Apis mellifera vs Melipona beecheii Cuban polifloral honeys: A comparison based on their physicochemical parameters, chemical composition and biological properties

Brazilian stingless bee honey: A pioneer study on the in vitro bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds

In this study, the effect of in vitro gastrointestinal digestion of phenolic compounds, the total phenolic content, and the antioxidant potential of stingless bee honey were investigated. Among the 33 phenolic compounds investigated, 25 were quantified, and only eight were not bioaccessible (p-aminobenzoic acid, sinapic acid, pinobanksin, isorhamnetin, quercetin-3-glucoside, syringaldehyde, coumarin, and coniferaldehyde). Benzoic acid was predominant in most undigested samples (21.3 to 2414 μg 100 g-1), but its bioaccessibility varied widely (2.5 to 534%). Rutin, a glycosylated flavonoid, was quantified in all samples and might have been deglycosylated during digestion, increasing the bioaccessibility of quercetin in a few samples. Overall, the concentration of phenolic compounds prior digestion and their bioaccessibility varied greatly among samples. Nevertheless, higher concentrations before digestion were not correlated to greater bioaccessibility. This study is the first to assess the in vitro bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds in SBH, providing novel insights into SBH research.

Honey microbiota, methods for determining the microbiological composition and the antimicrobial effect of honey - A review

Honey is a natural product used since ancient times due to its taste, aroma, and therapeutic properties (antibacterial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activity). The purpose of this review is to present the species of microorganisms that can survive in honey and the effect they can have on bees and consumers. The techniques for identifying the microorganisms present in honey are also described in this study. Honey contains bacteria, yeasts, molds, and viruses, and some of them may present beneficial properties for humans. The antimicrobial effect of honey is due to its acidity and high viscosity, high sugar concentration, low water content, the presence of hydrogen peroxide and non-peroxidase components, particularly methylglyoxal (MGO), phenolic acids, flavonoids, proteins, peptides, and non-peroxidase glycopeptides. Honey has antibacterial action (it has effectiveness against bacteria, e.g. Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and Acinetobacter, etc.), antifungal (effectiveness against Candida spp., Aspergillus spp., Fusarium spp., Rhizopus spp., and Penicillium spp.), antiviral (effectiveness against SARS-CoV-2, Herpes simplex virus type 1, Influenza virus A and B, Varicella zoster virus), and antiparasitic action (effectiveness against Plasmodium berghei, Giardia and Trichomonas, Toxoplasma gondii) demonstrated by numerous studies that are comprised and discussed in this review.

Effect of 3D printing and traditional molding on phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity in steamed bread

The production process of fermented black wheat steamed bread is closely related to the overall quality and nutritional content. In this study, we investigated the accuracy, product texture profile and antioxidant activity of fermented black wheat steamed bread samples produced by piston and spiral three-dimensional (3D) printers. The steaming process generally increased the total phenolic content and flavonoid content of the samples. The spiral 3D printer obtained samples with higher accuracy, total phenolic content up to 1960.43 Mg GAE/kg, and higher cellular antioxidant activity (CAA) content. The samples printed by the piston 3D printer showed higher total flavonoid content (575.75 Mg QE/kg), 2, 2'-azobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) values and 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) values. This study shows that antioxidant-rich health foods can be prepared using 3D printed black wheat flour. The choice of 3D printing method affects the overall quality and nutritional content of the final product.

Antioxidant Activity, Physicochemical and Sensory Properties of Stingless Bee Honey from Australia

This study reports on the physicochemical and sensory attributes, total phenolic content, and antioxidant activity of 36 honey samples produced by two different stingless bee species (Tetragonula carbonaria and Tetragonula hockingsi) from Australia. The findings reveal moisture content across all samples ranges from 24.9% to 30.8% (w/w), electrical conductivity from 1.02 to 2.15 mS/cm, pH levels between 3.57 and 6.54, soluble solids from 69.2 to 75.1 °Brix, trehalulose concentrations from 6.20 to 38.2 g/100 g, fructose levels from 7.79 to 33.4 g/100 g, and glucose content from 3.36 to 26.8 g/100 g. Sucrose was undetectable in all investigated samples. In a sensory analysis involving 30 participants, Australian stingless bee honey was perceived as having a more pronounced sourness compared with New Zealand Manuka honey. The study reveals considerable variability in the composition of Australian stingless bee honey, influenced by factors such as floral availability, geographical origin, and time of harvest. It also demonstrates the presence of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity in stingless bee honey, underlining their potential as a natural source of antioxidants. All investigated samples contain trehalulose, which supports the findings of other recent studies that propose this unusual disaccharide as a marker compound of stingless bee honey.

