure behavior (SLB) declined from 33.6% to 27.2%. Girls' SLB was inversely associated with parental supervision SLB in 2007 (odds ratio [OR] = 0.49; 95% CI = 0.30-0.80) and in 2015 (adjusted OR [AOR] = 0.55; 95% CI = 0.43-0.71), and so was boys' SLB in 2015 (OR = 0.75; 95% CI = 0.59-0.95). Boys' AT was inversely associated with peer support in 2015 (OR = 0.73; 95% CI = 0.59-0.91). Parental control was associated with PA in girls (OR = 1.71; 95% CI = 1.23-2.37), in boys (OR = 1.65; 95% CI = 1.07-2.54), and with SLB among girls in 2015 (OR = 1.28; 95% CI = 1.11-1.47). Hence, adolescents' PA was associated with perceived social support.

Interventions Aiming to Promote Active Commuting in Children and Adolescents: An Evaluation From a Sex/Gender Perspective

Active commuting (AC) provides numerous health benefits and is one way to improve physical activity in children and adolescents. Boys are more likely to use active transport modes than girls. Girls and boys benefit differently from interventions that promote AC. The aim of this systematic review is to evaluate the effects of interventions on girls and boys and to appraise the extent to which previous studies have taken sex/gender into account. Eleven electronic databases were searched to identify all relevant randomized and non-randomized controlled trials based on a priori defined eligibility criteria. Two independent reviewers screened the literature for eligibility and assessed risk of bias. Semiquantitative analyses were conducted to evaluate the effects of intervention effects by taking sex/gender aspects into account. To evaluate sex/gender considerations in interventional studies, a recently developed sex/gender checklist was applied. Twelve studies were included that examined intervention effects on AC in girls and boys. Three intervention studies showed significant effects in increasing AC, with one study favoring girls, one favoring boys, and another focusing on a single sex/gender (only girls). According to the checklist, the overall sex/gender rating highlighted a lack of information in sex/gender consideration. Studies with and without significant effects indicated no differences in the sex/gender checklist. The results indicate that sex/gender is not considered adequately in primary interventional research on AC. To evaluate the effectiveness of intervention in boys and girls, detailed analyses of sex/gender are required, and better reporting about sex/gender-specific intervention content is necessary. In future health research to promote AC, sex/gender should be systematically taken into account.

Active Transport to School and School Neighbourhood Built Environment across Urbanisation Settings in Otago, New Zealand

The school neighbourhood built environment (BE) can facilitate active transport to school (ATS) in adolescents. Most previous studies examining ATS were conducted in large urban centres and focused on BE of home neighbourhoods. This study examined correlations between school-level ATS rates among adolescents, objectively measured school neighbourhood BE features, and adolescents’ perceptions of the school route across different urbanisation settings. Adolescents (n = 1260; 15.2 ± 1.4 years; 43.6% male) were recruited from 23 high schools located in large, medium, and small urban areas, and rural settings in Otago, New Zealand. Adolescents completed an online survey. School neighbourhood BE features were analysed using Geographic Information Systems. School neighbourhood intersection density, residential density and walkability index were higher in large urban areas compared to other urbanisation settings. School-level ATS rates (mean 38.1%; range: 27.8%–43.9%) were negatively correlated with school neighbourhood intersection density (r = −0.58), residential density (r = −0.60), and walkability index (r = −0.64; all p < 0.01). School-level ATS rates were also negatively associated with adolescents’ perceived safety concerns for walking (r = −0.76) and cycling (r = −0.78) to school, high traffic volume (r = −0.82), and presence of dangerous intersections (r = −0.75; all p < 0.01). Future initiatives to encourage ATS should focus on school neighbourhood BE features and minimise adolescents’ traffic safety related concerns.

Active Transport to School May Reduce Psychosomatic Symptoms in School-Aged Children: Data from Nine Countries

It is widely proven that being physically active and avoiding sedentary behaviour help to improve adolescents' well-being and keep them in better health in general. We aimed to investigate the relationship between modes of transport to school and subjective complaints among schoolchildren. Analyses were based on the HBSC (Health Behaviour in School-aged Children) surveys conducted in 2017/18 in nine countries (N = 55,607; mean age 13.43 ± 1.64 yrs.). The main outcome showed that health complaints consisted of somatic and psychological complaints. Transport to school was characterized by mode of getting there (walking, biking, or another passive mode). A total of 46.1% of students walked and 7.3% cycled to school; 46.6% commuted by passive means. Biking to school was more frequent in Denmark (37.9%), Norway (26.5%), and Germany (26.6%). The multivariate generalized linear model adjusted for age, gender, country, and school proximity showed that biking to school is protective against reports of health complaints. The beta parameters were equal to -0.498 (p < 0.001) for the general HBSC-SCL index, -0.208 (p < 0.001) for the somatic complaint index, and -0.285 (p < 0.001) for the psychological complaints index. Young people who actively commute to school are less likely to report health complaints, especially psychological symptoms.

