Tumor-derived extracellular vesicles: The metastatic organotropism drivers

Destruction of vascular endothelial glycocalyx during formation of pre-metastatic niches

A special microenvironment called the "pre-metastatic niche" is thought to help primary tumor cells migrate to new tissues and invade them, in part because the normal barrier function of the vascular endothelium is compromised. While the primary tumor itself can promote the creation of such niches by secreting pro-metastatic factors, the underlying molecular mechanisms are still poorly understood. Here, we show that the injection of primary tumor-secreted pro-metastatic factors from B16F10 melanoma or 4T1 breast cancer cells into healthy mice can induce the destruction of the vascular endothelial glycocalyx, which is a polysaccharide coating on the vascular endothelial lumen that normally inhibits tumor cell passage into and out of the circulation. However, when human umbilical vein endothelial cultures were treated in vitro with these secreted pro-metastatic factors, no significant destruction of the glycocalyx was observed, implying that this destruction requires a complex in vivo microenvironment. The tissue section analysis revealed that secreted pro-metastatic factors could clearly upregulate macrophage-related molecules such as CD11b and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in the heart, liver, spleen, lung, and kidney, which is associated with the upregulation and activation of heparanase. In addition, macrophage depletion significantly attenuated the degradation of the vascular endothelial glycocalyx induced by secreted pro-metastatic factors. This indicates that the secreted pro-metastatic factors that destroy the vascular endothelial glycocalyx rely primarily on macrophages. Our findings suggest that the formation of pre-metastatic niches involves degradation of the vascular endothelial glycocalyx, which may hence be a useful target for developing therapies to inhibit cancer metastasis.

C9orf10/Ossa regulates the bone metastasis of established lung adenocarcinoma cell subline H322L-BO4 in a mouse model

Lung cancer frequently metastasizes to the bones. An in vivo model is urgently required to identify potential therapeutic targets for the prevention and treatment of lung cancer with bone metastasis. We established a lung adenocarcinoma cell subline (H322L-BO4) that specifically showed metastasis to the leg bones and adrenal glands. This was achieved by repeated isolation of metastatic cells from the leg bones of mice. The cells were intracardially injected into nude mice. Survival was prolonged for mice that received H322L-BO4 cells versus original cells (H322L). H322L-BO4 cells did not exhibit obvious changes in general in vitro properties associated with the metastatic potential (e.g., cell growth, migration, and invasion) compared with H322L cells. However, the phosphorylation of chromosome 9 open reading frame 10/oxidative stress-associated Src activator (C9orf10/Ossa) was increased in H322L-BO4 cells. This result confirmed the increased anchorage independence through C9orf10/Ossa-mediated activation of Src family tyrosine kinase. Reduction of C9orf10/Ossa by shRNA reduced cells' metastasis to the leg bone and prolonged survival in mice. These findings indicate that H322L-BO4 cells can be used to evaluate the effect of candidate therapeutic targets against bone metastatic lung cancer cells. Moreover, C9orf10/Ossa may be a useful target for treatment of lung cancer with bone metastasis.

Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes: Characteristics and applications in disease pathology and management

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) possess a role in tissue regeneration and homeostasis because of inherent immunomodulatory capacity and the production of factors that encourage healing. There is substantial evidence that MSCs' therapeutic efficacy is primarily determined by their paracrine function including in cancers. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are basic paracrine effectors of MSCs that reside in numerous bodily fluids and cell homogenates and play an important role in bidirectional communication. MSC-derived EVs (MSC-EVs) offer a wide range of potential therapeutic uses that exceed cell treatment, while maintaining protocell function and having less immunogenicity. We describe characteristics and isolation methods of MSC-EVs, and focus on their therapeutic potential describing its roles in tissue repair, anti-fibrosis, and cancer with an emphasis on the molecular mechanism and immune modulation and clinical trials. We also explain current understanding and challenges in the clinical applications of MSC-EVs as a cell free therapy.

Unlocking the potential of exosomes in cancer research: A paradigm shift in diagnosis, treatment, and prevention

Exosomes, which are tiny particles released by cells, have the ability to transport various molecules, including proteins, lipids, and genetic material containing non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). They are associated with processes like cancer metastasis, immunity, and tissue repair. Clinical trials have shown exosomes to be effective in treating cancer, inflammation, and chronic diseases. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and dendritic cells (DCs) are common sources of exosome production. Exosomes have therapeutic potential due to their ability to deliver cargo, modulate the immune system, and promote tissue regeneration. Bioengineered exosomes could revolutionize disease treatment. However, more research is needed to understand exosomes in tumor growth and develop new therapies. This paper provides an overview of exosome research, focusing on cancer and exosome-based therapies including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and vaccines. It explores exosomes as a drug delivery system for cancer therapy, highlighting their advantages. The article discusses using exosomes for various therapeutic agents, including drugs, antigens, and RNAs. It also examines challenges with engineered exosomes. Analyzing exosomes for clinical purposes faces limitations in sensitivity, specificity, and purification. On the other hand, Nanotechnology offers solutions to overcome these challenges and unlock exosome potential in healthcare. Overall, the article emphasizes the potential of exosomes for personalized and targeted cancer therapy, while acknowledging the need for further research.

Nanomaterial-Based Strategies for Preventing Tumor Metastasis by Interrupting the Metastatic Biological Processes

Tumor metastasis is the primary cause of cancer-related deaths. The prevention of tumor metastasis has garnered notable interest and interrupting metastatic biological processes is considered a potential strategy for preventing tumor metastasis. The tumor microenvironment (TME), circulating tumor cells (CTCs), and premetastatic niche (PMN) play crucial roles in metastatic biological processes. These processes can be interrupted using nanomaterials due to their excellent physicochemical properties. However, most studies have focused on only one aspect of tumor metastasis. Here, the hypothesis that nanomaterials can be used to target metastatic biological processes and explore strategies to prevent tumor metastasis is highlighted. First, the metastatic biological processes and strategies involving nanomaterials acting on the TME, CTCs, and PMN to prevent tumor metastasis are briefly summarized. Further, the current challenges and prospects of nanomaterials in preventing tumor metastasis by interrupting metastatic biological processes are discussed. Nanomaterial-and multifunctional nanomaterial-based strategies for preventing tumor metastasis are advantageous for the long-term fight against tumor metastasis and their continued exploration will facilitate rapid progress in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of tumor metastasis. Novel perspectives are outlined for developing more effective strategies to prevent tumor metastasis, thereby improving the outcomes of patients with cancer.

Tumor-derived microvesicles for cancer therapy

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are vesicles with lipid bilayer structures shed from the plasma membrane of cells. Microvesicles (MVs) are a subset of EVs containing proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and other metabolites. MVs can be produced under specific cell stimulation conditions and isolated by modern separation technology. Due to their tumor homing and large volume, tumor cell-derived microvesicles (TMVs) have attracted interest recently and become excellent delivery carriers for therapeutic vaccines, imaging agents or antitumor drugs. However, preparing sufficient and high-purity TMVs and conducting clinical transformation has become a challenge in this field. In this review, the recent research achievements in the generation, isolation, characterization, modification, and application of TMVs in cancer therapy are reviewed, and the challenges facing therapeutic applications are also highlighted.