Melissopalynological analysis and microbiological safety of fresh and market honey (Apis mellifera L. and Meliponulabeccarii L.) from Western Oromia, Ethiopia

Honey is a natural product that is made by bees from the nectar of flowering plants. There is a flora preference by bees. Like other foods ready to eat,honey can be prone to microbial contamination. Honey plant sources can be analyzed from the composition of pollen grains in honey samples. The objective of this study was to assess microbial safety and floral origin of the honey samples. For this study, honey samples were purchased from local market, and collected from hives (fresh honey) in Western Oromia. Floral analysis was determined using harmonized method of melissopalynology. Microbiological safety was assessed through the pour plate procedures from the first serial dilution on a total of 45 honey sample sizes.The melissopalynological analysis demonstrated that A. melliferahoney purchased from the market(AMMH) was considered a multi-floral type while A. mellifera fresh honey (AMFH) cropped directly from the hive and M.beccarii honey purchased from the market (MBMH) was dominated pollen from Coffee arabica (68 % of its pollen grain counted) and Guizotiascabra (50.53 % of its pollen grain counted) plant, respectively. The Aerobic mesophilic bacteria, Staphylococci, Yeast, Mould, and Aerobic spore-forming bacteria were found below the standard countable level (<30 cfu/plate) from A. mellifera and M.beccarii honey bought from the market, while A. mellifera honey collected directly from the hive became free of any microbial contamination. C.arabica and G.scabra are major honey plants and their honey can be harvested in February and October, respectively. Furthermore, Vernoniaamygdalina, Eucalyptus spp, Combretummolle, Trifoliumruppelianum, and Syzgiumguineense were honey plants analyzed from multifloral market honey even though, their pollen dominance varies. M. beccarii visits herbaceous flora whilst A. mellifera visits all floral types. The level of contamination of the honey samples from the study area was very low showing its safety.

Ethno-medicinal uses and cultural importance of stingless bees and their hive products in several ethnic communities of Bhutan

BACKGROUND

Indigenous and non-indigenous people in subtropical and temperate areas of Bhutan share an intricate relationship with stingless bees for diverse purposes including ethno-medicinal uses. Stingless bees hold significant importance in the realms of social, economic, cultural, and spiritual aspects. Bhutan's cultural traditions demonstrate a strong bond with the environment, exemplified by the regular use of honey from stingless bees for remedies such as treating the common cold, cough, and sore throat.

METHODS

Ethnographic research was conducted to document the ethno-medicinal uses and cultural importance of stingless in Bhutan. We deployed semi-structured interviews with stingless beekeepers and honey collectors including traditional healers who perform religious rituals for curing and preventing physical and mental illness.

RESULTS

We documented 22 different uses of stingless bee honey in food, medicine, veterinary medicine, crafts, beliefs, and religious purposes. The relative cultural importance (RCI) of stingless bees among Bhutan's ethnic communities was assessed through our calculations. It was determined that these bees hold notably greater significance for the Lhotshampa communities compared to other ethnic groups in Bhutan. This finding demonstrates the dependence of Hindu ethnic communities on natural resources in their everyday life. All participant communities largely exploit these bees through destructive extraction practices. They often find the natural nests in nearby forests, transfer them as a log hive to their backyards, and practice traditional meliponiculture.

CONCLUSION

The ethnic communities of Bhutan use stingless bees for various purposes and the local knowledge are persistent. However, significant efforts should be made to address the ethno-medicinal, ecological, biological, and commercial perspectives of meliponiculture in Bhutan.

Microbiological Diversity and Associated Enzymatic Activities in Honey and Pollen from Stingless Bees from Northern Argentina

Honey and pollen from Tetragonisca fiebrigi and Scaptotrigona jujuyensis, stingless bees from northern Argentina, presented a particular microbiological profile and associated enzymatic activities. The cultured bacteria were mostly Bacillus spp. (44%) and Escherichia spp. (31%). The phylogenetic analysis showed a taxonomic distribution according to the type of bee that was similar in both species. Microbial enzymatic activities were studied using hierarchical clustering. Bacillus spp. was the main bacterium responsible for enzyme production. Isolates with xylanolytic activity mostly presented cellulolytic activity and, in fewer cases, lipolytic activity. Amylolytic activity was associated with proteolytic activity. None of the isolated strains produced multiple hydrolytic enzymes in substantial amounts, and bacteria were classified according to their primary hydrolytic activity. These findings add to the limited knowledge of microbiological diversity in honey and pollen from stingless bees and also provide a physiological perspective of this community to assess its biotechnological potential in the food industry.