A Conceptual Framework for Modelling Safe Walking and Cycling Routes to High Schools

Active transport to or from school presents an opportunity for adolescents to engage in daily physical activity. Multiple factors influence whether adolescents actively travel to/from school. Creating safe walking and cycling routes to school is a promising strategy to increase rates of active transport. This article presents a comprehensive conceptual framework for modelling safe walking and cycling routes to high schools. The framework has been developed based on several existing relevant frameworks including (a) ecological models, (b) the “Five Es” (engineering, education, enforcement, encouragement, and evaluation) framework of transport planning, and (c) a travel mode choice framework for school travel. The framework identifies built environment features (land use mix, pedestrian/cycling infrastructure, neighbourhood aesthetics, and accessibility to local facilities) and traffic safety factors (traffic volume and speed, safe road crossings, and quality of path surface) to be considered when modelling safe walking/cycling routes to high schools. Future research should test this framework using real-world data in different geographical settings and with a combination of tools for the assessment of both macro-scale and micro-scale built environment features. To be effective, the modelling and creation of safe routes to high schools should be complemented by other interventions, including education, enforcement, and encouragement in order to minimise safety concerns and promote active transport.

Les adolescentes font-elles moins de vélo en raison de moindres possibilités réelles d’investir l’espace public ?

Cadre de recherche : Les pratiques du vélo sont sous-tendues par des enjeux environnementaux, sanitaires et économiques considérables, mais les adolescentes en font particulièrement peu.

Objectifs : L’article ambitionne de se demander dans quelle mesure ce constat résulte d’inégalités d’opportunités réelles sexuées à investir l’espace public.

Méthodologie : Dispositionnaliste, l’analyse s’appuie sur deux campagnes d’observations (expérimentation et observation directes) et d’entretiens semi-directifs formels réalisés avec 43 garçons et 39 filles âgé·e·s de 17 ou 18 ans, ainsi que 26 de leurs parents, dans des milieux variés des métropoles de Montpellier et de Strasbourg.

Résultats : Les résultats indiquent que l’adolescence tend à se traduire par une période d’incorporation ou de renforcement de dispositions sexuées à investir l’espace public particulièrement restrictives pour les filles. De fait, les injonctions socialisatrices qui les concernent particulièrement participent notamment à renforcer leurs dispositions à craindre de se déplacer seules, de s’aventurer et de stationner dans l’espace public, lesquelles limitent considérablement leurs possibilités réelles de s’engager dans des formes de pratiques du vélo solitaires, aventurières, improvisées et d’occupation. Cela, alors même qu’on observe les tendances précisément inverses chez les garçons dans leur ensemble.

Conclusions : En explicitant de nombreuses variations observables au sein de chaque catégorie de sexe, notamment selon les milieux socio-économiques et résidentiels et selon les contextes, nous illustrons enfin que le vélo mérite d’être analysé comme une pratique de distinction à la fois sexuée, sociale et spatiale.

Contribution : Tout en justifiant l’intérêt de mobiliser une sociologie dispositionnaliste pour éclairer la (re)production des rapports sociaux de sexe à travers la (re)production d’inégalités de potentiels de mobilités, l’article illustre que le vélo constitue un fait social à part entière.

Identifying children who are susceptible to dropping out from physical activity and sport: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Although the benefits of physical activity are clear, adherence to physical activity programs is a challenge, especially during transitional phases of life.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to identify adolescents who were more likely to drop out from physical activity and sports participation, from childhood to adolescence.

DESIGN AND SETTING

This was a cross-sectional study on retrospective data regarding childhood activity among 803 Brazilian adolescents. The study was conducted at public schools in Londrina, Paraná, in 2011.

METHODS

Habitual physical activity, sports participation during childhood, parental physical activity, socioeconomic status and perception of social relationships were self-reported. Cardiorespiratory fitness was estimated via a 20-m shuttle-run test and somatic maturation was estimated from the age at peak height velocity.