Engineered exosomes-based theranostic strategy for tumor metastasis and recurrence

Metastasis-associated processes are the predominant instigator of fatalities linked to cancer, wherein the pivotal role of circulating tumor cells lies in the resurgence of malignant growth. In recent epochs, exosomes, constituents of the extracellular vesicle cohort, have garnered attention within the field of tumor theranostics owing to their inherent attributes encompassing biocompatibility, modifiability, payload capacity, stability, and therapeutic suitability. Nonetheless, the rudimentary functionalities and limited efficacy of unmodified exosomes curtail their prospective utility. In an effort to surmount these shortcomings, intricate methodologies amalgamating nanotechnology with genetic manipulation, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and optical intervention present themselves as enhanced avenues to surveil and intercede in tumor metastasis and relapse. This review delves into the manifold techniques currently employed to engineer exosomes, with a specific focus on elucidating the interplay between exosomes and the metastatic cascade, alongside the implementation of tailored exosomes in abating tumor metastasis and recurrence. This review not only advances comprehension of the evolving landscape within this domain but also steers the trajectory of forthcoming investigations.

The Role of Exosome-Derived microRNA on Lung Cancer Metastasis Progression

The high mortality from lung cancer is mainly attributed to the presence of metastases at the time of diagnosis. Despite being the leading cause of lung cancer death, the underlying molecular mechanisms driving metastasis progression are still not fully understood. Recent studies suggest that tumor cell exosomes play a significant role in tumor progression through intercellular communication between tumor cells, the microenvironment, and distant organs. Furthermore, evidence shows that exosomes release biologically active components to distant sites and organs, which direct metastasis by preparing metastatic pre-niche and stimulating tumorigenesis. As a result, identifying the active components of exosome cargo has become a critical area of research in recent years. Among these components are microRNAs, which are associated with tumor progression and metastasis in lung cancer. Although research into exosome-derived microRNA (exosomal miRNAs) is still in its early stages, it holds promise as a potential target for lung cancer therapy. Understanding how exosomal microRNAs promote metastasis will provide evidence for developing new targeted treatments. This review summarizes current research on exosomal miRNAs' role in metastasis progression mechanisms, focusing on lung cancer.

Exosomes: a potential diagnostic and treatment modality in the quest for counteracting cancer

BACKGROUND

Exosomes are nanosized bio vesicles formed when multivesicular bodies and the plasma membrane merge and discharge into bodily fluids. They are well recognized for facilitating intercellular communication by transporting numerous biomolecules, including DNA, RNAs, proteins, and lipids, and have been implicated in varied diseases including cancer. Exosomes may be altered to transport a variety of therapeutic payloads, including as short interfering RNAs, antisense oligonucleotides, chemotherapeutic drugs, and immunological modulators, and can be directed to a specific target. Exosomes also possess the potential to act as a diagnostic biomarker in cancer, in addition to their therapeutic potential.

CONCLUSION

In this review, the physiological roles played by exosomes were summarized along with their biogenesis process. Different isolation techniques of exosomes including centrifugation-based, size-based, and polymer precipitation-based techniques have also been described in detail with a special focus on cancer therapeutic applications. The review also shed light on techniques of incubation of drugs with exosomes and their characterization methods covering the most advanced techniques. Myriad applications of exosomes in cancer as diagnostic biomarkers, drug delivery carriers, and chemoresistance-related issues have been discussed at length. Furthermore, a brief overview of exosome-based anti-cancer vaccines and a few prominent challenges concerning exosomal delivery have been concluded at the end.

Potential role of human umbilical cord stem cells-derived exosomes as novel molecular inhibitors of hepatocellular carcinoma growth

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most critical cancers; thus, novel therapeutical regimens are of great need. In this study, we investigated the effects of umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (UC-MSCs) derived exosomes on HepG2 cell line, and the underlying mechanism to control HCC proliferation, to identify the potential clinical role of exosomes as a novel molecular therapeutic target. Proliferation, apoptosis, and angiogenesis effects were assessed together with the cell viability evaluation by MTT assay in HepG2 cells at 24/48 h. with or without UC-MSCs-derived exosomes. Gene expressions of TNF-α, caspase-3, VEGF, stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1), and CX chemokine receptor-4 (CXCR-4) were measured by quantitative real-time PCR technique. Expression of sirtuin-1 (SIRT-1) protein was detected by western blot. Treatment of HepG2 cells with UC-MSCs-derived exosomes for 24 and 48 h. demonstrated a significant reduction of cells survival compared to the control group (p < 0.05). The SIRT-1 protein, and VEGF, SDF-1, CXCR-4 expression levels were significantly lower, TNF-α and caspase-3 expression levels were significantly higher in exosomal-treated HepG2 cells for 24 and 48 h. than those in the control group. Moreover, our findings documented that the anti-proliferative, apoptotic, and anti-angiogenic effects were achieved in a time-dependent manner in which more effects were determined after 48 h supplementation compared to 24 h (p < 0.05). UC-MSCs-derived exosomes exert anticarcinogenic molecular effects on HepG2 cells through the involvement of SIRT-1, SDF-1, and CXCR-4. Hence, exosomes would be a potential novel therapy regimen against HCC. Large-scale studies are recommended to verify this conclusion.

Mesenchymal stem cells and their derived exosomes for ALI/ARDS: A promising therapy

Acute lung injury (ALI)/acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a serious clinical syndrome with a high morbidity and mortality. Presently, therapeutic approaches for ALI/ARDS primarily revolve around symptomatic supportive care encompassing mechanical ventilation and fluid management. Regrettably, the prognosis for most ALI/ARDS patients remains bleak due to the absence of effective treatment strategies. Even survivors of ALI/ARDS may have long-term pulmonary dysfunction and cognitive impairment. The quality of life has been seriously compromised. The emergence of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and their exosomes has opened up an expansive realm of potential and optimism for addressing the plight of ALI/ARDS patients, as MSCs and their derived exosomes exhibit multifaceted capabilities, including anti-inflammatory properties, facilitation of tissue repair and regeneration, and apoptosis inhibition. Therefore, future research should focus on the possible mechanisms of MSCs and their derived exosomes for the treatment of ALI/ARDS and open up new avenues for their clinical applications.

Application of cell-derived exosomes in the hematological malignancies therapy

Exosomes are small membrane vesicles of endocytic origin that are produced by both tumor and normal cells and can be found in physiological fluids like plasma and cell culture supernatants. They include cytokines, growth factors, proteins, lipids, RNAs, and metabolites and are important intercellular communication controllers in several disorders. According to a vast amount of research, exosomes could support or inhibit tumor start and diffusion in a variety of solid and hematological malignancies by paracrine signaling. Exosomes are crucial therapeutic agents for a variety of illnesses, such as cancer and autoimmune diseases. This review discusses the most current and encouraging findings from in vitro and experimental in vivo research, as well as the scant number of ongoing clinical trials, with a focus on the impact of exosomes in the treatment of malignancies. Exosomes have great promise as carriers of medications, antagonists, genes, and other therapeutic materials that can be incorporated into their core in a variety of ways. Exosomes can also alter the metabolism of cancer cells, alter the activity of immunologic effectors, and alter non-coding RNAs, all of which can alter the tumor microenvironment and turn it from a pro-tumor to an anti-tumor milieu. This subject is covered in the current review, which also looks at how exosomes contribute to the onset and progression of hematological malignancies, as well as their importance in diagnosing and treating these conditions.

Biogenesis and function of exosome lncRNAs and their role in female pathological pregnancy

Preeclampsia, gestational diabetes mellitus, and recurrent spontaneous abortion are common maternal pregnancy complications that seriously endanger women's lives and health, and their occurrence is increasing year after year with a rejuvenation trend. In contrast to biomarkers found freely in tissues or body fluids, exosomes exist in a relatively independent environment and provide a higher level of stability. As backbone molecules, guidance molecules, and signaling molecules in the nucleus, lncRNAs can regulate gene expression. In the cytoplasm, lncRNAs can influence gene expression levels by modifying mRNA stability, acting as competitive endogenous RNAs to bind miRNAs, and so on. Exosomal lncRNAs can exist indefinitely and are important in intercellular communication and signal transduction. Changes in maternal serum exosome lncRNA expression can accurately and timely reflect the progression and regression of pregnancy-related diseases. The purpose of this paper is to provide a reference for clinical research on the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment methods of pregnancy-related diseases by reviewing the role of exosome lncRNAs in female pathological pregnancy and related molecular mechanisms.

