Effects of stress and mental toughness on burnout and depressive symptoms: A prospective study with young elite athletes

A machine-learning approach to model risk and protective factors of vulnerability to depression

There are multiple risk and protective factors for depression. The association between these factors with vulnerability to depression is unclear. Such knowledge is an important insight into assessing risk for developing depression for precision interventions. Based on the behavioral data of 496 participants (all unmarried and not cohabiting, with a college education level or above), we applied machine-learning approaches to model risk and protective factors in estimating depression and its symptoms. Then, we employed Random Forest to identify important factors which were then used to differentiate participants who had high risk of depression from those who had low risk. Results revealed that risk and protective factors could significantly estimate depression and depressive symptoms. Feature selection revealed four key factors including three risk factors (brooding, perceived loneliness, and perceived stress) and one protective factor (resilience). The classification model built by the four factors achieved an ROC-AUC score of 75.50% to classify the high- and low-risk groups, which was comparable to the classification performance based on all risk and protective factors (ROC-AUC = 77.83%). Based on the selected four factors, we generated a mood vulnerability index useful for identifying people's risk for depression. Our findings provide potential clinical insights for developing quick screening tools for mood disorders and potential targets for intervention programs designed to improve depressive symptoms.

A National Survey on the Relationship of Youth Sport Specialization Behaviors to Self-Reported Anxiety and Depression in Youth Softball Players

BACKGROUND

There are little to no data on whether any associations exist between sport specialization and mental health in youth softball athletes.

HYPOTHESIS

Highly specialized youth softball athletes will have worse self-reported depression and anxiety symptom scores compared with low and moderate specialized athletes.

STUDY DESIGN

Cross-sectional survey.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level 4.

METHODS

An online cross-sectional survey was distributed in the fall of 2021 to a national sample of female youth softball athletes between the ages of 12 and 18 years. Sport specialization status was determined using a 3-point specialization scale that classifies either low, moderate, or high. The patient health questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) and the 7-item general anxiety disorder scale (GAD-7) were used to assess self-reported symptoms of depression and anxiety. Comparison also included sports participation and specialization behaviors between specialization groups.

RESULTS

A total of 1283 subjects (mean age, 15.1 ± 1.7 years) fully completed the survey. After adjusting for covariates, lower scores were reported on both the PHQ-9 and GAD-7 by highly specialized athletes compared with moderate or low specialization athletes (PHQ-9, high = 8.6 ± 0.4; moderate = 11.2 ± 0.3; low = 10.9 ± 0.5; P < 0.01; GAD-7, high = 6.5 ± 0.4; moderate = 8.6 ± 0.3; low = 8.4 ± 0.4, P < 0.01). Conversely, higher scores were reported on both scales for athletes who received private softball coaching compared with those who did not (PHQ-9, 11.5 ± 0.3 vs 9.0 ± 0.3; P < 0.01; GAD-7, 8.8 ± 0.3 vs 6.9 ± 0.3, P < 0.01). Finally, athletes who reported an arm overuse injury in the previous year reported higher PHQ-9 scores (10.8 ± 0.3 vs 9.8 ± 0.3; P < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

While sport specialization, as measured by the validated 3-point scale, was not associated with increased anxiety and depression symptom scores, other aspects of specialization behavior such as private coaching or overuse injury history were associated with worse scores on these scales, indicating potential concern for anxiety and depression. However, although the differences we observed were statistically significant, they did not exceed the minimal clinically important difference values that have been established for the PHQ-9 (5 points) or GAD-7 (4 points).

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

This project is a first step toward understanding the sport specialization behaviors and their influence on the mental health of youth softball athletes. Focusing on investigating specialization behaviors further may reveal to be a better indicator of risk of developing anxiety and depression symptoms compared with utilizing the 3-point specialization scale.

Factor structure and psychometric properties of the Perceived Stress Scale in Russian adolescents

This study involved a psychometric analysis of the 10-item Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10). To investigate the Russian version of the PSS-10 for adolescents, 3530 adolescents aged 13-17 years were recruited. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that the data corresponded to the expected two-factor configuration. Psychometric properties and factor structure were evaluated. As expected, the PSS-10 included two factors: perceived helplessness and perceived self-efficacy. Internal consistency demonstrated acceptable values (Cronbach's alpha was 0.82 for perceived helplessness, 0.77 for perceived self-efficacy, and 0.80 for the overall PSS score). Measurement invariance across sexes was assessed, and configural and metric invariance were confirmed. The developed diagnostic tool can be used both in the school system to alleviate the negative consequences of academic stress in adolescents and, in the future, in other areas, particularly in clinical practice.

Overuse Injuries, Overtraining, and Burnout in Young Athletes

Sports participation can have tremendous physical and mental health benefits for children. Properly implemented progressive training programs can yield a broad range of beneficial physiologic adaptations, but imbalances of training load and recovery can have important negative consequences. Overuse injuries, for example, can result from repetitive stress without sufficient recovery that leads to accumulated musculoskeletal damage. In addition, extended periods of increased training loads that exceed the intervening recovery can have systemic consequences such as overtraining syndrome, which results in decreased performance, increased injury and illness risk, and derangement of endocrine, neurologic, cardiovascular, and psychological systems. Burnout represents one of the primary reasons for attrition in youth sports. Broadly defined as physical or mental exhaustion and a reduced sense of accomplishment that leads to devaluation of sport, burnout represents a direct threat to the goal of lifelong physical activity and the wide-ranging health benefits that it provides. This clinical report is intended to provide pediatricians with information regarding the risk factors, diagnosis, management, and prevention of these conditions to assist in the identification of at-risk children, the treatment of young athletes, and the guidance of families in the promotion of safe and healthy sport participation.

Longitudinal relationships between mental toughness, resilience, cognitive appraisals and perceived performance in competitive soccer goalkeepers

The purpose of this study was twofold: (1) to examine the influence of the mental toughness (MT) trait on resilience, cognitive appraisals and perceived performance states and (2) to explore dynamic relationships between these states among soccer goalkeepers during a competitive season. Thirty-six soccer goalkeepers from regional to professional levels first voluntarily completed a questionnaire measuring their mental toughness. Subsequently, a single-item approach was used to assess resilience, cognitive appraisals (threat, loss, challenge and benefit) and subjective performance every 2 weeks for 4 months. Results of multilevel analyses showed that mental toughness significantly and positively predicted resilience, which significantly and positively predicted benefit appraisal and negatively predicted threat appraisal. Moreover, subjective performance was significantly and positively predicted by benefit appraisal. Our results also revealed the mediating role of resilience in the relationship between mental toughness and appraisals (threat and benefit) as well as the mediating role of benefit appraisal in the relationship between resilience and subjective performance. Practical applications are proposed to optimize the daily experiences of goalkeepers, such as creating a supportive climate.

Nomophobia (No Mobile Phone Phobia) and Psychological Health Issues among Young Adult Students

BACKGROUND

Smart phone use has become a part of people's everyday life. However, when the lack of using the smart phone to establish and maintain electronic communication is related to psychological distress, such a behavior may be considered a modern-age phobia, or nomophobia (no mobile phone phobia). The aims of the present study were to investigate among a sample of young adults the associations between scores for nomophobia and symptoms of depression, anxiety, stress, insomnia, and obsessive-compulsive disorders.