RESULTS

Our results provided evidence that girls (physical activity: odds ratio, OR: 4.37 [95% confidence interval, CI: 1.86-10.3]; sports: OR: 2.65 [95% CI: 1.39-5.05]) and adolescents with low cardiorespiratory fitness (physical activity: OR: 1.77 [95% CI: 1.13-2.78]; sports: OR: 1.62 [95% CI: 1.15-2.26]) were more likely to drop out from active behaviors. Children with inactive mothers and inactive fathers (OR: 3.55 [95% CI: 1.12-11.3]) also showed a higher dropout rate from physical activity. Adolescents with negative perceptions of friendships (OR: 2.33 [95% CI: 1.21-4.47]) were more likely to drop out from sports.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher dropout rates from active lifestyles during childhood were observed among girls and adolescents with low cardiorespiratory fitness. Parental inactivity and negative perceptions of friendships were also potential risk factors for discontinuation of childhood physical activity and sports.

Socioeconomic status moderates the association between perceived environment and active commuting to school

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the moderator effect of socioeconomic status in the association between the perceived environment and active commuting to school.

METHODS

A total of 495 adolescents and their parents were interviewed. Perceived environment was operationalized in traffic and crime safety and assessed with the Neighborhood Environment Walkability Scale. Active commuting was self-reported by the adolescents, categorized in walking, bicycling or skating at least one time/week. Socioeconomic status was used as moderator effect, reported from adolescents' parents or guardians using Brazilian standardized socioeconomic status classification. Analyses were performed with Poisson regression on Stata 12.0.

RESULTS

Prevalence of active commuting was 63%. Adolescents with low socioeconomic status who reported “it is easy to observe pedestrians and cyclists” were more likely to actively commute to school (PR = 1.18, 95%CI 1.03–1.13). Adolescents with low socioeconomic status whose parents or legal guardians reported positively to “being safe crossing the streets” had increased probability of active commuting to school (PR = 1.10, 95%CI 1.01–1.20), as well as those with high socioeconomic status with “perception of crime” were positively associated to the outcome (PR = 1.33, 95%CI 1.03–1.72).

CONCLUSIONS

Socioeconomic status showed moderating effects in the association between the perceived environment and active commuting to school.

Longer afterschool active commutes and the travel environment of middle schools in Shenzhen, China

The afterschool commute is a major part of children's daily activity. This study examines the relationship between student extended active travel routes and route environment characteristics. Route environment characteristics may be related to an extended route for students who walk or bike home. Self-reported itineraries were collected from 12 to 15-year old students in 3 middle schools in Shenzhen in May and June (n = 1257). Itineraries involving a detour from the shortest possible route home (n = 437) were compared with the shortest route. A field study coded all possible routes within the school districts by playable open spaces, sidewalk width, controlled crossings, road category, and public transit stops. Binary logistic regression reveals that routes with greater intersection density and number of open spaces are related to active travel choice. Sidewalk width, number of traffic lights and proportion of arterial roads are positively related to motorized travel. Linear regression reveals that travel distance, sidewalk width, number of open spaces and street crossings, as well as the proportion of secondary roads and pathways are positively related to detour distance. Higher numbers of public transit stops and traffic lights are related to shorter detours. Attending cram school is also negatively associated with active travel and detour. Younger students, females and students with longer moderate-to-vigorous physical activity time have extended active travel. Specific route environment characteristics are associated with longer and more active middle school student commutes and may be implemented to raise overall activity levels in children.

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Extended travel home from school is associated with environmental features en route.

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Greater intersection density and open spaces are associated with active travel.

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Gated communities and cram schools are associated with less active travel.

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Distance from school is not significant in the active travel choice.

Evidence of moderation effects in predicting active transport to school

Background

Distance from home to school is an important influence on the decision to use active transport (AT); however, ecological perspectives would suggest this relationship may be moderated by individual, interpersonal and environmental factors. This study investigates whether (i) gender, (ii) biological maturation, (iii) perceived family support for physical activity (PA) and (iv) multiple deprivation moderate the relationship between distance to school and AT.

Methods

A total of 611 children (11-12 years old, 334 females) were recruited from schools in Leicestershire, UK. Gender, family support for PA, and AT were self-reported. Home and school postcodes were used to determine multiple deprivation and distance to school (km). Predicted age at peak height velocity was used to indicate biological maturation.

Results

Logistic regressions revealed the main effects explained 40.2% of the variance in AT; however; distance to school was the only significant predictor. Further analyses revealed that distance to school had a greater negative impact on the use of AT in late-maturing (OR: 3.60, CI: 1.45-8.96), less deprived (OR: 3.54, CI: 1.17-10.72) and children with low family support of PA (OR: 0.26, CI: 0.11-0.61).

Conclusions

This study provides evidence that, although distance to school might be the strongest predictor of AT, this relationship is complex.