Cancer stem cell-derived exosome-induced metastatic cancer: An orchestra within the tumor microenvironment

Although the mechanisms as well as pathways associated with cancer stem cell (CSC) maintenance, expansion, and tumorigenicity have been extensively studied and the role of tumor cell (TC)-derived exosomes in this process is well understood, there is a paucity of research focusing specifically on the functional mechanisms of CSC-derived exosomes (CSC-Exo)/-exosomal-ncRNAs and their impact on malignancy. This shortcoming needs to be addressed, given that these vesicular and molecular components of CSCs could have a great impact on the cancer initiation, progression, and recurrence through their interaction with other key tumor microenvironment (TME) components, such as MSCs/MSC-Exo and CAFs/CAF-Exo. In particular, understanding CSCs/CSC-Exo and its crosstalk with MSCs/MSC-Exo or CAFs/CAF-Exo that are associated with the proliferation, migration, differentiation, angiogenesis, and metastasis through an enhanced process of self-renewal, chemotherapy as well as radiotherapy resistance may aid cancer treatment. This review contributes to this endeavor by summarizing the characteristic features and functional mechanisms of CSC-Exo/MSC-Exo/CAF-Exo and their mutual impact on cancer progression and therapy resistance.

Low-dose aspirin can inhibit exosomal release induced by radiotherapy in breast cancer and attenuate its inhibitory effect on NK cell proliferation

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer (BC) seriously threatens women's health. Aspirin plays a key role in the treatment and prognosis of BC.

OBJECTIVE

To explore the effect of low-dose aspirin on BC radiotherapy through the mechanism of exosomes and natural killer (NK) cells.

METHODS

BC cells were injected into the left chest wall to establish a BC model in nude mice. Tumor morphology and size were observed. Immunohistochemical staining for Ki-67 was used to observe the proliferation of tumor cells. TUNEL was used to detect the apoptosis of cancer cells. Protein levels of exosomal biogenesis- and secretion-related genes (Rab 11, Rab27a, Rab27b, CD63, and Alix) were detected by Western blot. Flow cytometry was used to detect apoptosis. Transwell assays were used to detect cell migration. A clonogenic assay was used to detect cell proliferation. Exosomes of BT549 and 4T1-Luc cells were extracted and observed by electron microscopy. After the coculture of exosomes and NK cells, the activity of NK cells was detected by CCK-8.

RESULTS

The protein expression of genes related to exosomal genesis and secretion (Rab 11, Rab27a, Rab27b, CD63, and Alix) in BT549 and 4T1-Luc cells was upregulated under radiotherapy treatment. Low doses of aspirin inhibited exosome release from BT549 and 4T1-Luc cells and alleviated the inhibitory effect of BC cell exosomes on NK cell proliferation. In addition, knocking down Rab27a reduced the protein levels of exosome-related and secretion-related genes in BC cells, further enhancing the promotive effect of aspirin on NK cell proliferation, while overexpressing Rab27a had the opposite effect. Aspirin was combined at a radiotherapeutic dose of 10 Gy to enhance the radiotherapy sensitivity of radiotherapy-tolerant BC cells (BT549R and 4T1-LucR). Animal experiments have also verified that aspirin can promote the killing effect of radiotherapy on cancer cells and significantly inhibit tumor growth.

CONCLUSION

Low doses of aspirin can inhibit the release of BC exosomes induced by radiotherapy and weaken their inhibition of NK cell proliferation, promoting radiotherapy resistance.

Exosomal miR-17-92 derived from human mesenchymal stem cells promotes wound healing by enhancing angiogenesis and inhibiting endothelial cell ferroptosis

BACKGROUND

Wound healing is a complex and dynamic process that involves a series of cellular and molecular events. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and their exosomes (MSC-Exos) have crucial functions in cutaneous wound healing. MiR-17-92 is a multifunctional microRNA (miRNA) cluster that plays vital roles in tissue development and tumor angiogenesis. This study aimed to explore the function of miR-17.92 in wound healing as a component of MSC-Exos.

METHODS

Human MSCs were cultured in serum-free medium, and exosomes were collected by ultracentrifugation. The levels of miR-17-92 in MSCs and MSC-Exos were determined by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. MSC-Exos were topically applied to full-thickness excision wounds in the skin of miR-17-92 knockout (KO) and wild-type (WT) mice. The proangiogenic and antiferroptotic effects of MSC-Exos overexpressing miR-17-92 were assayed by evaluating the relative levels of angiogenic and ferroptotic markers.

RESULTS

MiRNA-17-92 was found to be highly expressed in MSCs and enriched in MSC-Exos. Moreover, MSC-Exos promoted the proliferation and migration of human umbilical vein endothelial cells in vitro. KO of miR-17-92 effectively attenuated the promotion of wound healing by MSC-Exos. Furthermore, exosomes derived from miR-17-92-overexpressing human umbilical cord-derived MSCs accelerated cell proliferation, migration, angiogenesis, and enhanced against erastin-induced ferroptosis in vitro. miR-17-92 plays a key role in the protective effects of MSC-Exos against erastin-induced ferroptosis in HUVECs CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that miR-17-92 participates in the repair ability of MSC-Exos and that miR-17-92-overexpressing exosomes may represent a new strategy for cutaneous wound repair.

Cancer Bioenergetics and Tumor Microenvironments-Enhancing Chemotherapeutics and Targeting Resistant Niches through Nanosystems

Cancer is an impending bottleneck in the advanced scientific workflow to achieve diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic success. Most cancers are refractory to conventional diagnostic and chemotherapeutics due to their limited targetability, specificity, solubility, and side effects. The inherent ability of each cancer to evolve through various genetic and epigenetic transformations and metabolic reprogramming underlies therapeutic limitations. Though tumor microenvironments (TMEs) are quite well understood in some cancers, each microenvironment differs from the other in internal perturbations and metabolic skew thereby impeding the development of appropriate diagnostics, drugs, vaccines, and therapies. Cancer associated bioenergetics modulations regulate TME, angiogenesis, immune evasion, generation of resistant niches and tumor progression, and a thorough understanding is crucial to the development of metabolic therapies. However, this remains a missing element in cancer theranostics, necessitating the development of modalities that can be adapted for targetability, diagnostics and therapeutics. In this challenging scenario, nanomaterials are modular platforms for understanding TME and achieving successful theranostics. Several nanoscale particles have been successfully researched in animal models, quite a few have reached clinical trials, and some have achieved clinical success. Nanoparticles exhibit an intrinsic capability to interact with diverse biomolecules and modulate their functions. Furthermore, nanoparticles can be functionalized with receptors, modulators, and drugs to facilitate specific targeting with reduced toxicity. This review discusses the current understanding of different theranostic nanosystems, their synthesis, functionalization, and targetability for therapeutic modulation of bioenergetics, and metabolic reprogramming of the cancer microenvironment. We highlight the potential of nanosystems for enhanced chemotherapeutic success emphasizing the questions that remain unanswered.

The tumor immune microenvironment in pancreatic cancer and its potential in the identification of immunotherapy biomarkers

INTRODUCTION

Pancreatic cancer (PC) has an extremely poor prognosis, even with surgical resection and triplet chemotherapy treatment. Cancer immunotherapy has been recently approved for tumor-agnostic treatment with genome analysis, including in PC. However, it has limited efficacy.