Physicochemical and antioxidant characterization of commercially available honey sample from Addis Ababa market, Ethiopia

High-quality and genuine honey is crucial to provide consumers with natural honey and prevent any potential health issues. This study aimed to examine the quality of commercial honey available in the Addis Ababa market. A total of 30 honey samples were randomly collected from eight sub-cities of Addis Ababa city. Both High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) and UV-Vis spectroscopic methods were used to determine 12 physicochemical and three antioxidant activity parameters in the honey samples according to internationally recognized standards. The findings of this study showed that the hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), free acidity, and ash content of all commercial honey samples conformed to honey standards. However, except for honey samples collected from processors (19.48 ± 0.4 %) and retail outlets (20.49 ± 0.13 %), all other commercial honey samples failed to meet the moisture content criteria (≤21 %). Proline levels in honey samples taken from the street (67.1 ± 0.52 mg/kg) were also found to be below the required standard. The commercial honey samples contained fructose, glucose, sucrose, and maltose within a range of 33.85 ± 0.65 to 48.61 ± 0.51 %, 33.07 ± 1.58 to 44.3 ± 0.82 %, 0.91 ± 0.05 to 6.23 ± 2.49 %, and 0.51 ± 0.14 to 2.4 ± 0.44 %, respectively. Furthermore, honey samples from market areas showed good Total Phenolic Content (TPC), Total Flavonoid Content (TFC), and antioxidant activity. Overall, the results revealed that all physicochemical parameters, except for proline, moisture, and sucrose content, complied with approved standards (Codex Alimentarius, European Union (EU), and Ethiopia Standard Agency (ESA). Accordingly, it is recommended that stakeholders receive regular training on how to manage honey quality issues and detect adulteration techniques to prevent contaminated honey from reaching the markets.

Recent advances and opportunities related to the use of bee products in food processing

Nowadays, natural foods that can provide positive health effects are gaining more and more popularity. Bees and the products they produce are our common natural heritage that should be developed. In the article, we presented the characteristics of bee products and their use in industry. We described the development and importance of beekeeping in the modern world. Due to their high nutritional value and therapeutic properties, bee products are of great interest and their consumption is constantly growing. The basis for the use of bee products in human nutrition is their properties and unique chemical composition. The conducted research and opinions confirm the beneficial effect of bee products on health. The current consumer awareness of the positive impact of food having a pro-health effect on health and well-being affects the increase in interest and demand for this type of food among various social groups. Enriching the daily diet with bee products may support the functioning of the organism. New technologies have appeared on the market to improve the process of obtaining bee products. The use of bee products plays a large role in many industries; moreover, the consumption of bee products and promotion of their medicinal properties are very important in shaping proper eating habits.

Evaluation of the polyphenolic profile of native Ecuadorian stingless bee honeys (Tribe: Meliponini) and their antibiofilm activity on susceptible and multidrug-resistant pathogens: An exploratory analysis

Biofilms are associated with infections that are resistant to conventional therapies, contributing to the antimicrobial resistance crisis. The need for alternative approaches against biofilms is well-known. Although natural products like stingless bee honeys (tribe: Meliponini) constitute an alternative treatment, much is still unknown. Our main goal was to evaluate the antibiofilm activity of stingless bee honey samples against multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens through biomass assays, fluorescence (cell count and viability), and scanning electron (structural composition) microscopy. We analyzed thirty-five honey samples at 15% (v/v) produced by ten different stingless bee species (Cephalotrigona sp., Melipona sp., M. cramptoni, M. fuscopilosa, M. grandis, M. indecisa, M. mimetica, M. nigrifacies, Scaptotrigona problanca, and Tetragonisca angustula) from five provinces of Ecuador (Tungurahua, Pastaza, El Oro, Los Ríos, and Loja) against 24-h biofilms of Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Candida albicans, and Candida tropicalis. The present honey set belonged to our previous study, where the samples were collected in 2018-2019 and their physicochemical parameters, chemical composition, mineral elements, and minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) were screened. However, the polyphenolic profile and their antibiofilm activity on susceptible and multidrug-resistant pathogens were still unknown. According to polyphenolic profile of the honey samples, significant differences were observed according to their geographical origin in terms of the qualitative profiles. The five best honey samples (OR24.1, LR34, LO40, LO48, and LO53) belonging to S. problanca, Melipona sp., and M. indecisa were selected for further analysis due to their high biomass reduction values, identification of the stingless bee specimens, and previously reported physicochemical parameters. This subset of honey samples showed a range of 63-80% biofilm inhibition through biomass assays. Fluorescence microscopy (FM) analysis evidenced statistical log reduction in the cell count of honey-treated samples in all pathogens (P <0.05), except for S. aureus ATCC 25923. Concerning cell viability, C. tropicalis, K. pneumoniae ATCC 33495, and K. pneumoniae KPC significantly decreased (P <0.01) by 21.67, 25.69, and 45.62%, respectively. Finally, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis demonstrated structural biofilm disruption through cell morphological parameters (such as area, size, and form). In relation to their polyphenolic profile, medioresinol was only found in the honey of Loja, while scopoletin, kaempferol, and quercetin were only identified in honey of Los Rios, and dihydrocaffeic and dihydroxyphenylacetic acids were only detected in honey of El Oro. All the five honey samples showed dihydrocoumaroylhexose, luteolin, and kaempferol rutinoside. To the authors' best knowledge, this is the first study to analyze stingless bees honey-treated biofilms of susceptible and/or MDR strains of S. aureus, K. pneumoniae, and Candida species.