Adolescents who engage in active school transport are also more active in other contexts: A space-time investigation

BACKGROUND

Although active school travel (AST) is important for increasing moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), it is unclear how AST is related to context-specific physical activity and non-school travel. This study investigated how school travel is related to physical activity and travel behaviours across time- and space-classified domains.

METHODS

A total of 196 adolescents wore a Global Positioning System receiver and an accelerometer for 7 days. All data were classified into one of four domains: home, school, transport, or leisure. Generalized linear mixed models were used to compare domain-specific PA and non-school trips between active and passive school travellers.

RESULTS

Active travellers accumulated 13 and 14 more min of MVPA on weekdays and weekend days, respectively. They also spent 15min less time in vehicular travel during non-school trips, and accrued an additional 9min of MVPA while walking on weekend days. However, those with no AST still achieved most of their MVPA in the transport domain.

CONCLUSIONS

AST is related to out-of-school physical activity and transportation, but transport is also important for those who do not use AST. As such, future studies should consider overall mobility and destinations other than school when assessing travel and physical activity behaviours.

From attitude to action: What shapes attitude toward walking to/from school and how does it influence actual behaviors?

Walking to/from school could promote children's physical activity and help combat childhood obesity. Parental attitudes have been identified as one of the important predictors. But it is unclear what factors shape parental attitudes, and how those in turn influence children's school travel. This study addresses this gap of knowledge by examining the mediating effect of parental attitudes for the relationships between personal, social, and built environmental factors and children's walking-to/from-school behaviors. Survey data (N=2597) were collected from 20 public elementary schools in Austin, Texas, measuring students' typical school travel mode; personal, social, and built environmental factors related to walking-to/from-school; and relevant parental attitudes. The analysis was conducted in M-plus 6.11 to test the proposed conceptual framework using a structural equation model (SEM). Parental attitudes showed significant mediating effects on walking-to/from-school behaviors. Older child, positive peer influence, walkable home-to-school distance, and favorable walking environments were associated with more enjoyment and lower attitudinal barriers, and in turn increased likelihood of walking to/from school. Being Hispanic, increased car ownership, and stronger traffic safety concerns reduced enjoyment and increased attitudinal barriers, and thus decreased likelihood of walking to/from school. This study highlighted the importance of using multilevel interventions to reduce attitudinal barriers and increase enjoyment of walking to/from school. Collaborations among different stakeholders are needed to address environmental issues (e.g., safety concerns) and social factors (e.g., peer influence), while being sensitive to personal factors (e.g., age, ethnicity, and car ownership).

Playability of school-environments and after-school physical activity among 8-11 year-old children: specificity of time and place

Background

Physical Activity (PA) occurs in several behavioral domains (e.g., sports, active transport), and is affected by distinct environmental factors. By filtering objective PA using children’s school schedules, daily PA can be separated into more conceptually meaningful domains. We used an ecological design to investigate associations between “playability” of 21 school-environments and children’s objectively measured after-school PA. We also examined to what extent distinct time-periods after-school and the distance from children’s residence to their school influenced this association.

Methods

PA was measured in 587 8–11 year-old children by accelerometers, and separated in four two-hour time-periods after-school. For each school-environment, standardized playability-scores were calculated based on standardized audits within 800 m network buffers around each school. Schools and children’s residences were geocoded, and we classified each child to be residing in 400, 800, 1600, or >1600 m crow-fly buffers from their school. The influence of network-distance buffers was also examined using the same approach.

Results

Playability was associated with light PA and moderate-to-vigorous PA after-school, especially in the time-period directly after-school and among children who lived within 800 m from their school. Playability explained approximately 30 % of the after-school PA variance between schools. Greater distance from children’s residence to their school weakened the association between playability of the school-environments and after-school PA.

Conclusions

This study demonstrated that relationships between the conceptually matched physical environment and PA can be revealed and made plausible with increasing specificity in time and distance.

The role of social support on physical activity behaviour in adolescent girls: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Abstract