METHODS

A total of 537 students (mean age: 25.52 years; 42.3% females) participated in the study. They completed a booklet of self-rating questionnaires covering sociodemographic information and symptoms of nomophobia, depression, anxiety, stress, insomnia, and obsessive-compulsive disorders.

RESULTS

Higher scores for nomophobia were associated with higher scores for depression, anxiety, and stress, but not with scores for insomnia and obsessive-compulsive disorders. The regression model confirmed that symptoms of anxiety predicted nomophobia.

CONCLUSIONS

The present results support the assumption that nomophobia appears to be a mood disturbance related to stronger associations with symptoms of anxiety and, to a lesser extent, with symptoms of depression and stress. By contrast, nomophobia appeared to be unrelated to insomnia and symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorders.

Contributions of one hypothetical model of predictive relationships between psychological skills and emotional intelligence in university student-athletes: A cross-sectional study

Psychological skills are considered in sport psychology as indispensable capabilities to analyze the athlete's own vision of his or her own personality. These skills encompass self-confidence, positive and negative coping control, attentional control, visual-imaginative control, motivational level, and attitudinal control. The significance of this research lies in demonstrating the relationship established between each of the dimensions of emotional intelligence and the constituent skills of the personality. As such, this study aims to investigate the relationship between the seven factors related to psychological skills and emotional intelligence (attention, clarity, and emotional regulation). The sample comprises 163 university students pursuing degrees in Physical Activity and Sports Sciences, [70,9% (N = 117) men and 27.9% (N = 46) women] with a mean age of 20.33 years. As assessment instruments, we used two validated and standardized scales, the IPED and the TMMS-24. The main findings of this work allow us to affirm the existence of a relationship between the three dimensions of emotional intelligence and the control of both positive and negative coping, attentional control, visual-imaginative control, motivational level, and attitudinal control. In conclusion, this study underscores the necessity of cognitive and emotional training, in addition to physical training, to enhance these skills among both male and female athletes.

Competition Anxiety in Combat Sports and the Importance of Mental Toughness

Combat sports require participants to engage in potentially dangerous forms of contact-based competition. Pressure to succeed, coupled with the risk of severe injury can induce significant levels of anxiety, which if uncontrolled, can negatively impact performance and possibly promote unsporting conduct. The present study examined competitive anxiety levels of combat sports athletes and determined whether self-reported scores were associated with mental toughness and Sportspersonship attitudes. A cross-sectional survey design was used whereby participants (N = 194) completed a battery of questionnaires measuring competitive combat sport experiences, demographic details, Sportspersonship traits (compliance towards rules, respect for opponents, and game perspective), and competition anxiety (somatic, cognitive, and self-confidence; reported retrospectively). Results suggest that mentally tough athletes experience lower levels of cognitive and somatic anxiety, and higher self-confidence, prior to competitions. Findings also found that athletes endorsing more altruistic and respectful attitudes in sport (Sportspersonship) reported higher levels of competition anxiety. The findings demonstrate that mental toughness is allied to positive attributes and could potentially be operationalized to improve both the retention and performance of combat sports athletes. Thus, the authors advocate the use of mental toughness coaching interventions within combat sports.

Physical Activity Patterns, Circadian Rhythms, and Aggressive and Suicidal Behavior among a Larger Sample of the General Population Aged 15 to 34 Years

BACKGROUND

From a psychological perspective, aggressive behavior, non-suicidal self-injury and suicidal behavior could be considered dysfunctional coping strategies. Poor sleep patterns may further increase such dysfunctional coping. In contrast, regular physical activity may have the power to counteract such dysfunctional coping. Given this background, the aim of the present study was to combine categories of circadian rhythms as a proxy of normative sleep patterns and categories of physical activity patterns, and to associate these categories with aggressive behavior, non-suicidal self-injury and suicidal behavior among a larger sample of adolescents and young adults, aged 15 to 34 years.

METHOD

A total of 2991 (55.6% females) individuals aged 15 to 34 years of the so-called Ravansar non-communicable disease cohort study (RaNCD) took part in this study. Participants completed self-rating questionnaires covering circadian-related sleep patterns, regular physical activity, socio-demographic information and dimensions of aggression, non-suicidal self-injury and suicidal behavior.

RESULTS

In a first step, both sleep patterns (circadian rhythm disorder: yes vs. no) and physical activity patterns (high vs. low) were dichotomized. Next, participants were assigned to one of four prototypical clusters: No circadian sleep disorders and high physical activity ("Hi-Sleep-Hi-PA"); no circadian sleep disorders and low physical activity ("Hi-Sleep-Lo-PA"); circadian sleep disorders and high physical activity ("Lo-Sleep-Hi-PA"); circadian sleep disorders and low physical activity ("Lo-Sleep-Lo-PA"). Projecting these four clusters on dimensions of aggressive behavior, non-suicidal self-injury and suicidal behavior, the following findings were observed: Participants of the "Hi-Sleep-Hi-PA" reported the lowest scores for aggressive behavior, self-injury and suicidal behavior, compared to participants of the "Lo-Sleep-Lo-PA" cluster. No differences for aggressive behavior, self-injury and suicidal behavior were observed among participants of the "Hi-Sleep-Lo-PA" and the "Lo-Sleep-Hi-PA" clusters.

CONCLUSIONS

It appeared that the combination of favorable circadian sleep patterns and high physical activity patterns was associated with lower aggressive behavior, lower self-injury and suicidal behavior as proxies of favorable psychological functioning. In contrast, persons reporting high circadian sleep disorders and low physical activity patterns appeared to demand particular attention and counseling for both their lifestyle issues (sleep and physical activity) and their dysfunctional coping strategies.

Relationships among Sports Group Cohesion, Passion, and Mental Toughness in Chinese Team Sports Athletes

BACKGROUND

Passion is an important motivational variable that profoundly affects athletes' cognition, emotion, and behavior. This study constructed a mediating model to explore the mechanism of cohesion toward passion and mental toughness of Chinese team sports athletes and to investigate the mediating effect of harmonious passion and obsessive passion on cohesion and mental toughness.

METHODS

A questionnaire survey was conducted on 326 Chinese active athletes (M = 19.63, SD = 6.51) aged 14-26 years (54% male, 46% female) from eight sports.

RESULTS

Cohesion and its dimensions can positively predict athletes' mental toughness, and ATG-T is more important in advantage analysis. The direct and indirect paths show that cohesion affects mental toughness through the mediating effect of harmonious passion and obsessive passion. Mediating effect model has a good fit and explained 22.1% of the variance in mental toughness.

CONCLUSION

The relationship between cohesion, passion, and mental toughness reflects the psychological dynamic process from environment to motivation to sports performance. The development of team sports athletes' mental toughness can be carried out from the following points. First, the team should define a sports goal and take the needs of members into account in goal-setting. Second, the sports team should build a team culture that is enterprising, inclusive, and cooperative and emphasizes members' recognition of them. Third, the team should attach importance to the passion of the members and make good use of the team atmosphere. To protect the psychological health and long-term development of athletes, team culture should pay more attention to the cultivation of athletes' harmonious passion. Improving cohesion is beneficial to athletes' mental toughness in team sports. To protect the psychological health and long-term development of athletes, team culture should pay more attention to the cultivation of athletes' harmonious passion.