AREAS COVERED

In addition to the low tumor mutation burden, one of the difficulties of immunotherapy in PC is the presence of abundant stromal cells in its microenvironment. Among stromal cells, cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) play a major role in immunotherapy resistance, and CAF-targeted therapies are currently under development, including those in combination with immunotherapies. Meanwhile, microbiomes and tumor-derived exosomes (TDEs) have been shown to alter the behavior of distant receptor cells in PC. This review discusses the role of CAFs, microbiomes, and TDEs in PC tumor immunity.

EXPERT OPINION

Elucidating the mechanisms by which CAFs, microbiomes, and TDEs are involved in the tumorigenesis of PC will be helpful for developing novel immunotherapeutic strategies and identifying companion biomarkers for immunotherapy. Spatial single-cell analysis of the tumor microenvironment will be useful for identifying biomarkers of PC immunity. Furthermore, given the complexity of immune mechanisms, artificial intelligence models will be beneficial for predicting the efficacy of immunotherapy.

Serum extracellular vesicles derived hsa-miR-320d as an indicator for progression of clear cell renal cell carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is a prevalent malignancy with a rising incidence in developing countries. Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) constitutes 70% of RCC cases and is prone to metastasis and recurrence, yet lacks a liquid biomarker for surveillance. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have shown promise as biomarkers in various malignancies. In this study, we investigated the potential of serum EV-derived miRNAs as a biomarker for ccRCC metastasis and recurrence.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Patients diagnosed with ccRCC between 2017 and 2020 were recruited in this study. In the discovery phase, high throughput small RNA sequencing was used to analyze RNA extracted from serum EVs derived from localized ccRCC (LccRCC) and advanced ccRCC (AccRCC). In the validation phase, qPCR was employed for quantitative detection of candidate biomarkers. Migration and invasion assays were performed on ccRCC cell line OSRC2.

RESULTS

Serum EVs derived hsa-miR-320d was significantly up-regulated in patients with AccRCC than in patients with LccRCC (p < 0.01). In addition, Serum EVs derived hsa-miR-320d was also significantly up-regulated in patients who experienced recurrence or metastasis (p < 0.01). Besides, hsa-miR-320d enhances the pro-metastatic phenotype of ccRCC cells in vitro.

CONCLUSIONS

Serum EVs derived hsa-miR-320d as a liquid biomarker exhibits significant potential for identifying the recurrence or metastasis of ccRCC, as well as hsa-miR-320d promotes ccRCC cells migration and invasion.

Horizontal Transfer of Malignant Traits and the Involvement of Extracellular Vesicles in Metastasis

Metastases are responsible for the vast majority of cancer deaths, yet most therapeutic efforts have focused on targeting and interrupting tumor growth rather than impairing the metastatic process. Traditionally, cancer metastasis is attributed to the dissemination of neoplastic cells from the primary tumor to distant organs through blood and lymphatic circulation. A thorough understanding of the metastatic process is essential to develop new therapeutic strategies that improve cancer survival. Since Paget's original description of the "Seed and Soil" hypothesis over a hundred years ago, alternative theories and new players have been proposed. In particular, the role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) released by cancer cells and their uptake by neighboring cells or at distinct anatomical sites has been explored. Here, we will outline and discuss these alternative theories and emphasize the horizontal transfer of EV-associated biomolecules as a possibly major event leading to cell transformation and the induction of metastases. We will also highlight the recently discovered intracellular pathway used by EVs to deliver their cargoes into the nucleus of recipient cells, which is a potential target for novel anti-metastatic strategies.

M1 macrophage-derived exosomes containing miR-150 inhibit glioma progression by targeting MMP16

A large amount of clinical and experimental evidence indicates that M1 macrophages can inhibit tumor progression and expansion; however, the molecular mechanism by which macrophage-derived exosomes inhibit the proliferation of glioblastoma cells has not yet been elucidated. Here, we used M1 macrophage exosomes encapsulating microRNAs to inhibit the proliferation of glioma cells. Exosomes derived from M1 macrophages exhibited high expression levels of miR-150, and the inhibition of glioma cell proliferation mediated by exosomes derived from M1 macrophages was dependent on this microRNA. Mechanistically, miR-150 is transferred to glioblastoma cells through M1 macrophages and binds to MMP16, downregulating its expression and inhibiting glioma progression. Overall, these findings indicate that M1 macrophage-derived exosomes carrying miR-150 inhibit the proliferation of glioblastoma cells through targeted binding to MMP16. This dynamic mutual influence between glioblastoma cells and M1 macrophages provides new opportunities for the treatment of glioma.

Fusobacterium nucleatum-derived small extracellular vesicles facilitate tumor growth and metastasis via TLR4 in breast cancer

BACKGROUND

The contributive role of the microbiome in tumor progression has been reported in multiple studies, such as the Fusobacterium nucleatum (F. nucleatum) in breast cancer (BC). This study aimed to explore the role of F. nucleatum-derived small extracellular vesicles (Fn-EVs) in BC and preliminarily uncover the mechanism.

METHODS

Ten normal and 20 cancerous breast tissues were harvested to investigate the gDNA expression of F. nucleatum and its relation with the clinical characteristics of BC patients. After isolating Fn-EVs by ultracentrifugation from F. nucleatum (ATCC 25,586), both MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 cells were treated with PBS, Fn, or Fn-EVs, followed by being subjected to CCK-8, Edu staining, wound healing, and Transwell assays to detect their cell viability, proliferation, migration, and invasion. TLR4 expression in BC cells with diverse treatments was assessed by western blot. In vivo experiments were performed to verify its role in tumor growth and liver metastasis.

RESULTS

The F. nucleatum gDNA levels of breast tissues in BC patients were significantly higher than those in normal subjects, and positively associated with tumor size and metastasis. Fn-EVs administration significantly enhanced the cell viability, proliferation, migration, and invasion of BC cells, while knocking down TLR4 in BC cells could block these effects. Furthermore, in vivo study verified the contributive role of Fn-EVs in tumor growth and metastasis of BC, which might rely on its regulation of TLR4.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, our results suggest that F. nucleatum plays an important role in BC tumor growth and metastasis by regulating TLR4 through Fn-EVs. Thus, a better understanding of this process may aid in the development of novel therapeutic agents.

Small extracellular vesicle-mediated metabolic reprogramming: from tumors to pre-metastatic niche formation

Metastasis, the spread of a tumor or cancer from the primary site of the body to a secondary site, is a multi-step process in cancer progression, accounting for various obstacles in cancer treatment and most cancer-related deaths. Metabolic reprogramming refers to adaptive metabolic changes that occur in cancer cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME) to enhance their survival ability and metastatic potential. Stromal cell metabolism also changes to stimulate tumor proliferation and metastasis. Metabolic adaptations of tumor and non-tumor cells exist not only in the TME but also in the pre-metastatic niche (PMN), a remote TME conducive for tumor metastasis. As a novel mediator in cell-to-cell communication, small extracellular vesicles (sEVs), which have a diameter of 30-150 nm, reprogram metabolism in stromal and cancer cells within the TME by transferring bioactive substances including proteins, mRNAs and miRNAs (microRNAs). sEVs can be delivered from the primary TME to PMN, affecting PMN formation in stroma rewriting, angiogenesis, immunological suppression and matrix cell metabolism by mediating metabolic reprogramming. Herein, we review the functions of sEVs in cancer cells and the TME, how sEVs facilitate PMN establishment to trigger metastasis via metabolic reprogramming, and the prospective applications of sEVs in tumor diagnosis and treatment. Video Abstract.