Profiling of the Polyphenol Content of Honey from Different Geographical Origins in the United States

The presence of phenolic compounds in honey can serve as potential authenticity markers for honey's botanical or geographical origins. The composition and properties of honey can vary greatly depending on the floral and geographical origins. This study focuses on identifying the specific markers that can distinguish honey based on their geographical areas in the United States. The main approach presented in this study to identify the geographic origins of honey involves chemometric methods combined with phenolic compound fingerprinting. Sample clean-up and phenolic compound extraction was carried out using solid phase extraction (SPE). Reversed phase liquid chromatography in combination with tandem mass spectrometry were utilized for the separation of the compounds. The honey physicochemical qualities were predominantly determined via spectrophotometric methods. Multivariate statistical tools such as principal component analysis (PCA), analysis of variance (ANOVA), and partial-least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) were employed as both classification and feature selection tools. Overall, the present study was able to identify the presence of 12 potential markers to differentiate the honey's geographical origins. The total phenolic content ranged from 81.6 to 105.7 mg GAE/100 g corresponding to honey from Colorado and Washington, respectively (GAE: gallic acid equivalents). The regression analysis shows a tendency for the total phenolic content of honey to increase as the color of honey increases. The most important result obtained in this study is the demonstration that the geographical origin of honey plays a critical role in predicting the physical properties and phenolic composition of honey.

Antioxidants Discovery for Differentiation of Monofloral Stingless Bee Honeys Using Ambient Mass Spectrometry and Metabolomics Approaches

Stingless bee honey (SBH) is a natural, sweet product produced by stingless bees (Meliponini tribe) that has been used as a traditional medicine to treat various illnesses. It has been shown that SBH has high nutritional value and health-promoting properties due to the presence of plant bioactive compounds from different botanical flora of the foraged nectar. In this study, the antioxidant activities of seven monofloral honeys from acacia, agarwood, coconut, dwarf mountain pine (DMP), Mexican creeper (MC), rubber, and starfruit botanical origins were investigated. The antioxidant properties of SBH studied had a range from 19.7 to 31.4 mM TE/mg for DPPH assays, 16.1 to 29.9 mM TE/mg for ABTS assays, 69.0 to 167.6 mM TE/mg for ORAC assays, and 45.5 to 89.3 mM Fe²⁺/mg for FRAP assays. Acacia honey showed the highest level of antioxidant properties. The models built from mass spectral fingerprints from direct ambient mass spectrometry showed distinct clusters of SBH by botanical origin and correlated with the antioxidant properties. An untargeted liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) metabolomics approach was undertaken to identify the antioxidant compounds that could explain the unique antioxidant and compositional profiles of the monofloral SBH by its botanical origin. The antioxidants that were identified predominantly consisted of alkaloids and flavonoids. Flavonoid derivatives, which are potent antioxidants, were found to be key markers of acacia honey. This work provides the fundamental basis for the identification of potential antioxidant markers in SBH associated with the botanical origin of the foraged nectar.

Dihydrocaffeic Acid-Is It the Less Known but Equally Valuable Phenolic Acid?

Dihydrocaffeic acid (DHCA) is a phenolic acid bearing a catechol ring and three-carbon side chain. Despite its being found in minor amounts in numerous plants and fungi of different origins, it has attracted the interest of various research groups in many fields of science, from food to biomedical applications. The review article presented herein aims to show a wider audience the health benefits and therapeutic, industrial, and nutritional potential of dihydrocaffeic acid, by sheddinglight on its occurrence, biosynthesis, bioavailability, and metabolism. The scientific literature describes at least 70 different derivatives of dihydrocaffeic acid, both those occurring naturally and those obtained via chemical and enzymatic methods. Among the most frequently used enzymes that were applied for the modification of the parent DHCA structure, there are lipases that allow for obtaining esters and phenolidips, tyrosinases used for the formation of the catechol ring, and laccases to functionalize this phenolic acid. In many studies, both in vitro and in vivo, the protective effect of DHCA and its derivatives on cells subjected to oxidative stress and inflammation were acknowledged.