Adolescent girls have been targeted as a priority group for promoting physical activity levels however it is unclear how this can be achieved. There is some evidence to suggest that social support could impact the physical activity levels of adolescent girls, although the relationship is complex and not well understood. We aimed to systematically review and meta-analyse the relationship between social support and physical activity in adolescent girls, exploring how different types and providers of social support might influence the relationship. Articles were identified through a systematic search of the literature using 14 electronic databases, personal resources, grey literature, and reference lists of included studies and previous reviews. Search terms representing social support, physical activity and adolescent girls were identified and used in various combinations to form a search strategy which was adapted for different databases. Cross-sectional or longitudinal articles published in English that reported an association between social support and physical activity in adolescent girls between the ages of 10 to 19 years were included. Studies that focused only on clinical or overweight populations were excluded. Data extraction was carried out by one reviewer using an electronic extraction form. A random 25 % of included articles were selected for data extraction by a second reviewer to check fidelity. Risk of bias was assessed using a custom tool informed by the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme Cohort Study Checklist in conjunction with data extraction. Cross-sectional results were meta-analysed and longitudinal results were presented narratively. Small but significant associations between all available providers of total social support (except teachers) and physical activity were found (r = .14-.24). Small but significant associations were also identified for emotional, instrumental and modelling support for some providers of support (r = .10-.21). Longitudinal research supported the cross-sectional analyses. Many of the meta-analysis results suggested high heterogeneity and there was some evidence of publication bias, therefore, the meta-analysis results should be interpreted with caution. In conclusion, the meta-analysis results suggest that social support is not a strong predictor of physical activity in adolescent girls though parents and friends may have a role in enhancing PA.

Trial registration

PROSPERO 2014:CRD42014006738

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12966-016-0405-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The impact of cycle proficiency training on cycle-related behaviours and accidents in adolescence: findings from ALSPAC, a UK longitudinal cohort

BACKGROUND

Cycle accidents are a common cause of physical injury in children and adolescents. Education is one strategy to reduce cycle-related injuries. In the UK, some children undertake National Cycle Proficiency Scheme [NCPS] training (now known as Bikeability) in their final years of primary school. It aims to promote cycling and safe cycling behaviours but there has been little scientific evaluation of its effectiveness.

METHODS

The sample (n = 5415) were participants in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children who reported whether or not they had received NCPS training. Outcomes were self-reported at 14 and 16 years: cycling to school, ownership of cycle helmet, use of cycle helmet and high-visibility clothing on last cycle, and involvement in a cycle accident. An additional outcome, hospital admittance due to a cycle accident from 11 to 16 years, was also included for a subsample (n = 2222) who have been linked to Hospital Episode Statistics (HES) data.

RESULTS

Approximately 40 % of the sample had received NCPS training. Trained children were more likely to cycle to school and to own a cycle helmet at both 14 and 16 years, to have worn a helmet on their last cycle at age 14, and to have worn high-visibility clothing at age 16, than those who had not attended a course. NCPS training was not associated with self-reported involvement in a cycle accident, and only six of those with HES data had been admitted to hospital due to a cycle accident. Irrespective of training, results indicate very low use of high-visibility clothing, very few girls cycling as part of their school commute, and less than half of helmet owners wearing one on their last cycle.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest cycle training courses for children can have benefits that persist into adolescence. However, the low use of cycle helmets, very low use of high-visibility clothing, and low levels of cycling to school for girls, indicate the further potential for interventions to encourage cycling, and safe cycling behaviours, in young people.

Which Socio-Ecological Factors Associate with a Switch to or Maintenance of Active and Passive Transport during the Transition from Primary to Secondary School?

Objectives

The aim was to investigate which individual, psychosocial and physical neighborhood environmental factors associate with children’s switch to or maintenance of active/passive transport to school and to leisure time destinations during the transition from primary to secondary school.

Methods

Children (n = 313) filled out a questionnaire in the last year of primary school and 2 years later to assess socio-demographic characteristics and self-reported transport. One of their parents completed a questionnaire to assess parental perceptions of psychosocial and physical neighborhood environmental factors.

Results

The increase of the home-school distance was significantly associated with children’s switch to or maintenance of passive transport to school compared to a switch to (OR = 0.81; p = 0.03) and maintenance (OR = 0.87; p = 0.03) of active transport to school. Low SES was associated with children’s switch to active transport to school compared to maintenance of active transport (OR = 3.67; p = 0.07). For transport to leisure time destinations, other factors such as parental perceived neighborhood safety from traffic and crime (OR = 2.78; p = 0.004), a positive social norm (OR = 1.49; p = 0.08), positive attitudes (OR = 1.39; p = 0.08) (i.e. more benefits, less barriers) towards their children’s physical activity and poor walking/cycling facilities in the neighborhood (OR = 0.70; p = 0.06) were associated with children’s maintenance of active transport to leisure time destinations compared to a switch to or maintenance of passive transport.

Conclusions

This longitudinal study can give directions for interventions promoting children’s active transport during the transition to secondary school. It is necessary to promote different possibilities at primary school for children to use active transport when going to secondary school. Walking/cycling a part of the home-school trip can be a possible solution for children who will be living at non-feasible distances from secondary school. Providing safe neighborhoods, combined with programs for parents stimulating a positive social norm and positive attitudes towards physical activity during primary school, can be effective.