Surface-Engineered Extracellular Vesicles in Cancer Immunotherapy

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid bilayer-enclosed bodies secreted by all cell types. EVs carry bioactive materials, such as proteins, lipids, metabolites, and nucleic acids, to communicate and elicit functional alterations and phenotypic changes in the counterpart stromal cells. In cancer, cells secrete EVs to shape a tumor-promoting niche. Tumor-secreted EVs mediate communications with immune cells that determine the fate of anti-tumor therapeutic effectiveness. Surface engineering of EVs has emerged as a promising tool for the modulation of tumor microenvironments for cancer immunotherapy. Modification of EVs' surface with various molecules, such as antibodies, peptides, and proteins, can enhance their targeting specificity, immunogenicity, biodistribution, and pharmacokinetics. The diverse approaches sought for engineering EV surfaces can be categorized as physical, chemical, and genetic engineering strategies. The choice of method depends on the specific application and desired outcome. Each has its advantages and disadvantages. This review lends a bird's-eye view of the recent progress in these approaches with respect to their rational implications in the immunomodulation of tumor microenvironments (TME) from pro-tumorigenic to anti-tumorigenic ones. The strategies for modulating TME using targeted EVs, their advantages, current limitations, and future directions are discussed.

Wingless/It/β-catenin signaling in liver metastasis from colorectal cancer: A focus on biological mechanisms and therapeutic opportunities

The liver is the most common site of metastases in patients with colorectal cancer. Colorectal liver metastases (CRLMs) are the result of molecular mechanisms that involve different cells of the liver microenvironment. The aberrant activation of Wingless/It (Wnt)/β-catenin signals downstream of Wnt ligands initially drives the oncogenic transformation of the colon epithelium, but also the progression of metastatization through the epithelial-mesenchymal transition/mesenchymal-epithelial transition interactions. In liver microenvironment, metastatic cells can also survive and adapt through dormancy, which makes them less susceptible to pro-apoptotic signals and therapies. Treatment of CRLMs is challenging due to its variability and heterogeneity. Advances in surgery and oncology have been made in the last decade and a pivotal role for Wnt/β-catenin pathway has been re-cognized in chemoresistance. At the state of art, there is a lack of clear understanding of why and how this occurs and thus where exactly the opportunities for developing anti-CRLMs therapies may lie. In this review, current knowledge on the involvement of Wnt signaling in the development of CRLMs was considered. In addition, an overview of useful biomarkers with a revision of surgical and non-surgical therapies currently accepted in the clinical practice for colorectal liver metastasis patients were provided.

Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomal miR-150-3p Affects Intracerebral Hemorrhage By Regulating TRAF6/NF-κB Axis, Gut Microbiota and Metabolism

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a severe subtype of stroke for which there is no effective treatment. Stem cell and exosome (Exo) therapies have great potential as new approaches for neuroprotection and neurorestoration in treating ICH. We aimed to investigate whether Exo affects ICH by regulating the ecology of gut microbiota and metabolism and the mechanisms involved. First, differential miRNAs in ICH were screened by bioinformatics and verified by qRT-PCR. Then, Exo was extracted from mouse bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and identified. Dual-luciferase reporter gene assay was utilized to verify the binding relationship between miR-150-3p and TRAF6. A mouse ICH model was constructed and treated with Exo. Next, we knocked down miR-150-3p and performed fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT). Then changes in gut microbiota and differential metabolites were detected by 16S rRNA sequencing and metabolomics analysis. We found that miR-150-3p expression was lowest in the brain tissue of the ICH group compared to the Sham group. Besides, low miR-150-3p level in ICH was encapsulated by MSC-derived Exo. Moreover, miR-150-3p bound to TRAF6 and was negatively correlated. With the addition of Exo^{miR-150-3p inhibitor}, we found that MSC-derived exosomal miR-150-3p may affect ICH injury via TRAF6/NLRP3 axis. MSC-derived exosomal miR-150-3p caused changes in gut microbiota, including Proteobacteria, Muribaculaceae, Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group, and Acinetobacter. Moreover, MSC-derived exosomal miR-150-3p caused changes in metabolism. After further FMT, gut microbiota-mediated MSC-derived Exo affected ICH with reduced apoptosis and reduced levels of inflammatory factors. In conclusion, MSC-derived exosomal miR-150-3p affected ICH by regulating TRAF6/NF-κB axis, gut microbiota and metabolism.

A review of the regulatory mechanisms of extracellular vesicles-mediated intercellular communication

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small, membrane-bound structures that are released from cells into the surrounding environment. These structures can be categorized as exosomes, microvesicles, or apoptotic vesicles, and they play an essential role in intercellular communication. These vesicles are attracting significant clinical interest as they offer the potential for drug delivery, disease diagnosis, and therapeutic intervention. To fully understand the regulation of intercellular communication through EVs, it is essential to investigate the underlying mechanisms. This review aims to provide a summary of the current knowledge on the intercellular communications involved in EV targeting, binding, and uptake, as well as the factors that influence these interactions. These factors include the properties of the EVs, the cellular environment, and the recipient cell. As the field of EV-related intercellular communication continues to expand and techniques improve, we can expect to uncover more information about this complex area, despite the current limitations in our knowledge.

Non-Coding RNAs Derived from Extracellular Vesicles Promote Pre-Metastatic Niche Formation and Tumor Distant Metastasis

Metastasis is a critical stage of tumor progression, a crucial challenge of clinical therapy, and a major cause of tumor patient death. Numerous studies have confirmed that distant tumor metastasis is dependent on the formation of pre-metastatic niche (PMN). Recent studies have shown that extracellular vesicles (EVs) play an important role in PMN formation. The non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) derived from EVs mediate PMN formation and tumor-distant metastasis by promoting an inflammatory environment, inhibiting anti-tumor immune response, inducing angiogenesis and permeability, and by microenvironmental reprogramming. Given the stability and high abundance of ncRNAs carried by EVs in body fluids, they have great potential for application in tumor diagnosis as well as targeted interventions. This review focuses on the mechanism of ncRNAs derived from EVs promoting tumor PMN formation and distant metastasis to provide a theoretical reference for strategies to control tumor metastasis.

From Exosome Biogenesis to Absorption: Key Takeaways for Cancer Research

Exosomes are mediators of intercellular communication in normal physiology and diseases. While many studies have emerged on the function of exosomal cargoes, questions remain regarding the origin of these exosomes. The packaging and secretion of exosomes in different contexts modify exosomal composition, which may in turn impact delivery, uptake and cargo function in recipient cells. A mechanistic understanding of exosome biology is therefore crucial to investigating exosomal function in complex biological systems and to the development of novel therapeutic approaches. Here, we outline the steps in exosome biogenesis, including endosome formation, MVB formation, cargo sorting and extracellular release, as well as exosome absorption, including targeting, interaction with recipient cells and the fate of internalized exosomes. In addition to providing a framework of exosome dynamics, we summarize current evidence on major pathways and regulatory mechanisms. We also highlight the various mechanisms observed in cancer and point out directions to improve study design in exosome biology. Further research is needed to illuminate the relationship between exosome biogenesis and function, which will aid the development of translational applications.