Evaluation of the Antioxidant Activities and Phenolic Profile of Shennongjia Apis cerana Honey through a Comparison with Apis mellifera Honey in China

This study evaluates the phenolic profile as well as the antioxidant properties of Shennongjia Apis cerana honey through a comparison with Apis mellifera honey in China. The total phenolic content (TPC) ranges from 263 ± 2 to 681 ± 36 mg gallic acid/kg. The total flavonoids content (TFC) ranges from 35.9 ± 0.4 to 102.2 ± 0.8 mg epicatechin/kg. The correlations between TPC or TFC and the antioxidant results (FRAP, DPPH, and ABTS) were found to be statistically significant (p < 0.01). Furthermore, the phenolic compounds are quantified and qualified by high performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (HPLC-HRMS), and a total of 83 phenolic compounds were tentatively identified in this study. A metabolomics analysis based on the 83 polyphenols was carried out and subjected to principal component analysis and orthogonal partial least squares-discriminant analysis. The results showed that it was possible to distinguish Apis cerana honey from Apis mellifera honey based on the phenolic profile.

Honey characterization and identification of fructophilic lactic acid bacteria of fresh samples from Melipona beecheii, Scaptotrigona pectoralis, Plebeia llorentei, and Plebeia jatiformis hives

Stingless bees are essential to preser tropical ecosystems. They pollinate native flora, producing honey with properties for traditional health uses. Lactic acid bacteria spontaneously ferment honey in stingless bee honey (SBH). This study aims to determine the main physicochemical characteristics of Melipona beecheii, Scraptotrigona pectoralis, Plebeia jatiformis and Plebeia llorentei honey and to isolate and identify FLAB present in SBH samples. The physicochemical properties of SBH, such as color, pH, acidity, sugars, protein, total soluble solids, water activity, total polyphenols, and antioxidant activity, were determined since these parameters can be related to the presence of some bacteria groups, and with health benefits for humans and the hive ecosystems. FLAB harvested from honey, taken directly from storing pots of the hives, were identified by 16S ribosomal RNA sequencing and preserved for future biotechnological use due to their resistance to non-ionic osmotic stress. The results showed significant differences in the physicochemical characteristics of SBH samples. Seven FLAB from four stingless bee species were identified as Fructobacillus pseudoficulneus and F. tropaeoli. In addition, three other strains of Fructilactobacillus spp. were identified only at the genus level. All species showed the ability to grow under different carbon sources, resulting in negative hemolysis and sensitivity to cefuroxime, erythromycin, and chloramphenicol. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that the physicochemical and FLAB characterization of SBH from P. jatiformis and P. llorentei has been reported. Therefore, the future following research should be focused on the environmental, health and food biotechnological applications implications of FLAB from SBH.

Physicochemical Parameters, Antioxidant Capacity, and Antimicrobial Activity of Honeys from Tropical Forests of Colombia: Apis mellifera and Melipona eburnea

Honey is a functional food used worldwide and recognized for its multiple health benefits. In the present study, the physicochemical and antioxidant properties of honey produced by two species of bees (Melipona eburnea and Apis mellifera) in two seasons were evaluated. In addition, the antimicrobial activity of honey against three bacterial strains was studied. The quality of honey analyzed by LDA (linear discriminant analysis) showed four clusters mediated by the interaction, the bee species, and the collection season resulting from a multivariate function of discrimination. The physicochemical properties of the honey produced by A. mellifera met the requirements of the Codex Alimentarius, while the M. eburnea honey had moisture values outside the established ranges of the Codex. Antioxidant activity was higher in the honey of A. mellifera, and both kinds of honey showed inhibitory activity against S. typhimurium ATCC 14028 and L. monocytogenes ATCC 9118. E. coli ATCC 25922 showed resistance to the analyzed honey.

The potential neuroprotective effects of stingless bee honey

Tropical Meliponini bees produce stingless bee honey (SBH). Studies have shown beneficial properties, including antibacterial, bacteriostatic, anti-inflammatory, neurotherapeutic, neuroprotective, wound, and sunburn healing capabilities. High phenolic acid and flavonoid concentrations offer SBH its benefits. SBH can include flavonoids, phenolic acids, ascorbic acid, tocopherol, organic acids, amino acids, and protein, depending on its botanical and geographic origins. Ursolic acid, p-coumaric acid, and gallic acid may diminish apoptotic signals in neuronal cells, such as nuclear morphological alterations and DNA fragmentation. Antioxidant activity minimizes reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation and lowers oxidative stress, inhibiting inflammation by decreasing enzymes generated during inflammation. Flavonoids in honey reduce neuroinflammation by decreasing proinflammatory cytokine and free radical production. Phytochemical components in honey, such as luteolin and phenylalanine, may aid neurological problems. A dietary amino acid, phenylalanine, may improve memory by functioning on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) pathways. Neurotrophin BDNF binds to its major receptor, TrkB, and stimulates downstream signaling cascades, which are crucial for neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity. Through BDNF, SBH can stimulate synaptic plasticity and synaptogenesis, promoting learning and memory. Moreover, BDNF contributes to the adult brain's lasting structural and functional changes during limbic epileptogenesis by acting through the cognate receptor tyrosine receptor kinase B (TrkB). Given the higher antioxidants activity of SBH than the Apis sp. honey, it may be more therapeutically helpful. There is minimal research on SBH's neuroprotective effects, and the related pathways contribute to it is unclear. More research is needed to elucidate the underlying molecular process of SBH on BDNF/TrkB pathways in producing neuroprotective effects.