Youth Judokas Competing in Higher Age Groups Leads to a Short-Term Success

Coaches of youth judo athletes might be under the influence of some extraordinary elite judo athletes that have won elite competitions at a relatively young age and might put youth athletes under pressure to gain as much fighting experience as fast as possible. The present study aims to present a 5-year competition structure, volume and age competition categories (ACC) range in which youth judokas competed with 10-year dropout status. Data from 46 judokas were collected (M = 24; F = 22) for four categorisation classes (National-NC; Perspective-PC; International-IC; World class-WC). Competitive structure, volume, performance and number of ACC were collected from 2009 to 2013 for all age groups from scores and standings records of the National Federation. Youth judokas competed in 8 (±2) competitions per year and also competed in 3 (±1) ACC. Abroad competitions affect the fighting experience and competitive success (CS). CS showed positive correlations with the number of ACC in the year 2009 (p = 0.01), 2010 (p = 0.01) and 2011 (p = 0.04). The final observed years’ CS 2012 (p = 0.009) and 2013 (p = 0.002) showed a negative association with the number of ACC. CS in the final observed year 2013 showed a positive association (p = 0.012) with the dropout status in 2018 and a negative one with the number of abroad competitions in 2013 (p = 0.029). In total, 52% dropout was noted in 10 years. This ‘’playing-up’’ approach was shown to be successful in creating youth medalists. However, just in the short term, if implemented for too long, it starts to affect competition success negatively and increases youth athletes’ dropout. Therefore, coaches should include more competitions abroad in competitors’ primary age group, while training sessions could be done with higher age groups which would allow for gathering additional experience in a more controlled environment in their yearly periodisation.

Emotional Intelligence and Its Relationship to Basic Psychological Needs: A Structural Equation Model for Student Athletes

This paper analyses the relationship between emotional intelligence (attention, clarity and repair) and motivational mediators (relationships, autonomy and perceived competence) of students of different degrees related to physical activity and sports science. A structural equation model was estimated with a sample of university students. The results of the model are representative of this case study only and are not very generalizable due to the sample size. In any case, the results obtained show that emotional intelligence predicts the satisfaction of psychological needs for autonomy and competence in student athletes. Therefore, these demonstrations point to a relationship between both variables and highlight the importance of addressing this type of content in university classrooms in order to increase the positive effects on the psychosocial development and personal well-being of students.

Emotional Intelligence, Interpersonal Relationships and the Role of Gender in Student Athletes

The concept of emotional intelligence is related to the recognition of our own emotions, their regulation and our state of mind. Additionally, it is increasingly relevant in society in general, and in the field of sport in particular. The aim of this paper is to analyze the relationship between emotional intelligence and the theory of self-determination, specifically interpersonal relationships. For this purpose, sex was taken as a mediating variable, and a structural equation model was estimated through mediation. The sample was made up of a total of 165 active sportsmen and sportswomen who are studying undergraduate and master’s degree courses related to physical activity and sport sciences. The results show that gender acts as a mediating variable between emotional intelligence and relationships with others, becoming a mediating variable of two previously unrelated variables. The implications of these results lead us to study both emotional intelligence and its importance in the field of sport, as well as the fact of paying attention to the differences that may exist in this case depending on gender.

Emotional Intelligence as a Predictor of Motivation, Anxiety and Leadership in Athletes

Nowadays, emotional intelligence is not only understood as the recognition of our own emotions but also the regulation of these emotions. In the field of sports, the concept of sports leadership is increasingly relevant, understood as a behavioral and cognitive process closely related to sports success, based on interpersonal relationships, trust, respect and the feeling of coherence. In this study, we intend to analyze the relationship between sports success and emotional intelligence to verify their relationship and the influence of other variables such as sports anxiety. As a sample, we took a total of 165 active sportsmen and women studying for both undergraduate and master’s degrees related to the sciences of physical activity and sport. The expected results aim to demonstrate the relationship between emotional intelligence, sports leadership and sports anxiety.

Sport Participation in Early and Middle Adolescence: The Interplay Between Self-Perception and Psychobiosocial Experiences in Predicting Burnout Symptoms

Adolescence is characterized by pubertal physical changes, cognitive development, and modified social expectations. Adolescent athletes often enter a more challenging stage of athletic development associated with increased specialization, and become vulnerable to feelings of burnout. It is therefore important to consider intrapersonal psychological factors that can improve sport participation experiences and prevent burnout. Accordingly, the aim of the current study was to examine the interplay between self-perceptions and emotion-related (i.e., psychobiosocial) experiences (e.g., feeling confident, focused, determined, physically charged, and skillful) in predicting burnout symptoms in adolescents. A sample of 12–14-year-olds (n = 338, 176 girls and 162 boys; Mage = 13.42, SD = 1.12) and 15–17-year-olds (n = 302, 142 girls and 160 boys; Mage = 15.78, SD = 1.17), participating in individual or team sports, were involved in a cross-sectional study to assess positive and negative self-perceptions, functional and dysfunctional psychobiosocial experiences, and burnout symptoms (i.e., emotional and physical exhaustion, reduced sense of accomplishment, sport devaluation). Path analysis results suggest that higher scores on global physical self-perception, self-esteem, and sport competence were associated with lower burnout symptoms, while higher scores on social physique anxiety were associated with higher scores on sport devaluation. Moreover, self-esteem and sport competence were shown to have significant indirect effects on burnout dimensions via functional psychobiosocial experiences. Differences by gender (p &lt; 0.001) and by age category (p &lt; 0.001) in the variable scores were also found. Compared to girls, boys reported higher scores on competence, functional psychobiosocial experiences, global physical self-perception, self-esteem, emotional and physical exhaustion, and lower scores on social physique anxiety. Compared to 12–14-year-olds, 15–17-year-olds reported lower scores on global physical self-perception and self-esteem, and higher scores on social physique anxiety, reduced sense of accomplishment, and sport devaluation. This study adds to the literature on burnout by considering the role of intrapersonal factors (i.e., global physical self-perception, self-esteem, sport competence, and social anxiety) in predicting burnout symptoms in adolescent athletes, and the mediating effects of psychobiosocial experiences. From an applied perspective, sport coaches should implement strategies to foster positive self-perceptions, promote pleasant psychobiosocial experiences, and prevent burnout.

Boosting Student Wellbeing Despite a Pandemic: Positive Psychology Interventions and the Impact of Sleep in the United Arab Emirates

Positive psychology interventions hold great promise as schools around the world look to increase the wellbeing of young people. To reach this aim, a program was developed to generate positive emotions, as well as improve life satisfaction, mental toughness and perceptions of school kindness in 538 expatriate students in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. Starting in September 2019, the program included a range of positive psychology interventions such as gratitude, acts of kindness and mental contrasting as examples. Life satisfaction and mental toughness at mid-year were sustained or grew by the end of the year. Positive affect, emotional wellbeing and social wellbeing increased at post-intervention 1, compared to baseline. However, this improvement reverted to baseline levels at post-intervention 2, when data were collected during the COVID-19 pandemic. Only psychological wellbeing, negative affect, perceptions of control, and school kindness were increased at post-intervention 2. During the lockdown, students moved less, but slept and scrolled more. Those who extended their sleep duration reported greater wellbeing. Boosting wellbeing through the use of positive psychology interventions works – even in a pandemic – and extended sleep duration appears to be a driving factor for this observation.