Cross-continental comparison of the association between the physical environment and active transportation in children: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this systematic review was to determine the relationship between a wide range of physical environmental characteristics and different contexts of active transportation in 6- to 12-year-old children across different continents.

METHODS

A systematic search was conducted in six databases (Pubmed, Web of Science, Cinahl, SportDiscus, TRIS and Cochrane) resulting in 65 papers, eligible for inclusion. The investigated physical environmental variables were grouped into six categories: walkability, accessibility, walk/cycle facilities, aesthetics, safety, recreation facilities.

RESULTS

The majority of the studies were conducted in North America (n = 35), Europe (n = 17) and Australia (n = 11). Active transportation to school (walking or cycling) was positively associated with walkability. Walking to school was positively associated with walkability, density and accessibility. Evidence for a possible association was found for traffic safety and all forms of active transportation to school. No convincing evidence was found for associations between the physical environment and active transportation during leisure. General safety and traffic safety were associated with active transportation to school in North America and Australia but not associated with active transportation to school in Europe.

CONCLUSIONS

The physical environment was mainly associated with active transportation to school. Continent specific associations were found, indicating that safety measures were most important in relation to active commuting to school in North America and Australia. There is a need for longitudinal studies and studies conducted in Asia, Africa and South-America and studies focusing specifically on active transportation during leisure.

A Scoping Review of Observational Studies Examining Relationships between Environmental Behaviors and Health Behaviors

Individual lifestyles are key drivers of both environmental change and chronic disease. We undertook a scoping review of peer-reviewed studies which examined associations between environmental and health behaviors of individuals in high-income countries. We searched EconLit, Medline, BIOSIS and the Social Science Citation Index. A total of 136 studies were included. The majority were USA-based cross-sectional studies using self-reported measures. Most of the evidence related to travel behavior, particularly active travel (walking and cycling) and physical activity (92 studies) or sedentary behaviors (19 studies). Associations of public transport use with physical activity were examined in 18 studies, and with sedentary behavior in one study. Four studies examined associations between car use and physical activity. A small number included other environmental behaviors (food-related behaviors (n = 14), including organic food, locally-sourced food and plate waste) and other health behaviors ((n = 20) smoking, dietary intake, alcohol). These results suggest that research on individual environmental and health behaviors consists largely of studies examining associations between travel mode and levels of physical activity. There appears to be less research on associations between other behaviors with environmental and health impacts, and very few longitudinal studies in any domain.

Assessing cycling-friendly environments for children: are micro-environmental factors equally important across different street settings?

Background

As physical activity levels decrease as children age, sustainable and accessible forms of physical activity are needed from a young age. Transportation cycling is one such physical activity and has been associated with many benefits. The aims of the study were to identify whether manipulating micro-environmental factors (e.g. speed limits, evenness of cycle path) within a photographed street influences the perceived supportiveness for transportation cycling; and whether changing these micro-environmental factors has the same effect across different street settings.

Methods

We recruited 305 fifth and sixth grade children and their parents from twelve randomly selected primary schools in Flanders, Belgium. They completed a web-based questionnaire including 12 choice-based conjoint tasks, in which they had to choose between two possible routes depicted on manipulated photographs, which the child would cycle along. The routes differed in four attributes: general street setting (enclosed, half open, open), evenness of cycle path (very uneven, moderately uneven, even), speed limit (70 km/h, 50 km/h, 30 km/h) and degree of separation between a cycle path and motorised traffic (no separation, curb, hedge). Hierarchical Bayes analyses revealed the relative importance of each micro-environmental attribute across the three street settings.

Results

For each attribute, children and their parents chose routes that had the best alternative (i.e. open street setting, even cycle path, 30 km/h, a hedge separating the cycle path from motorised traffic). The evenness of the cycle path and lower speed limit had the largest effect for the children, while the degree of separation and lower speed limit had the largest effect for their parents. Interactions between micro-scale and macro-scale factors revealed differences in the magnitude but not direction of their effects on route choice. The results held across the different kinds of street settings tested.

Conclusions

Improving micro-scale attributes may increase the supportiveness of a street for children’s transportation cycling. We call for on-site research to test effects of changes in micro-environmental attributes on transportation cycling among children.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12966-015-0216-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Does parental accompaniment when walking or cycling moderate the association between physical neighbourhood environment and active transport among 10-12 year olds?