Physico-chemical characteristics of honey produced from northeastern Ethiopia

The research was carried out to determine the physico-chemical quality aspects of honey harvested from northeastern Ethiopia. Twenty four honey samples were collected from four locations and two hive types. R software was used to analyze the data. The average values were 14.47%, 0.28%, 28.22 meq/kg, 4.28, 48.48 mg/kg, 13.75 Goth scale, 2.56%, and 52.43% for moisture, ash, acidity, pH value, hydroxyl-methyl-furfural (HMF), diastase, sucrose, and reducing sugars, respectively. The honey of highlands (17.43%) was higher (P < 0.05) in moisture than lowland (14.48%) implicating highland lower in quality. Highland honey has a higher acidity (P < 0.05) probably due to soil nature. Honey from lowland, midland, and market were higher (P < 0.05) than highland in HMF. Diastase from traditional (16.32 Goth scale) was higher than frame hives (11.19 Goth scale), and sucrose from highland (3.88%) was higher (P < 0.05) than market (1.68%) although both were within the acceptable limits. Generally, the moisture, ash, acidity, diastase, sucrose, and pH contents of the honey were within the limits set for honey quality standards. However, in HMF and reducing sugars, it had not met the European standard. To make the honey exportable to international market, HMF and reducing sugars should be improved to the required level.

Chemical Composition and Antimicrobial Activity of New Honey Varietals

Due to a widespread occurrence of multidrug-resistant pathogenic strains of bacteria, there is an urgent need to look for antimicrobial substances, and honey with its antimicrobial properties is a very promising substance. In this study, we examined for the first time antimicrobial properties of novel varietal honeys, i.e., plum, rapeseed, Lime, Phacelia, honeydew, sunflower, willow, and multifloral-P (Prunus spinosa L.), multifloral-AP (Acer negundo L., Prunus spinosa L.), multifloral-Sa (Salix sp.), multifloral-Br (Brassica napus L.). Their antimicrobial activity was tested against bacteria (such as Escherichia coli, Bacillus circulans, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa), yeasts (such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida albicans) and mold fungi (such as Aspergillus niger). In tested honeys, phenolic acids constituted one of the most important groups of compounds with antimicrobial properties. Our study found phenolic acids to occur in greatest amount in honeydew honey (808.05 µg GAE/g), with the highest antifungal activity aiming at A. niger. It was caffeic acid that was discovered in the greatest amount (in comparison with all phenolic acids tested). It was found in the highest amount in such honeys as phacelia-356.72 µg/g, multifloral (MSa) and multifloral (MBr)-318.9 µg/g. The highest bactericidal activity against S. aureus was found in multifloral honeys MSa and MBr. Additionally, the highest amount of syringic acid and cinnamic acid was identified in rapeseed honey. Multifloral honey (MAP) showed the highest bactericidal activity against E. coli, and multifloral honey (MSa) against S. aureus. Additionally, multifloral honey (MBr) was effective against E. coli and S. aureus. Compounds in honeys, such as lysozyme-like and phenolic acids, i.e., coumaric, caffeic, cinnamic and syringic acids, played key roles in the health-benefit properties of honeys tested in our study.

Bioactive Attributes and Analysis of Electronic Nose Feature Signals of Colombian Stingless Bees Propolis

The volatile and non-volatile chemical composition and bioactivity of propolis from the species Apis mellifera has been widely studied, but there is very little knowledge regarding propolis of other bee species, which ultimately hinders their differentiation and potential use. In this work, 53 propolis samples of A. mellifera and four stingless bee species (Frieseomielitta sp., Melipona eburnea, Melipona sp., and Trigona sp.) were collected in Colombia. An electronic nose with 10 metal oxide semiconductor sensors (MOS) was used to generate a pattern of the representative volatile compounds of the samples. Ethanolic extracts were obtained to assess their antioxidant activity towards DPPH radical and ABTS radical cation, total phenolics, and color (CIELAB space). The results showed an overall similarity of the aromatic profiles between species. The antioxidant activity of Frieseomielitta sp. propolis was higher than that of A. mellifera and the other species, in correspondence with a higher phenolic content. CIELAB color parameter b* was the most differentiating variable among samples, indicating a variation of propolis colors between red and yellow. By combining the data from physico-chemical analysis and aromatic profile, it was possible to differentiate the propolis from each bee species, with the exception of those from Melipona sp. and Trigona sp., indicating their similarity. These results have practical significance since they are a starting point to recognizing and valuing native stingless bee propolis and their bioactive potential, which, in addition to geographical differentiation and further quality parameters evaluation, will enhance their commercial exploitation.