Potential Prevalence, Pattern, and Risk Factors of Insomnia Symptoms in Adolescent Elite Athletes

Abstract. Sleep disorders are an important issue among elite athletes. In this study, we used data from two studies to examine the prevalence, pattern, and risk factors of insomnia symptoms among adolescent elite athletes. We assessed insomnia symptoms using the Insomnia Severity Index. The prevalence of moderate-to-severe insomnia varied between 5 – 11 %, with 36 – 54 % of the athletes reporting subthreshold insomnia and 61 – 73 % perceiving at least one insomnia symptom. Female participants were more prone to report insomnia symptoms. Dysfunctional sleep-related cognitions were the most critical risk factor. We identified three groups with distinct insomnia symptom patterns via latent class analyses: 43 % of the participants were characterized as healthy sleepers, 45 % reported medium sleep without heightened concerned about sleep problems, and 12 % reported poor sleep and were substantially worried/distressed about their impaired sleep. More information is needed on how dysfunctional sleep-related cognitions can be influenced to improve athletes’ sleep and to foster their well-being.

Alexithymia and Athletic Performance: Beneficial or Deleterious, Both Sides of the Medal? A Systematic Review

Background: Numerous studies have been published on alexithymia among athletes in the last decades. The objective, here, is to provide a critical review on alexithymia in sport and identify elements demonstrating that alexithymic athletes can attain a competitive advantage. Methods: The Center for Reviews and Dissemination guidelines were used. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines served as the template for reporting the present systematic review. We searched PubMed, Embase, Science Direct, and PsycINFO, without language or date restrictions. Results: Within 72 eligible studies, 23 articles fulfilling the selection criteria were included in the review. Alexithymia is associated with various pathologies and considered to be counter-performing. However, despite considerable suspicion of an advantageous performance effect of alexithymia, there is a lack of data to quantify this effect. Studies identified are heterogeneous (different scales of measurement of alexithymia used or outcomes, different sports), that do not allow us to conclude on an observed causal relationship, because the studies are mostly observational. Conclusion: This systematic review opens a new search field on alexithymia, as possibly promoting performance.

Personal, Work-, and Client-Related Burnout Within Strength and Conditioning Coaches and Personal Trainers

ABSTRACT

Snarr, RL and Beasley, VL. Personal, work-, and client-related burnout within strength and conditioning coaches and personal trainers. J Strength Cond Res 36(2): e31-e40, 2022-The purpose of this investigation was to examine the prevalence and influencing factors of personal, work-related, and client-related burnout within strength and conditioning coaches (SCCs) and personal trainers (PTs). Two hundred fifty-six SCCs (n = 141) and PTs (n = 115) completed the Copenhagen Burnout Inventory (CBI), a 19-item survey, measuring 3 subscales of personal, work-related, and client-related burnout. Information regarding other burnout-related factors (i.e., job satisfaction, social support, fitness level, and mental toughness) was solicited through single-item or multiple-item questionnaires. Correlational analyses and independent t-tests were conducted to assess associations and between-group differences between burnout and all continuous factors. Seventy-one subjects completed the survey before March 2020; after which, a worldwide pandemic (i.e., COVID-19) occurred possibly affecting employment workloads and work-related stress. Thus, post hoc analyses were conducted to assess differences in burnout scores pre-COVID-19 and post-COVID-19. Using a CBI subscale cutoff score of ≥50, fitness professionals reported 32.8% of personal burnout, 28.5% work-related burnout, and 18.0% client-related burnout. Factored by occupation, SCCs reported 32.6% personal burnout, 27.7% work-related burnout, and 18.4% client-related burnout. Within PTs, 33.0% reported personal burnout, 29.6% reported work-related burnout, and 17.4% reported client-related burnout. Higher levels of burnout, across all scales, were observed in those who were PTs, women, unmarried, living alone, would not choose to be a fitness professional again, and took the survey post-COVID as compared to their respective counterparts. Findings suggest that fitness professionals are not exempt from the stressors associated with personal and occupational burnout. Strength and conditioning coaches and PTs may reduce the risk of burnout by increasing social support, continuing education, and allowing for personal-care time with the intention of buffering these factors.

The Prevalence of Emotional Exhaustion in Professional and Semiprofessional Coaches

The present study examined levels of emotional exhaustion, a key symptom of burnout, in Swedish professional and semiprofessional sport coaches in comparison to the normative values specified in the Maslach Burnout Inventory manual, and to the clinical cutoffs developed by Kleijweg, Verbraak, and Van Dijk. The sample contained 318 Swedish coaches (Mage = 42.7 years, 12% female) working at least 50% full time away from both team (60%) and individual (40%) sports. Our study shows that, in general, coaches in this sample experience lower average levels of exhaustion than normative samples both regarding the Maslach Burnout Inventory and clinical cutoffs. Two groups of coaches did, however, stand out. Coaches living in single households as well as coaches working part time had higher risk of severe levels of emotional exhaustion. These results place coach exhaustion levels in relation to other occupations and highlight that in this sample, the coaching profession does not stand out as more emotionally exhausting than other occupations.

Examining the Effects of Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment Training on Self-Compassion and Grit among Elite Female Athletes

BACKGROUND

Mindfulness-based interventions are well-established in the field of psychotherapy, and such interventions have also gained increased attention in the field of sport psychology, either to cope with psychological pressure or to improve an athlete's performance. The goal of the present study was to examine whether a Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC) program could increase self-compassion and grit among elite female athletes compared to an active control condition. To this end, we performed a randomized trial among female adult athletes.

METHODS

Forty female adult athletes (M_age = 22.22, SD = 2.40) were randomly assigned either to the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment group (n = 20; 7 group sessions, 60 min each) or the active control group (n = 20; 7 group sessions, 60 min each). At baseline, seven weeks later at the end of the study and again four weeks later at follow-up, participants completed a series of self-rating questionnaires on mindfulness, self-compassion and grit.

RESULTS

Dimensions of mindfulness, self-compassion and grit improved over time, but more so in the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment condition compared to the active control condition. Improvements remained stable from the study end to follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

While the active control condition improved dimensions of mindfulness, self-compassion and grit among female adult athletes, improvements were much stronger in the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment condition. Importantly, improvements in the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment condition remained stable over a time lapse of four weeks at follow-up after study completion, suggesting that the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment intervention appeared to improve cognitive-emotional learning processes.

Adaptation and Psychometric Properties of the Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT) among Brazilian athletes

Emotional intelligence (EI) is a psychological skill that aids athletes in the control of emotions and optimization of sports performance. The present study investigated the psychometric properties of the Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT) in 508 Brazilian youth and adult athletes (mean age 18.55±4.68 years). Data analysis was conducted through Exploratory (EFA) and Confirmatory (CFA) Factor Analysis, Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability and Pearson’s Correlation (p <.05). EFA revealed the one-factor model with 26 items with the best adjustment. CFA confirmed the one-factor model with 26 items with best greater fit. No evidence of invariance was found, suggesting that the SSEIT must be used with caution when comparing gender and age groups. The external validity was found in the correlation of EI and cognitive anxiety and self-confidence. It is concluded that the Brazilian version of SSEIT for the sports context presented acceptable psychometric properties, however, showed limitations that should be explored in the future.