Therapeutic application of mesenchymal stem cells derived exosomes in neurodegenerative diseases: A focus on non-coding RNAs cargo, drug delivery potential, perspective

Despite the massive efforts advanced over recent years in emerging therapies for neurodegenerative diseases, effective treatment for these diseases is still an urgent need. The application of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) derived exosomes (MSCs-Exo) as a novel therapy for neurodegenerative diseases holds great promise. A growing body of data now suggests that an innovative cell-free therapy, MSCs-Exo, may establish a fascinating alternative therapy due to their unique advantages over MSCs. Notable, MSCs-Exo can infiltrate the blood-brain barrier and then well distribute non-coding RNAs into injured tissues. Research shows that non-coding RNAs of MSCs-Exo are vital effectors that participate in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases through neurogeneration and neurite outgrowth, modulation of the immune system, reducing neuroinflammation, repairmen of damaged tissue, and promotion of neuroangiogenesis. In addition, MSCs-Exo can serve as a drug delivery system for delivering non-coding RNAs to neurons in neurodegenerative conditions. In this review, we summarize the recent progress in the therapeutic role of non-coding RNAs of MSCs-Exo for various neurodegenerative diseases. This study also discusses the potential drug delivery role of MSCs-Exo and challenges and opportunities in the clinical translation of MSCs-Exo-based therapies for neurodegenerative diseases in the future.

Urine-derived mesenchymal stem cells-derived exosomes enhances survival and proliferation of aging retinal ganglion cells

OBJECTIVES

This study was designed to investigate to test the effect of exosomes from urine-derived mesenchymal stem cells (USCs) on the survival and viability of aging retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), and explored the preliminary related mechanisms.

METHODS

Primary USCs were cultured and identified by immunofluorescence staining. Aging RGCs models were established by D-galactose treatment and identified by β-Galactosidase staining. After treatment with USCs conditioned medium (with USCs removal), flow cytometry was performed to examine the apoptosis and cell cycle of RGCs. Cell viability of RGCs was detected by Cell-counting Kit 8 (CCK8) assay. Moreover, gene sequencing and bioinformatics analysis were applied to analyze the genetic variation after medium treatment in RGCs along with the biological functions of differentially expressed genes (DEGs).

RESULTS

The number of apoptotic aging RGCs was significantly reduced in USCs medium-treated RGCs. Besides, USCs-derived exosomes exert significant promotion on the cell viability and proliferation of aging RGCs. Further, sequencing data analyzed and identified DEGs expressed in aging RGCs and aging RGCs treated with USCs conditioned medium. The sequencing outcomes demonstrated 117 upregulated genes and 186 downregulated genes in normal RGCs group vs aging RGCs group, 137 upregulated ones and 517 downregulated ones in aging RGCs group vs aging RGCs + USCs medium group. These DEGs involves in numerous positive molecular activities to promote the recovery of RGCs function.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, the therapeutic potentials of USCs-derived exosomes include suppression on cell apoptosis, enhancement on cell viability and proliferation of aging RGCs. The underlying mechanism involves multiple genetic variation and changes of transduction signaling pathways.

Exosomes derived from mesenchymal stem cells: Heralding a new treatment for periodontitis?

Periodontitis, as a complex inflammatory disorder, is characterized by continuous destruction of the teeth-supporting components, like alveolar bone and periodontal ligament, and affects a great percentage of individuals over the world. Also, this oral disease is linked with multiple serious illnesses, e.g., cardiovascular disorders, diabetes, and oral cancer; thus, exerting efficient therapy for periodontitis is necessary. Unfortunately, the current therapies for the disease (e.g., surgical and nonsurgical methods) have not reflected enough effectiveness against periodontitis. At present, mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-based remedy has created new hope for curating different diseases; however, MSCs have no capability to engraft into the chosen tissue, and the tumorigenic influences of MSCs are still the main concern. Interestingly, documents have revealed that MSC-derived mediators, like exosomes, which their exploitation is more feasible than intact MSCs, can be an effective therapeutic candidate for periodontitis. Therefore, in this study, we will review evidence in conjunction with their possible curative impacts on periodontitis cases.

Comparative analysis of magnetically activated cell sorting and ultracentrifugation methods for exosome isolation

Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes regulate cell migration, proliferation, differentiation, and synthesis of the extracellular matrix, giving great potential for the treatment of different diseases. The ultracentrifugation method is the gold standard method for exosome isolation due to the simple protocol, and high yield, but presents low purity and requires specialized equipment. Amelioration of technical optimization is required for quick and reliable confinement of exosomes to translate them to the clinic as cell therapeutics In this study, we hypothesized that magnetically activated cell sorting may provide, an effective, reliable, and rapid tool for exosome isolation when compared to ultracentrifugation. We, therefore, aimed to compare the efficiency of magnetically activated cell sorting and ultracentrifugation for human mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosome isolation from culture media by protein quantification, surface biomarker, size, number, and morphological analysis. Magnetically activated cell sorting provided a higher purity and amount of exosomes that carry visible magnetic beads when compared to ultracentrifugation. The particle number of the magnetically activated cell sorting group was higher than the ultracentrifugation. In conclusion, magnetically activated cell sorting presents a quick, and reliable method to collect and present human mesenchymal stem cell exosomes to clinics at high purity for potential cellular therapeutic approaches. The novel isolation and purification method may be extended to different clinical protocols using different autogenic or allogeneic cell sources.

Exosome-mediated crosstalk between epithelial cells amplifies the cell injury cascade in CaOx stone formation

BACKGROUND

Calcium oxalate (CaOx) stone disease is found worldwide. To explore the role of exosomes as a mediator of intercellular crosstalk during CaOx stone formation, we conducted this study, which may provide a new insight into the treatment and prevention of CaOx stones.

METHODS

Exosomes derived from HK2 cells with (EXO(S)) or without (EXO(C))CaOx crystal stimulation were cocultured with normal tubular epithelial cells and subcapsularly injected into rat kidneys. Then, oxidative stress levels, the MAPK signalling pathway and osteogenic changes were detected via qPCR, Western blotting, immunofluorescence and immunohistochemical staining. In vivo fluorescence imaging and exosome internalization assays showed the absorption and utilization of exosomes.

RESULTS

EXO(S) increased the reactive oxygen species (ROS) level and activated the expression of BMP2, OPN and OCN via the MAPK/P-38 pathway both in vivo and in vitro. In vivo experiments showed that preinjection of EXO(S) aggravated, while preinjection of EXO(C) ameliorated, these effects. Crystal depositions were significantly increased in SD rats injected with GAM when they were preinjected with EXO(S), and these effects could be reversed after preinjection with EXO(C).

CONCLUSION

Our study revealed that exosome-mediated intercellular crosstalk could accelerate the formation of CaOx stones by promoting oxidative stress and the osteogenic cascade in normal tubular epithelial cells. HK2 cells stimulated with CaOx crystals released more exosomal miR-223-3p and S100A8 comparing with normal HK2 cells. These exosomes derived from HK2 cells stimulated with CaOx (EXO(S)) could amplify the oxidative stress and osteogenic changes via MAPK/P-38 pathway, which finally led to the formation of Randall's plaque.

Preliminary Extracellular Vesicle Profiling in Drainage Fluid After Neck Dissection in OSCC

Lymph node metastasis is related to poor prognosis in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), and few studies have explored the relevance of postoperative drainage fluid (PDF) in metastasis. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanosized vesicles that can transfer oncogenic molecules to regulate tumorigenesis. However, the proteomic profile of postoperative drainage fluid-derived EVs (PDF-EVs) in OSCC has not been elucidated. Herein, we collected drainage fluid from OSCC patients after neck dissection to investigate the difference in PDF-EVs between patients with metastatic lymph nodes (the LN+ group) and nonmetastatic lymph nodes (the LN- group). The proteomic profile of PDF-EVs from the LN+ and LN- groups was compared using label-free liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry-based protein quantification. The results revealed that PDF-EVs were mainly derived from epithelial cells and immune cells. A total of 2,134 proteins in the PDF-EVs were identified, and 313 were differentially expressed between the LN+ and LN- groups. Metabolic proteins, such as EHD2 and CAVIN1, were expressed at higher levels in the LN+ group than in the LN- group, and the levels of EHD2 and CAVIN1 in the postoperative drainage fluid were positively correlated with lymph node metastasis. Our study revealed previously undocumented postoperative drainage fluid-associated proteins in patients with metastatic OSCC, providing a starting point for understanding their role in metastatic and nonmetastatic OSCC.