Synergic Effect of Honey with Other Natural Agents in Developing Efficient Wound Dressings

Honey has been used for therapeutic and nutritional purposes since ancient times. It was considered one of the essential medical assets in wound healing. According to research, honeybees have significant antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, and wound-healing properties. Lately, scientific researchers have focused on apitherapy, using bee products to protect and strengthen the immune system. Since honey is the most important natural product rich in minerals, proteins, and vitamins, it has been intensively used in such therapies. Honey has gained significant consideration because of the beneficial role of its antioxidant compounds, such as enzymes, proteins, amino and organic acids, polyphenols, and carotenoids, but mainly due to flavonoids and phenolic acids. It has been proven that phenolic compounds are responsible for honey's biological activity and that its physicochemical properties, antioxidants, and antimicrobial potential are significant for human health. The review also presents some mechanisms of action and the medical applications of honey, such as wound healing dressings, skin grafts, honey-based nanofibers, and cochlear implants, as the most promising wound healing tools. This extensive review has been written to highlight honey's applications in medicine; its composition with the most important bioactive compounds also illustrates its synergistic effect with other natural products having remarkable therapeutic properties in wound healing.

Flavonoids and Phenylethylamides Are Pivotal Factors Affecting the Antimicrobial Properties of Stingless Bee Honey

Despite the recent approval of stingless bee honey to the Argentine Food Code, there are still many gaps in information. Likely, the main reason for this is that multiple ecological and chemical factors influence their production and antimicrobial properties. This work combined metabolomic, microbiological, and physicochemical analyses to characterize the honey ofTetragonisca fiebrigifrom Northeastern Argentina. The antimicrobial activity tests showed that honey samples (n = 24) inhibited some Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria at different sensitivity levels. Furthermore, samples selected for their high bioactivity revealed crystallizations, a positive correlation with fungal growth, and the presence of flavonoids. The major polyphenols annotated by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis and supported by metabolomic tools were quercetin 3,4'-dimethyl ether, pachypodol, jaceoside, irigenin trimethyl ether, corymboside, chrysoeriol 7-neohesperidoside, and corymboside. In contrast, samples missing antimicrobial activity did not crystallize, lacked flavonoids, and were enriched in phenylethylamides. Based on these findings, we discuss the significance of flavonoids and phenylethylamides on honey's antimicrobial activity and food quality and how they may indeed reflect essential parameters of the hive, such as microbial balance and eubiosis.

Effect of harvest time span on physicochemical properties, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities of Meliponinae honey

BACKGROUND

The maturity of honey has a great impact on its quality and contents. Additionally, stingless bee honey contains high moisture, which allows microorganisms to survive and ferment, contributing to honey's variable flavor and physicochemical properties. Therefore, there is a need for better quality control of the honey process, especially the harvest time of honey.

RESULTS

We gathered honey from the nest of stingless bees Heterotrigona itama and Tetrigona binghami over different time periods, i.e. 15, 30, and 45 days. The results show harvest time considerably affects the physicochemical properties, antioxidant activity, and antimicrobial activity of honey. Good antioxidant activity and antimicrobial activity can be found in honey produced from a longer harvest time. Compared with 15-day harvest time, at 30- or 45-day harvest time water, trehalulose, and protein content and total acidity increased, and the content of reducing sugars, fructose and glucose, and pH values, decreased in both types of honey. Moreover, compared with 15-day harvest time, the sum of six organic acids in the 45-day honey of H. itama fluctuated between 2.78 to 4.12 g 100 g^-1 and in the 45-day honey of T. binghami increased from 1.66 to 3.61 g 100 g^-1 , respectively.

CONCLUSION

Honey harvest time had a significant effect on the physicochemical properties, antioxidant activity, and antimicrobial activity of stingless bee honey (H. itama or T. binghami). This study provides a reference for beekeepers to adjust harvest time to obtain honey with suitable physicochemical parameters. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Characterization of Botanical Origin of Italian Honey by Carbohydrate Composition and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

Honey is a natural sweetener constituted by numerous macro- and micronutrients. Carbohydrates are the most representative, with glucose and fructose being the most abundant. Minor honey components like volatile organic compounds (VOCs), minerals, vitamins, amino acids are able to confer honey-specific properties and are useful to characterize and differentiate between honey varieties according to the botanical origin. The present work describes the chemical characterization of honeys of different botanical origin (multifloral, acacia, apple-dandelion, rhododendron, honeydew, and chestnut) produced and collected by beekeepers in the Trentino Alto-Adige region (Italy). Melissopalynological analysis was conducted to verify the botanical origin of samples and determine the frequency of different pollen families. The carbohydrate composition (fourteen sugars) and the profile of VOCs were evaluated permitting to investigate the relationship between pollen composition and the chemical profile of honey. Statistical analysis, particularly partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), demonstrates the importance of classifying honey botanical origin on the basis of effective pollen composition, which directly influences honey's biochemistry, in order to correctly define properties and value of honeys.