Mental Toughness, Sport-Related Well-Being, and Mental Health Stigma Among National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I Student-Athletes

Mental toughness has been associated with factors related to psychological well-being, but little is known about its relationship with stigma toward mental health and mental health help-seeking. This study investigated the relationship between mental toughness, sport-related well-being, and personal stigma toward mental health in a sample of 154 National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I student-athletes. The moderating effect of mental toughness on the relationship between public stigma and self-stigma toward mental health help-seeking was also explored. Mental toughness was significantly and positively associated with sport-related well-being, but not significantly related to personal stigma toward mental health. Moderation analysis indicated that mental toughness was not a significant moderator of the relationship between public stigma and self-stigma, but higher levels of mental toughness were significantly associated with lower levels of stigma toward mental health help-seeking. Building mental toughness may be a way to increase well-being and to reduce stigma toward help-seeking in student-athletes.

When Much Is Too Much-Compared to Light Exercisers, Heavy Exercisers Report More Mental Health Issues and Stress, but Less Sleep Complaints

BACKGROUND

Physical inactivity has become a global somatic and mental health issue. To counterbalance, promoting regular physical activity appears plausible, above all among adults, where physical inactivity is particularly high. However, some, but sparse, research also indicates that excessive exercising might be associated with unfavorable mental health dimensions. Here, we tested the hypothesis that excessive exercising was associated with more mental health issues. To this end, we assessed mental health issues, stress, mental toughness, and sleep disturbances among heavy and light adult exercisers.

METHODS

A total of 200 adults (mean age: 35 years; 62% females) took part in the study. Of those, 100 were heavy exercisers (18-22 h/week), and 100 were light exercisers (1-6 h/week). Participants completed questionnaires covering sociodemographic information, mental health issues, perceived stress, mental toughness, and sleep disturbances.

RESULTS

Compared with light exercisers, heavy exercisers reported higher mental health issues, more stress, but also higher mental toughness scores and less sleep disturbances. Higher age, lower mental toughness scores, heavy exerciser-status, and more sleep disturbances predicted higher mental health complaints.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with light exercising, heavy exercising might be associated with more mental health issues. As such, it appears that the association between exercise frequency, intensity, and duration and psychological well-being might be related to an optimum point, but not to a maximum point. In a similar vein, heavily exercising athletes, their coaches, parents, and representatives of sports associations should get sensitized to possible adverse psychological effects of excessive physical activity patterns.

The Potential Benefits of Non-skills Training (Mental Toughness) for Elite Athletes: Coping With the Negative Psychological Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic

The spread of COVID-19 has had a significant impact on global sport. This is especially true at the elite level, where it has disrupted training and competition. Concomitantly, restrictions have disrupted long-term event planning. Many elite athletes remain unsure when major events will occur and worry about further interruptions. Although some athletes have successfully adapted to the demands of the COVID-19 crisis, many have experienced difficulties adjusting. This has resulted in psychological complications including increased stress, anxiety, and depression. This article critically examines the extent to which non-cognitive skills training, in the form of increased awareness of Mental Toughness, can help elite athletes inoculate against and cope with negative psychological effects arising from the COVID-19 pandemic. Non-cognitive skills encompass intrapersonal (motivations, learning strategies, and self-regulation) and interpersonal (interactions with others) domains not directly affected by intellectual capacity. Previous research indicates that enhancement of these spheres can assist performance and enhance mental well-being. Moreover, it suggests that training in the form of increased awareness of Mental Toughness, can improve the ability to cope with COVID-19 related challenges. In this context, Mental Toughness encompasses a broad set of enabling attributes (i.e., inherent and evolved values, attitudes, emotions, and cognitions). Indeed, academics commonly regard Mental Toughness as a resistance resource that protects against stress. Accordingly, this article advocates the use of the 4/6Cs model of Mental Toughness (i.e., Challenge, Commitment, Control, and Confidence) to counter negative psychological effects arising from COVID-19.

Burnout and Coping Perceptions of Volleyball Players Throughout an Annual Sport Season

Burnout is a psychological syndrome of reaction to chronic stress that occurs in athletes who feel exhausted by a sport activity that was previously pleasurable and enjoyable. One technique to prevent and control the syndrome is through coping, which is the ability to deal with stressful situations. In contrast to traditional cross-sectional approaches, this study aimed to investigate burnout and coping strategy characteristics over time and to analyze the relationship between burnout dimensions and coping strategies. Fifty-four high-level volleyball athletes (twenty-eight men and twenty-six women, age M = 25.57, SD = 4.72, range 18-35) completed paper-and-pencil measures of burnout and coping four times throughout a sport season. The Friedman test presented a significant increase in the reduced sense of athletic accomplishment (X² = 20.58; p < 0.01) and sport devaluation (X² = 19.83; p < 0.01) perceptions during the season. However, no coping differences were observed through the longitudinal analysis. Burnout dimensions showed a moderate inverse correlation to confidence/motivation at all measurement points during the season. Overall, the findings suggest that burnout perceptions increase as the season progresses, highlighting the relevance for the periodization of burnout prevention and control

Determining Factors of Psychological Performance and Differences among Age Categories in Youth Football Players

Within the determining factors of psychological performance, mental toughness is considered a multidimensional factor, comprising cognitive, affective, and behavioural components together with self-confidence, which is related to success in sports performance as well as psychological health and well-being. The aim of this study was to analyse the relationship between different factors composing mental toughness and age categories in young football players, in order to determine the presence of specific psychological skills in their formative progression. A total of 118 male players (16.91 ± 2.42 years old) completed the Spanish version by Cernuda (1988) of the original Psychological Performance Inventory (PPI) by Loher (1982, 1986). The results indicated significant differences in four variables (negative energy control, attention control, visual and image control, motivational level) on three different age categories, where the U19 category showed the best results for all the variables, decreasing afterwards in the semi-professional category. Significant correlations were established between mental toughness variables and age categories, where the age category variable was significantly correlated in a positive way with attention control, visual and image control, and motivational level. In the same line, the variable self-confidence correlated positively with negative energy control, attention control, motivational level, attention control, and positive energy. The assessment of psychological variables such as mental toughness, taking into account the formative stage, may be helpful for both coaches and players when selecting adequate mental skill training for improving competitive performance and sporting success, as well as for positive and healthy psychological development and well-being.

Motives for Dropout Among Former Junior Elite Caribbean Track and Field Athletes: A Qualitative Investigation

Anecdotal reports within the Caribbean track and field fraternity have revealed that there is a high level of athlete dropout from competitive sport at the junior-elite level, and a poor transition to senior-elite status. Consequently, this qualitative investigation explored the key motives that may have contributed toward the unsuccessful transitions and ensuing dropout of Caribbean track and field athletes during the junior to senior transition period. Eleven former junior-elite track and field athletes (four males, seven females; M_age = 29, SD ± 4.2 years) from four English-speaking Caribbean islands participated in semi-structured interviews. Following an inductive and deductive thematic analysis, four higher order themes were identified: (1) “there's not enough support”; (2) “felt pressure to make sure I committed”; (3) “it's always competitive here”; and (4) “battle with the injuries.” For these former junior-elite Caribbean athletes, the decision on whether to continue within the sport was influenced by a combination of factors, although inadequate financial and organizational support had the most bearing on athletes' decision to drop out during the crucial transition years. Implications for consideration by key stakeholders and policymakers within the region are discussed.

Changes in the Health of Adolescent Athletes: A Comparison of Health Measures Collected Before and During the CoVID-19 Pandemic

CONTEXT

In the spring of 2020, schools closed to in-person teaching and sports were cancelled to control the transmission of CoVID-19. The changes that took place to the physical and mental health among young athletes during this time remain unknown, however.