Formation of pre-metastatic niches induced by tumor extracellular vesicles in lung metastasis

There are a number of malignant tumors that metastasize into the lung as one of their most common sites of dissemination. The successful infiltration of tumor cells into distant organs is the result of the cooperation between tumor cells and distant host cells. When tumor cells have not yet reached distant organs, in situ tumor cells secrete extracellular vesicles (EVs) carrying important biological information. In recent years, scholars have found that tumor cells-derived EVs act as the bridge between orthotopic tumors and secondary metastases by promoting the formation of a pre-metastatic niche (PMN), which plays a key role in awakening dormant circulating tumor cells and promoting tumor cell colonization. This review provides an overview of multiple routes and mechanisms underlying PMN formation induced by EVs and summaries study findings that underline a potential role of EVs in the intervention of lung PMN, both as a target or a carrier for drug design. In this review, the underlying mechanisms of EVs in lung PMN formation are highlighted as well as potential applications to lung metastasis diagnosis and treatment.

Exosomes as smart drug delivery vehicles for cancer immunotherapy

Exosomes (Exos) as drug delivery vehicles have been widely used for cancer immunotherapy owing to their good biocompatibility, low toxicity, and low immunogenicity. Some Exos-based cancer immunotherapy strategies such as tuning of immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, immune checkpoint blockades, and cancer vaccines have also been investigated in recent years, which all showed excellent therapeutic effects for malignant tumor. Furthermore, some Exos-based drug delivery systems (DDSs) for cancer immunotherapy have also undergone clinic trails, indicating that Exos are a promising drug delivery carrier. In this review, in order to promote the development of Exos-based DDSs in cancer immunotherapy, the biogenesis and composition of Exos, and Exos as drug delivery vehicles for cancer immunotherapy are summarized. Meanwhile, their clinical translation and challenges are also discussed. We hope this review will provide a good guidance for Exos as drug delivery vehicles for cancer immunotherapy.

Shaping Up the Tumor Microenvironment: Extracellular Vesicles as Important Intermediaries in Building a Tumor-Supportive Cellular Network

A tumor is not just comprised of cancer cells but also a heterogeneous group of infiltrating and resident host cells, as well as their secreted factors that form the extracellular matrix [...].

Selenium Biofortification Enhanced miR167a Expression in Broccoli Extracellular Vesicles Inducing Apoptosis in Human Pancreatic Cancer Cells by Targeting IRS1

Purpose

Pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PAAD) presents an extremely high morbidity and mortality rate. Broccoli has excellent anti-cancer properties. However, the dosage and serious side effects still limit the application of broccoli and its derivatives for cancer therapy. Recently, extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from plants are emerging as novel therapeutic agents. Thus, we conducted this study to determine the effectiveness of EVs isolated from Se-riched broccoli (Se-BDEVs) and conventional broccoli (cBDEVs) for the treatment of PAAD.

Methods

In this study, we first isolated Se-BDEVs and cBDEVs by a differential centrifugation method, and characterized them by using nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Then, miRNA-seq was combined with target genes prediction, and functional enrichment analysis to reveal the potential function of Se-BDEVs and cBDEVs. Finally, the functional verification was conducted in PANC-1 cells.

Results

Se-BDEVs and cBDEVs exhibited similar characteristics in size and morphology. Subsequent miRNA-seq revealed the expression of miRNAs in Se-BDEVs and cBDEVs. Using a combination of miRNA target prediction and KEGG functional analysis, we found miRNAs in Se-BDEVs and cBDEVs may play an important role in treating pancreatic cancer. Indeed, our in vitro study showed that Se-BDEVs had greater anti-PAAD potency than cBDEVs due to increased bna-miR167a_R-2 (miR167a) expression. Transfection with miR167a mimics significantly induced apoptosis of PANC-1 cells. Mechanistically, further bioinformatics analysis showed that IRS1, which is involved in the PI3K-AKT pathway, is the key target gene of miR167a.

Conclusion

This study highlights the role of miR167a transported by Se-BDEVs which could be a new tool for counteracting tumorigenesis.

Engineered Exosomes for Tumor-Targeted Drug Delivery: A Focus on Genetic and Chemical Functionalization

Cancer is the main cause of death worldwide. The limitations in traditional cancer therapies provoked the advance and use of several nanotechnologies for more effective and nontoxic cancer treatment. Along with synthetic nanocarriers, extracellular vesicles (EVs)-mediated drug delivery systems have aroused substantial interest. The term EVs refers to cell-derived nanovesicles, such as exosomes, with phospholipid-bound structures, participating in cell-to-cell communication. Exosomes are 30-150 nm vesicles that can transfer many biological molecules between cells. From a drug delivery standpoint, exosomes can be loaded with various therapeutic cargo, with the several advantages of low immunogenicity, high biocompatibility, transformative, and effective tumor targeting aptitude. The exosomal surface can be functionalized to improve tumor targeting ability of them. Researchers have genetically expressed or chemically linked various molecules on the surface of exosomes. Despite extensive investigation, clinical translation of exosome-based drug delivery remains challenging. In this review, we discuss various methods used to loading exosomes with therapeutic cargo. We describe examples of functionalized exosomes surface using genetic and chemical modification methods. Finally, this review attempts to provide future outlooks for exosome-based targeted drug delivery.

Non-Coding RNAs of Extracellular Vesicles: Key Players in Organ-Specific Metastasis and Clinical Implications

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are heterogeneous membrane-encapsulated vesicles released by most cells. They act as multifunctional regulators of intercellular communication by delivering bioactive molecules, including non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). Metastasis is a major cause of cancer-related death. Most cancer cells disseminate and colonize a specific target organ via EVs, a process known as "organ-specific metastasis". Mounting evidence has shown that EVs are enriched with ncRNAs, and various EV-ncRNAs derived from tumor cells influence organ-specific metastasis via different mechanisms. Due to the tissue-specific expression of EV-ncRNAs, they could be used as potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for the treatment of tumor metastasis in various types of cancer. In this review, we have discussed the underlying mechanisms of EV-delivered ncRNAs in the most common organ-specific metastases of liver, bone, lung, brain, and lymph nodes. Moreover, we summarize the potential clinical applications of EV-ncRNAs in organ-specific metastasis to fill the gap between benches and bedsides.

Harnessing Normal and Engineered Mesenchymal Stem Cells Derived Exosomes for Cancer Therapy: Opportunity and Challenges

There remains a vital necessity for new therapeutic approaches to combat metastatic cancers, which cause globally over 8 million deaths per year. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) display aptitude as new therapeutic choices for cancer treatment. Exosomes, the most important mediator of MSCs, regulate tumor progression. The potential of harnessing exosomes from MSCs (MSCs-Exo) in cancer therapy is now being documented. MSCs-Exo can promote tumor progression by affecting tumor growth, metastasis, immunity, angiogenesis, and drug resistance. However, contradictory evidence has suggested that MSCs-Exo suppress tumors through several mechanisms. Therefore, the exact association between MSCs-Exo and tumors remains controversial. Accordingly, the applications of MSCs-Exo as novel drug delivery systems and standalone therapeutics are being extensively explored. In addition, engineering MSCs-Exo for targeting tumor cells has opened a new avenue for improving the efficiency of antitumor therapy. However, effective implementation in the clinical trials will need the establishment of standards for MSCs-Exo isolation and characterization as well as loading and engineering methods. The studies outlined in this review highlight the pivotal roles of MSCs-Exo in tumor progression and the promising potential of MSCs-Exo as therapeutic drug delivery vehicles for cancer treatment.