OBJECTIVES

To assess whether associations between neighbourhood environmental features and frequency of children's active trips per week are moderated by frequency of parental accompaniment when walking/cycling.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional survey

METHODS

Children aged 10-12 years (n=677) were recruited from 19 schools in Melbourne, Australia. Parents reported the number of walking/cycling trips/week usually made by their child to eight local destinations. Environmental variables (i.e. number of cul-de-sacs, intersections, public open spaces (POS) defined as reserves or parks, sport and recreation POS, sport options, population density, length of busy roads and length of walking/cycling tracks) within an 800m buffer around participants' homes were objectively assessed with a Geographic Information System. Associations between neighbourhood features and frequency of active trips were assessed using multilevel linear regressions. Moderating effects of regular parental accompaniment when walking/cycling were examined.

RESULTS

Parental co-participation in walking and cycling was positively associated with frequency of overall walking/cycling trips. Number of intersections, sport and recreation POS, sport options and population density were positively associated with walking/cycling trips. Only one significant interaction was found; a positive association was found between intersection density and walking/cycling trips among children whose parents did not cycle with them while it was not associated among others.

CONCLUSIONS

Building supporting and safe neighbourhood environments is needed to support children's active travel behaviours to improve real and perceived safety concerns and provide relevant infrastructure and destinations, regardless of whether or not parents accompany children during walking and cycling. Although little evidence of moderation was found, future research should include co-participation in a broader range of walking behaviours.

Physical activity and social support in adolescents: a systematic review

The objective of this review was to systematically synthesize the results of original studies on the association between physical activity and social support in adolescents, published until April 2011. Searches were carried out in Adolec, Eric, Lilacs, Medline, SciELO, Scopus, SportsDiscus and Web of Science electronic databases and the reference lists of selected articles. Searches for articles, data extraction and assessment of methodological quality were conducted independently by two reviewers. In total, 75 articles met inclusion criteria and were analyzed. Most studies were published over the past 6 years (2006-11), conducted in high-income countries, with a cross-sectional design, using subjective measures of physical activity (e.g. questionnaires and recall) and exhibited medium to high methodological quality level. Social support was positive and consistently associated with the physical activity level of adolescents in cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. Those who received more overall social support as well as support from both parents, friends and family showed higher levels of physical activity. It is concluded that social support is an important factor associated with physical activity level in adolescents and should be targeted in intervention programs that aim to increase physical activity levels in this population group.

Investigating active travel to primary school in Ireland

Purpose

– Active travel to school, by walking or cycling, can positively influence children's health and increase physical activity. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the context and promoters and barriers of active travel, and the required actions and actors that need to be involved to address each of these.

Design/methodology/approach

– Both quantitative and participative research methodologies were employed. The sample consisted of 73 children aged between 11 and 13 years from four primary schools in the West of Ireland. A self-completion questionnaire was followed by a participative protocol conducted with the class groups.

Findings

– Overall 30.1 per cent of children reported that they actively travelled to school. A greater proportion of children from urban and disadvantaged schools actively travelled. Proximity to the school was the most frequently reported promoter and barrier. The children identified many actors that need to be involved to eliminate the barriers and enact the promoters of active travel to school. They also highlighted the need for a multi-sectorial approach to improve active travel rates in Ireland.

Originality/value

– This study holds potential value in addressing the continued decline in active travel to school in Ireland as it shares a new perspective on the issue; that of the children. Adopting a participative approach allowed the children to participate in groups and develop the data themselves. The children confirmed that they have a relevant and valuable understanding of the process necessary to address active travel to school as a public health issue in Ireland.

School travel and children's physical activity: a cross-sectional study examining the influence of distance

Background

Walking to school is associated with higher levels of physical activity. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between school travel mode and physical activity using a sampling frame that purposefully locates schools in varying neighbourhoods.

Methods

Cross-sectional survey of 785 children (10.57 ± 0.7 years) in Toronto, Canada. Physical activity was measured by accelerometry and travel mode was self-reported by parents. Linear regression models accounting for school clustering effects examined the associations between mode choice, BMI, and physical activity and were estimated adjusting for age, types of neighbourhoods and travel distance to school.

Results

Significant associations between walking to school and moderate activity during weekdays were found. Interactions between walking to school and travel distance to school were found only in boys with significant associations between walking to school and higher physical activity levels in those living within 1000–1600 meters from school. Boys walking to school and living in this range accumulated 7.6 more minutes of daily MVPA than boys who were driven.

Conclusions

Walking to school can make a modest but significant contribution to overall physical activity. This contribution was modified by travel distance and not school neighbourhood socioeconomic status or the built environment.