OBJECTIVE

Identify changes in the health (mental health, physical activity and quality of life) of athletes that occurred during the CoVID-19 pandemic.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

SETTING

Sample recruited via social media.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

3243 Wisconsin adolescent athletes (age=16.2±1.2 yrs., female=58% female) completed an online survey in May 2020 (DuringCoVID-19). Health measures for this cohort were compared with previously reported data for Wisconsin adolescent athletes (n=5231, age=15.7±1.2, 47% female) collected in 2016-2018 (PreCoVID-19).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Demographic information included: sex, grade and sports played. Health assessments included the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 Item (PHQ-9) to identify depression symptoms, the Pediatric Functional Activity Brief Scale (PFABS) for physical activity, and the Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory 4.0 (PedsQL) for health related quality of life (HRQoL). Univariable comparisons of these variables between groups were made via t-tests or chi-square tests. Means and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for each group were estimated by survey weighted ANOVA models.

RESULTS

Compared to PreCoVID-19, a larger proportion of the During-CoVID-19 participants reported rates of moderate to severe levels of depression (9.7% vs 32.9%, p<0.001). During-CoVID-19 participants reported 50% lower (worse) PFABS scores (mean:12.2 [95%CI: 11.9, 12.5] vs 24.7 [24.5, 24.9] p<0.001) and lower (worse) PedsQL total scores compared to the PreCoVID-19 participants (78.4 [78.0, 78.8] vs. 90.9 [90.5, 91.3] p<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

During the CoVID-19 pandemic, adolescent athletes reported increased symptoms of depression, decreased physical activity and decreased quality of life compared to adolescent athletes in previous years.

What Lies Beneath: Exploring Different Depressive Symptoms Across Selected Risk Factors in Icelandic Team Sport Athletes

The aim of the study was to explore the prevalence of specific symptoms of depression in athletes and to test differences in the likelihood of athletes exhibiting these symptoms across age, sex, type of team sport, and level of competition. A sample of Icelandic male and female team sport athletes (N = 894, 18–42 years) was included in the study. Of the athletes exhibiting clinically significant depressive symptoms on the Patient Health Questionnaire-9, 37.5% did not exhibit core symptoms of depression. Compared with males, females were significantly more likely to exhibit depressed mood, feelings of worthlessness/guilt, and problems with sleep, fatigue, appetite, and concentration. Within males, differences were mostly related to neurovegetative aspects of depression (sleep and appetite), whereas in females, differences were related to cognitive/emotional aspects (e.g., depressed mood, guilt/worthlessness). The findings underline the importance of exploring specific symptoms of depression to provide a richer understanding of depressive symptomology in athletes.

Risk and Protective Factors of Generalized Anxiety Disorder of Elite Collegiate Athletes: A Cross-Sectional Study

The aim of this study was to examine the prevalence of Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) and its risk and protective factors in elite collegiate athletes. A cross-sectional survey was conducted during the 2019 in-season. A sample of elite collegiate athletes (n = 285) from China completed a self-report form assessing GAD and potential predictors including age, gender, sport type, sport achievement, sport injury, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), fear of failure, mental toughness, and satisfaction in sport. The overall prevalence of GAD symptoms was 22%. The results of zero-order correlation showed that age, gender, sport type, and sport achievement were not significantly related to GAD. However, athletes with a history of sport injury, a high risk of ADHD, and a high level of fear of failure had a significant and positive association with GAD (r = 0.14-0.54). Meanwhile, high levels of mental toughness and satisfaction in sport were significantly and negatively related to GAD (r = -0.22 to -0.24). The results of multiple regression analysis indicated that sport injury, ADHD, and fear of failure were significant risk factors of GAD (β = 0.10-0.40). These findings suggest the necessity to understand the GAD symptoms in elite collegiate athletes. Further research is needed to better understand and support the mental health of this target group.

Associations Between Cardiorespiratory Fitness and Endocrine, Autonomous and Psychological Stress Reactivity in Male Adolescents

Abstract. High stress burden during adolescence can have severe long-term health consequences. While some studies reported that adults with higher fitness levels show lower stress reactivity, research on adolescents is scarce. Accordingly, the aim of the present study was to investigate the association between cardiorespiratory fitness and physiological and psychological stress reactivity in male adolescents. Forty-three healthy, male adolescents aged 16–20 years underwent the Physical Working Capacity 170 bicycle ergometer test to determine cardiorespiratory fitness. The Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) was used to trigger a stress reaction, which was measured physiologically with changes in salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase concentrations, and psychologically using self-rated changes in state-anxiety. Under consideration of potential confounders, hierarchical regression analyses were calculated for each outcome. For cortisol and psychological stress reactivity, fitness did not significantly explain variance. However, 28% of variance in alpha-amylase reactivity were explained by fitness and sleep complaints [adjusted R2 = .28, F(2, 36) = 8.36, p = .001], with 16% of variance explained by fitness alone (β = −.41, p = .006). Accordingly, higher fitness was associated with lower stress reactivity of the autonomous nervous system in male adolescents. The promotion of cardiorespiratory fitness may therefore be considered an important factor in preventing negative health consequences of stress in this age group.

The Influence of an Acute Exercise Bout on Adolescents' Stress Reactivity, Interference Control, and Brain Oxygenation Under Stress

Background

High psychosocial stress can impair executive function in adolescents, whereas acute exercise has been reported to benefit this cognitive domain. The aim of this study was to investigate whether an acute bout of aerobic exercise improves the inhibitory aspect of executive function and the associated dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) oxygenation when under stress.

Methods

Sixty male high school students aged 16–20 years performed a Stroop task (baseline condition) and were randomly assigned to an exercise group (30 min on ergometer at 70% of maximum heart rate) and a control group (30 min of reading). Subsequently, all participants underwent a modified Trier Social Stress Test, which included a Stroop task under enhanced stress. The Stroop tasks in both conditions were combined with functional near-infrared spectroscopy to record changes in DLPFC oxygenation in response to the tasks. Stress reactivity was measured with saliva samples (cortisol, alpha-amylase), heart rate monitoring, and anxiety scores.

Results

All stress parameters indicated increases in response to the stressor (p < 0.001), with higher alpha-amylase [t(58) = −3.45, p = 0.001, d = 1.93] and anxiety [t(58) = −2.04, p = 0.046, d = 0.53] reactions in the control compared to the exercise group. Controlling for these two parameters, repeated measures analyses of covariance targeting changes in Stroop interference scores showed no main effect of stress [F(1,58) = 3.80, p = 0.056, ηp² = 0.063] and no stress × group interaction [F(1,58) = 0.43, p = 0.517, ηp² = 0.008]. Similarly, there was no main effect of stress [F(1,58) = 2.38, p = 0.128, ηp² = 0.040] and no stress × group interaction [F(1,58) = 2.80, p = 0.100, ηp² = 0.047] for DLPFC oxygenation.

Conclusion

Our study confirms potentially health-enhancing effects of acute exercise on some of the physiological and psychological stress reactivity indicators. However, our data do not support the notion of an effect on interference control and DLPFC activation under stress.

The Factorial Validity of the Norwegian Version of the Multicomponent Training Distress Scale (MTDS-N)

BACKGROUND

Athlete self-report measures (ASRM) are methods of athlete monitoring, which have gained considerable popularity in recent years. The Multicomponent Training Distress Scale (MTDS), consisting of 22 items, is a promising self-report measure to assess training distress among athletes. The present study aimed to investigate the factorial validity of the Norwegian version of MTDS (MTDS-N) among student-athletes (n = 632) attending the optional program subject "Top-Level Sports" in upper secondary schools in Norway.