Exosome biogenesis: machinery, regulation, and therapeutic implications in cancer

Exosomes are well-known key mediators of intercellular communication and contribute to various physiological and pathological processes. Their biogenesis involves four key steps, including cargo sorting, MVB formation and maturation, transport of MVBs, and MVB fusion with the plasma membrane. Each process is modulated through the competition or coordination of multiple mechanisms, whereby diverse repertoires of molecular cargos are sorted into distinct subpopulations of exosomes, resulting in the high heterogeneity of exosomes. Intriguingly, cancer cells exploit various strategies, such as aberrant gene expression, posttranslational modifications, and altered signaling pathways, to regulate the biogenesis, composition, and eventually functions of exosomes to promote cancer progression. Therefore, exosome biogenesis-targeted therapy is being actively explored. In this review, we systematically summarize recent progress in understanding the machinery of exosome biogenesis and how it is regulated in the context of cancer. In particular, we highlight pharmacological targeting of exosome biogenesis as a promising cancer therapeutic strategy.

Update on the application of mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes in the treatment of Parkinson's disease: A systematic review

Parkinson's disease (PD) has become the second largest neurodegenerative disease after Alzheimer's disease, and its incidence is increasing year by year. Traditional dopamine replacement therapy and deep brain stimulation can only alleviate the clinical symptoms of patients with PD but cannot cure the disease. In recent years, stem cell therapy has been used to treat neurodegenerative diseases. Many studies have shown that stem cell transplantation has a therapeutic effect on PD. Here, we review recent studies indicating that exosomes derived from mesenchymal stem cells also have the potential to treat PD in animal models, but the exact mechanism remains unclear. This article reviews the mechanisms through which exosomes are involved in intercellular information exchange, promote neuroprotection and freely cross the blood-brain barrier in the treatment of PD. The increase in the incidence of PD and the decline in the quality of life of patients with advanced PD have placed a heavy burden on patients, families and society. Therefore, innovative therapies for PD are urgently needed. Herein, we discuss the mechanisms underlying the effects of exosomes in PD, to provide new insights into the treatment of PD. The main purpose of this article is to explore the therapeutic potential of exosomes derived from mesenchymal stem cells and future research directions for this degenerative disease.

Selective Loading and Variations in the miRNA Profile of Extracellular Vesicles from Endothelial-like Cells Cultivated under Normoxia and Hypoxia

Endothelial-like cells may be obtained from CD133⁺ mononuclear cells isolated from human umbilical cord blood (hUCB) and expanded using endothelial-inducing medium (E-CD133 cells). Their use in regenerative medicine has been explored by the potential not only to form vessels but also by the secretion of bioactive elements. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are prominent messengers of this paracrine activity, transporting bioactive molecules that may guide cellular response under different conditions. Using RNA-Seq, we characterized the miRNA content of EVs derived from E-CD133 cells cultivated under normoxia (N-EVs) and hypoxia (H-EVs) and observed that changing the O₂ status led to variations in the selective loading of miRNAs in the EVs. In silico analysis showed that among the targets of differentially loaded miRNAs, there are transcripts involved in pathways related to cell growth and survival, such as FoxO and HIF-1 pathways. The data obtained reinforce the pro-regenerative potential of EVs obtained from E-CD133 cells and shows that fine tuning of their properties may be regulated by culture conditions.

Exosomes in pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of pulmonary fibrosis

Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is a group of interstitial lung diseases that seriously endanger human life and health. Despite the current advances in research on the pathogenesis and treatment of PF, the overall quality of survival and survival rates of PF patients remain low, prompting the search for more effective therapeutic approaches. Exosomes are nanoscale vesicles with diameters ranging from approximately 30–150 nm, capable of transporting a variety of molecules in the body and mediating intercellular communication. There is an increasing number of studies focusing on the role of exosomes in PF. This review demonstrates the significance of exosomes in the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of PF. Exosomes are able to influence inflammatory, immune, and extracellular matrix deposition processes in PF and regulate the corresponding cytokines. Some exosomes detected in sputum, blood, and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid may be used as potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for PF. Exosomes derived from several cells, such as mesenchymal stem cells, have demonstrated potential as PF therapeutic agents. Drug delivery systems using exosomes may also provide new insights into PF therapy.

Research progress of exosomes in orthopedics

Exosomes are nano-extracellular vesicles secreted by a variety of cells. They are composed of a double-layer membrane that can transport a variety of proteins, coding and non-coding genes, and bioactive substances. Exosomes participate in information transmission between cells and regulate processes such as cell proliferation, migration, angiogenesis, and phenotypic transformation. They have broad prospects in the occurrence, development, and treatment of many diseases including orthopedics. Exosomes derived from different types of bone cells such as mesenchymal stem cells, osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and their precursors are recognized to play pivotal roles in bone remodeling processes including osteogenesis, osteoclastogenesis, and angiogenesis. This articlesummarizes the characteristics of exosomes and their research progress in bone remodeling, bone tumors, vascular skeletal muscle injury, spinal cord injury, degenerative disc diseases, cartilage degeneration, osteoarthritis, necrosis of the femoral head, and osteoporosis.

A Washing-Free and Easy-to-Operate Fluorescent Biosensor for Highly Efficient Detection of Breast Cancer-Derived Exosomes

Traditional detection methods for protein tumor markers in the early screening of breast cancer are restricted by complicated operation procedures and unstable reproducibility. As one of alternative emerging tumor markers, exosomes play an important role in diagnosing and treating cancers at the early stage due to traceability of their origins and great involvement in occurrence and development of cancers. Herein, a washing-free and efficient fluorescent biosensor has been proposed to realize simple and straightforward analysis of breast cancer cell-derived exosomes based on high affinity aptamers and G quadruplex-hemin (G4-hemin). The whole reaction process can be completed by several simple steps, which realizes washing-free and labor-saving. With simplified operation procedures and high repeatability, the linear detection range for this developed fluorescent biosensing strategy to breast cancer cell-derived exosomes is from 2.5 × 10⁵ to 1.00 × 10⁷ particles/ml, and the limit of detection is down to 0.54 × 10⁵ particles/ml.

The Effect of Hypoxia-Induced Exosomes on Anti-Tumor Immunity and Its Implication for Immunotherapy

Hypoxia is a critical feature of solid tumors and is considered to be a key factor in promoting tumorigenesis and progression. Beyond inducing metabolic reprogramming of tumor cells to adapt to the hypoxia tumor microenvironment (TME), hypoxia can also promote tumor growth by affecting the secretion of exosomes. Exosomes are nano-sized (30-150 nm in diameter) extracellular vesicles that can carry numerous substances including lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and metabolites. Notably, hypoxia-induced exosomes alterations not only exist in tumor cells, but also in various TME cells including stromal cells and immune cells. Besides promoting tumor invasion, angiogenesis, and drug resistance, the secretion of these altered exosomes has recently been found to negatively regulate anti-tumor immune responses. In this review, we focus on the hypoxia-induced changes in exosome secretion and found it can contributes to immune evasion and cancer progression by recruiting protumor immune cells into TME, as well as inhibiting antitumor immune cells. Next, we also describe the recent advances of exosomes in immunotherapy and future direction. In conclusion, ongoing discoveries in this field have brought new insights into hypoxia exosome-led immunosuppression, enabling the development of exosome-based therapeutics and elucidating their potential in immunotherapy.