Influence of friends on children's physical activity: a review

We examined evidence for friendship influences on children's physical activity (PA) through systematic searches of online databases in May 2012. We identified 106 studies (25 qualitative) published in English since 2000 that analyzed indicators of friendship influences (e.g., communication about PA, friends' PA, and PA with friends) among persons younger than 19 years. Children's PA was positively associated with encouragement from friends (43 of 55 studies indicating a positive relationship), friends' own PA (30/35), and engagement with friends in PA (9/10). These findings are consistent with friends influencing PA, but most studies did not isolate influence from other factors that could explain similarity. Understanding friendship influences in childhood can facilitate the promotion of lifelong healthy habits. PA with friends should be considered in health promotion programs.

Obesity and other correlates of physical activity and sedentary behaviors among US high school students

Understanding correlates of physical activity (PA) can help inform and improve programs that promote PA among youth. We analyzed data from the 2010 National Youth Physical Activity and Nutrition Study, a representative sample of US students in grades 9-12. Logistic regression was used to examine associations between PA correlates (obesity, physical education classes, sports team participation, attitude toward PA, adult support for PA, and environmental support for PA) and participation in daily PA (DPA), vigorous PA (VPA), muscle-strengthening activity (MSA), viewing television (TV), and using computers or video games (C/VG). A positive attitude toward PA and adult support for PA were both associated with increased PA and decreased sedentary behavior. However, among students who lived in neighborhoods that were not safe for PA, a positive attitude toward PA was not associated with increased DPA or decreased sedentary behavior and was less strongly associated with VPA and MSA. Efforts to increase PA among youth should promote a positive attitude toward PA among youth and encourage adult family members to support their efforts to be active. Policies that promote safe neighborhoods may work synergistically with a positive attitude toward PA to increase participation in PA and decrease sedentary behaviors.

Differences in the intensity and duration of adolescents' sports and exercise across physical and social environments

We used data from the American Time Use Survey (years 2003-06) to analyze whether the intensity and duration of high school students' (ages 15-18 years) sports and exercise bouts differed across physical and social environments. Boys' sports and exercise bouts were more likely to reach a vigorous intensity when taking place at school and with friends/acquaintances/other people; whereas girls' sports and exercise bouts were more likely to reach a vigorous intensity when outdoors and alone. For boys and girls, bout durations were greater at school and with friends/acquaintances/other people than in other environments. Overall, environmental influences on the intensity but not duration of sports and exercise bouts appear to differ between boys and girls.

Correlates of children's time-specific physical activity: a review of the literature

Assessment of correlates of physical activity occurring at different times of the day, locations and contexts, is imperative to understanding children’s physical activity behaviour. The purpose of this review was to identify the correlates of children’s physical activity (aged 8–14 years) occurring during the school break time and after-school periods. A review was conducted of the peer-reviewed literature, published between 1990 and January 2011. A total of 22 studies (12 school break time studies, 10 after-school studies) were included in the review. Across the 22 studies, 17 studies were cross-sectional and five studies were interventions. In the school break time studies, 39 potential correlates were identified, of which gender and age were consistently associated with school break time physical activity in two or more studies, and family affluence, access to a gym, access to four or more physical activity programs and the condition of a playing field were all associated with school break time physical activity in only one study. Access to loose and fixed equipment, playground markings, size of and access to play space and the length of school break time were all positively associated with changes in school break time physical activity in intervention studies. Thirty-six potential correlates of after-school physical activity were identified. Gender (with boys more active), younger age, lower body mass index (for females), lower TV viewing/playing video games, and greater access to facilities were associated with higher levels of after-school physical activity in two or more studies. Parent supervision was negatively associated with females’ after-school physical activity in one study. This review has revealed a relatively small number of studies investigating the school break time and after-school periods in the specified age range and only a few correlates have demonstrated a consistent association with physical activity. This highlights the infancy of this area and a need for further investigation into time-specific physical activity behaviour so that interventions designed for these specific periods can target the important correlates.

All the stereotypes confirmed: differences in how Australian boys and girls use their time

BACKGROUND

To influence adolescent health, a greater understanding of time use and covariates such as gender is required.

PURPOSE

To explore gender-specific time use patterns in Australian adolescents using high-resolution time use data.

METHOD

This study analyzed 24-hour recall time use data collected as part of the 2007 Australian National Children's Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey (n = 2,200). Univariate analyses to determine gender differences in time use were conducted.

RESULTS

Boys spent more (p < .0001) time participating in screen-based (17.7 % vs. 14.2% daily time) and physical activities (10.7% vs. 9.2%). Girls spent more (p < .0001) time being social (4.7% vs. 3.4% daily time), studying (2.0% vs. 1.7%), and doing household chores (4.7% vs. 3.4%).

CONCLUSIONS

There are gender-specific differences in time use behavior among Australian adolescents. The results reinforce existing time use gender-based stereotypes. Implications. The gender-specific time use behaviors offer intervention design possibilities.