METHODS

A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to assess the six-factor model proposed by Main and Grove (2009). McDonald's omega (ω) along with confidence intervals (CIs) were used to estimate scale reliability. After examining the fit of the CFA model in the total sample, covariates were included to investigate group differences in latent variables of MTDS-N, resulting in the multiple indicators multiple causes (MIMIC) model. Further, direct paths between the covariates and the factor indicators were included in an extended MIMIC model to investigate whether responses to items differed between groups, resulting in differential item functioning (DIF).

RESULTS

When modification indices (MIs) were taken into consideration, the alternative CFA model revealed that MTDS-N is an acceptable psychometric tool with a good fit index. The factors in MTDS-N all constituted high scale reliability with McDonald's ω ranging from 0.725-0.862. The results indicated statistically significant group differences in factor scores for gender, type of sport, hours of training per week, school program, and school level. Further, results showed that DIF occurred in 13 of the MTDS-N items. The student-athletes' reports of training distress were moderate.

CONCLUSION

The MTDS-N may be suitable for use in a Norwegian population to assess student-athletes' training distress in a reliable manner. The indications of group effects suggest that caution should be used if one is interested in making group comparisons when the MTDS-N is used among student-athletes in Norway until further research is conducted.

Me, Myself, and My Thoughts: The Influence of Brooding and Reflective Rumination on Depressive Symptoms in Athletes in the United Kingdom

Individual differences in vulnerability to depression are still underexplored in athletes. We tested the influence of different brooding and reflective rumination profiles (i.e., repetitive thought processes in response to low/depressed mood) on the odds of experiencing clinically relevant depressive symptoms in competitive athletes (N = 286). The Patient Health Questionnaire–9 and the Ruminative Responses Scale–short form were utilized to measure depression and rumination, respectively. Compared to athletes with a low brooding/reflection profile, athletes with a high brooding/reflection profile had significantly higher odds of experiencing clinical levels of depressive symptoms (OR = 13.40, 95% CI = 3.81–47.11). A high reflection/low brooding profile was not, however, related to increased odds of depressive symptoms. Future research could extend our findings by exploring determinants of ruminative tendencies, especially brooding, in athletes. Furthermore, psychological interventions targeting rumination could be examined as a potential prevention and treatment approach to tackling depressive symptoms in athletes.

The Influence of the Trainer's Social Behaviors on the Resilience, Anxiety, Stress, Depression and Eating Habits of Athletes

During their sporting lives, athletes must face multiple difficulties that can have consequences for their mental health and changes in their eating patterns. Therefore, the present study aims to analyze how social skills of the trainer influence the coping capacity, psychological well-being, and eating habits of the athlete, elements that are key to achieving success during competition. This study involved 1547 athletes and 127 trainer. In order to achieve the objective, the mean, standard deviation, bivariate correlations, reliability analysis and a structural equation model were analysed. The results showed that prosocial behaviours were positively related to resilience, while antisocial behaviours were negatively related. Resilience was negatively related to anxiety, stress and depression. Finally, anxiety, stress and depression were negatively related to healthy eating and positively related to unhealthy eating. These results highlight the importance of creating a positive social climate to develop coping strategies that promote mental health and healthy eating habits of athletes.

Relationships between Controlling Interpersonal Coaching Style, Basic Psychological Need Thwarting, and Burnout, in Adolescent Soccer Players

The aim of this paper is to analyze the relationships between a controlling interpersonal style, psychological need thwarting and burnout in adolescent soccer players and to test a structural equation model to analyze whether (a) a controlling interpersonal style is a predictor of psychological need thwarting and whether (b) psychological need thwarting is a predictor of burnout. A total of 103 male soccer players between the ages of 12 and 17 participated in the research (M= 14.91; SD= 5.56). The Controlling Coach Behaviors Scale, the Psychological Need Thwarting Scale, and the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire were used to evaluate the variables under study. The analyses revealed significant relationships between a controlling interpersonal style, psychological need thwarting and burnout. Furthermore, the proposed structural equations model, using the partial least squares (PLS) method, showed that a controlling style is a positive predictor of basic psychological need thwarting and that the latter is a predictor of burnout, as well as revealing an indirect relationship between a controlling style and burnout. This indirect effect of the controlling style variable on burnout can be enhanced (or attenuated) by the basic psychological need thwarting variable, which acts as a modulator.

Psychological Predictors for Depression and Burnout Among German Junior Elite Athletes

There exists a strong need for research in clinical sport psychology which does not merely gather information on prevalence rates for psychological disorders and case studies of affected athletes. Rather, research should also uncover the underlying psychological variables which increase the risk for depression and burnout in elite athletes. Many studies gather general factors (e.g., gender, injury, sport discipline) and stay on a more descriptive level. Both constructs (burnout and depression) are based on a temporal, stress-related process model assuming the development of either syndrome results from unfavorable personal (e.g., dysfunctional attitudes, perfectionism, negative coping strategies) or environmental (e.g., cohesion) factors coexisting with severe stressors (i.e., chronic stress). Integrating this knowledge, we propose a shared model for depression and burnout in athletes: a sport specific diathesis-stress model. The present longitudinal study assesses data throughout one sporting season to analyze predictors for both constructs in junior elite athletes. Hierarchical multiple linear regression analyses resulted in six predictors for best model fit. The following factors demonstrated a significant impact on predicting (a) burnout or (b) depression scores at the end of the season: dysfunctional attitudes (a and b), coping strategies (a and b), perfectionism (a), recovery (b), stress (a) and the level of depression at onset (b). Variables such as cohesion or attributional style did not significantly predict depression or burnout. The study supports the structure of a process model (diathesis-stress model) for burnout and depression with the assumption of temporal progression. With some vulnerabilities and their temporal, developmental link identified, prevention can become athlete-specific, effective and economical.

The Relationship Between Mental Toughness, Job Loss, and Mental Health Issues During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Concerns toward public well-being and mental health are increasing considering the COVID-19 pandemic's global societal and individual impact. The present study builds on the current body of COVID-19 literature by examining the role of mental toughness (MT) in predicting negative affective states (depression, anxiety and stress) during the pandemic. The study also examined the effects of changes in employment on mental health and MT. Participants (N = 723) completed a battery of questionnaires including the Mental Toughness Questionnaire 48-item, The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale - 21 items. Participants reported relatively higher levels of depression, stress and anxiety in comparison to pre-COVID-19 samples from previous research, with respondents who had lost their jobs during the pandemic reporting higher levels of negative affective states. Despite this, mentally tough individuals appeared to report lower levels of depression, anxiety and stress. Moreover, moderation analyses identified some interaction between MT and employment status when predicting depression, anxiety and stress. Our findings suggest that MT may have some utility in reducing the adverse mental health effects of the pandemic on individuals, however, further longitudinal research is needed to support these implications.

Toward Prevention of Doping in Youth Sport: Cross-Sectional Analysis of Correlates of Doping Tendency in Swimming

Doping is recognized as one of the most important problems in sports, but a limited number of studies have investigated doping problems in youth athletes. This study aimed to evaluate doping tendency (potential doping behavior (PDB)) and correlates of PDB in youth age swimmers. The participants were 241 competitive swimmers (131 females; 15.3 ± 1.1 years of age, all under 18 years old). Variables included predictors and PDB (criterion). Predictors consisted of sociodemographic factors (gender and age), sport-related variables (i.e., experience in swimming and sport achievement), variables explaining coaching strategy and training methodology, consumption of dietary supplements (DS), knowledge about doping, and knowledge about sports nutrition and DS (KSN). In addition to the descriptive statistics and differences between genders, a multinomial regression using PDB as the criterion (negative-, neutral-, or positive-PDB, with a negative-PDB as the reference value) was calculated to define associations between predictors and criterion. With only 71% of swimmers who declared negative-PDB results indicated an alarming figure. Boys with better KSN were more negatively oriented toward positive-PDB (OR: 0.77, 95%CI: 0.60–0.95). In girls, lower competitive achievement was evidenced as a risk factor for neutral-PDB (OR: 0.39, 95%CI: 0.24–0.63). Also, higher neutral-PDB (OR: 0.88, 95%CI: 0.81–0.96) and positive-PDB (OR: 0.90, 95%CI: 0.83–0.99) were identified in girls who began with intensive training in younger age. Because of the alarming figures of PDB, there is an evident need for the development of systematic antidoping educational programs in youth swimming. In doing so, focus should be placed on girls who began intensive training at an earlier age and those who did not achieve high competitive results.

The Psychosocial Implications of Sport Specialization in Pediatric Athletes

Data on the psychosocial implications of sport specialization in pediatric athletes are lacking. Sport specialization often requires increased training hours and may predispose young athletes to social isolation, poor academic performance, increased anxiety, greater stress, inadequate sleep, decreased family time, and burnout. Sport specialization frequently introduces multiple stressors that could be expected to adversely affect mental health and function in young athletes and may increase the risk for burnout. This may be confounded by altered sleep duration and quality, increased drive for elite status, and perfectionistic personality types. The signs and symptoms of burnout in young athletes can be difficult to detect. It is important to be aware of the possible diagnosis of burnout in young athletes who display vague symptoms and a decrease in academic performance. The purpose of this review was to survey the available literature on sport specialization in young athletes and its association with mental health, sleep, the drive for success in sport, and burnout.

Psychometric Assessment of Shortened Mental Toughness Questionnaires (MTQ): Factor Structure of the MTQ-18 and the MTQ-10

The 18-item Mental Toughness Questionnaire (MTQ-18) is a brief, widely used measure of mental toughness. The MTQ-18 derives from the longer MTQ-48, which comprises four independent but correlated factors (challenge, commitment, control, and confidence). Despite sampling items from across MTQ-48 dimensions, the MTQ-18 (as intended) provides a global, unidimensional score. Researchers have recently developed a further abridged version of the MTQ-18, the MTQ-10, which has demonstrated promising psychometric performance. The current paper assessed the factorial structure, reliability, predictive validity and invariance of the MTQ-18 and MTQ-10 in a sample of 944 students from English independent schools (year 11, aged 16 years). Respondents completed the MTQ-18 items online alongside the Satisfaction with Life Scale. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that the MTQ-10 was a superior general measure, because the MTQ-18 possessed additional variance to that accounted for by an unidimensional solution. Additionally, the MTQ-10 evidenced higher factor loadings and demonstrated better data-model fit. Tests of concurrent validity revealed the MTQ-10 was a stronger predictor of well-being (life satisfaction). Both the MTQ-18 and MTQ-10 demonstrated gender invariance at the configural, metric, and scalar level. Overall, although the MTQ-18 was a psychometrically acceptable measure, the MTQ-10 was a superior unidimensional measure of MT.

The Power of Faith: The Influence of Athletes' Coping Self-Efficacy on the Cognitive Processing of Psychological Stress

Coping self-efficacy (CSE) has a positive mental health effect on athletes’ ability to cope with stress. To understand the mechanism underlying the potential impact of CSE, event-related potentials (ERPs) were used to explore the neural activity of the cerebral cortex under acute psychological stress in athletes with different CSE levels. Among 106 high-level athletes, 21 high-CSE athletes and 20 low-CSE athletes were selected to participate in the experiment. A mental arithmetic task was used to induce acute psychological stress. The results showed that high-CSE athletes responded more quickly than low-CSE athletes. In the stress response stage, the N1 peak latency of low-CSE athletes was longer than that of high-CSE athletes, and the N1 amplitude was significantly larger than that of high-CSE athletes. In the feedback stage, the FRN amplitude with error feedback of high-CSE athletes was larger than that of low-CSE athletes, and the P300 amplitude with correct feedback was larger than that with error feedback. The results indicate that high-CSE athletes can better cope with stressful events, adjust their behaviors in a timely manner according to the results of their coping, and focus more on processing positive information.

Change in physical activity is not associated with change in mental distress among adolescents: the Tromsø study: Fit Futures

Background

Previous research shows that physical activity has a protective effect on mental distress in adults, but the relationship is less researched and seems more ambiguous for adolescents. Studies in this field have typically been cross-sectional by design and based on self-reported physical activity measures, which are known to be vulnerable to response bias. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between change in objectively assessed physical activity as measured by accelerometer and change in mental distress among adolescents using longitudinal data from The Tromsø Study: Fit Futures.

Method

This study was based on data from 676 upper-secondary school students (mean age 16.23 years at baseline, 45.26% boys) from The Tromsø Study: Fit Futures. Physical activity, mental distress and covariates were measured at baseline (T1) and follow-up (T2) 2 years later. Physical activity was objectively measured with an ActiGraph GT3X accelerometer over 7 days. Mental distress was measured with the Hopkins Symptom Checklist-10 (HSCL-10). Change score variables were computed as the difference between T1 and T2 in number of steps, number of minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and mental distress between T1 and T2, and analyzed using linear regression analysis.

Results

Changes in steps per day were not associated with changes in mental distress in neither the crude, partially, nor fully adjusted model. Neither was changes in minutes of MVPA per day. Interaction effects between change in both steps per day and minutes of MVPA and gender were also not statistically significant, nor was the interaction effects between baseline levels of mental distress and physical activity.

Conclusion

The results of our study indicate that for adolescents in the sample, change in physical activity is unrelated to change in mental distress over a two-year period.

Further Evidence of the Zero-Association Between Symptoms of Insomnia and Facial Emotion Recognition-Results From a Sample of Adults in Their Late 30s

Background: Restoring sleep is associated with favorable cognitive, emotional, and behavioral adaptations. As regards the association between sleep duration and facial emotion recognition (FER), results are conflicting, and as regards the association between symptoms of insomnia and FER, no study has been performed so far. Accordingly, the aim of the present study was to investigate whether subjective sleep was associated with FER, along with perceived stress and mental toughness. Method: A total of 201 police officers (mean age = 38.5 years, 64.2% males) took part in the present cross-sectional study. They completed questionnaires covering socio-demographic data, subjective symptoms of insomnia, perceived stress, and mental toughness. Further, they underwent a computerized FER test, consisting of facial emotion labeling and facial emotion matching. Results: Performance of FER (accuracy, speed) was unrelated to subjective symptoms of insomnia. Lower FER was associated with higher age, but not to perceived stress or mental toughness. No gender differences were observed. Higher symptoms of insomnia were associated with higher stress scores and lower scores of mental toughness. Conclusions: The pattern of results suggests that FER was not associated with symptoms of insomnia, understood as a proxy of sleep quality, among adults. This observation replicates those studies showing a zero-association between sleep and FER.