STINGLESS BEE HONEY (Tetragonula laeviceps): CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND THEIR POTENTIAL ROLES AS AN IMMUNOMODULATOR IN MALNOURISHED RATS

Honey is rich in bioactive compounds, phenolic acids, and flavonoids and is an antioxidant and an immunomodulator. The objectives of this study were to determine the honey chemical composition of Indonesian stingless bees and their potential roles as an immunomodulator in the malnourished rats. Tetragonula laeviceps honey was used to analyses of chemical composition was obtained from three different geographical origins were Depok Sleman, Bayan Lombok, and Nglipar Gunungkidul. Thirty-two rats were divided into four groups of 8 rats and placed in individual cages. The experimental designed was as follows: T1 = normal rats + without honey (0–7 weeks), T2 = normal rats + with honey of 1.8 g/kg BW/day (0–7 weeks), T3 = malnourished honey of 1.8 g/kg BW/day started from 2 weeks after the malnourished condition (2–7 weeks). The results showed that the chemical composition of Tetragonula laeviceps honey from three different geographical origins were vitamin C content (6.49–13.58 mg/100 g), total phenolic content (0.65–2.30% GAE/100 g), total flavonoid content (0.28–1.00 mg QE/g), and antioxidant activity DPPH (61.43–90.28%). The application of fresh honey from stingless bee that was offered to either normal or malnourished rats were increased lymphocytes proliferation and decreased the production of both proinflammatory markers, interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) from tissue culture supernatant of lymphocytes (p < 0.01). Data from this study clearly indicates the potential role of honey from stingless bee as an immunomodulator in malnourished rats.

A Comprehensive Review of Stingless Bee Products: Phytochemical Composition and Beneficial Properties of Honey, Propolis, and Pollen

The stingless bee has been gaining more attention in recent years due to the uniqueness and benefits of its products. Similar to the common honeybee, stingless bees also produce honey, propolis, and pollen, which offer superior benefits for direct or indirect consumption. However, reports on the benefits of stingless bee products are scarce. This article summarises recent reports on stingless bee products. The function and application of the properties of the products such as phenolic compounds, antioxidant properties, and chemical content are elucidated. The antimicrobial properties and anticancer potential of the products are also highlighted. Future trends, potential, and uniqueness of stingless bee products are discussed. Stingless bee honey is highlighted as a superfood that exceptionally has the potential to be an active ingredient in treating cancer. Stingless bee propolis has been extensively studied for its rich beneficial chemical compounds that contribute to its antioxidant properties. Though studies on stingless bee pollen are scarce, it has been reported that it also has the potential of being a functional food.

Bee Pollen Extracts: Chemical Composition, Antioxidant Properties, and Effect on the Growth of Selected Probiotic and Pathogenic Bacteria

This paper evaluated the chemical and biological properties of bee pollen samples from Romania. Firstly, the bee pollen alcoholic extracts (BPEs) were obtained from raw bee pollen harvested by Apis mellifera carpatica bees. The chemical composition of BPE was obtained by determination of total phenol content and total flavonoid content, UHPLC-DAD-ESI/MS analysis of phenolic compounds, and GC-MS analysis of fatty acids, esters, and terpenes. Additionally, the antioxidant activity was evaluated by the Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity method. Furthermore, the biological properties of BPE were evaluated (antimicrobial and cytotoxic activity). The raw BP samples studied in this paper had significant phenolic acid and flavonoid content, and moderate fatty acid, ester, and terpene content. P1, P2, and P4 have the highest TPC and TFC levels, and the best antioxidant activity. All BPEs studied had antimicrobial activity on pathogenic strains isolated from the clinic or standard strains. A synergistic antimicrobial effect of the BPEs was observed along with the soluble compounds of L. rhamnosus MF9 and E. faecalis 2M17 against some pathogenic (clinical) strains and, considering the tumour proliferation inhibitory activity, makes BP a potential prebiotic and antitumour agent for the gut environment.

A Review on Recent Progress of Stingless Bee Honey and Its Hydrogel-Based Compound for Wound Care Management

Stingless bee honey has a distinctive flavor and sour taste compared to Apis mellifera honey. Currently, interest in farming stingless bees is growing among rural residents to meet the high demand for raw honey and honey-based products. Several studies on stingless bee honey have revealed various therapeutic properties for wound healing applications. These include antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and moisturizing properties related to wound healing. The development of stingless bee honey for wound healing applications, such as incorporation into hydrogels, has attracted researchers worldwide. As a result, the effectiveness of stingless bee honey against wound infections can be improved in the future to optimize healing rates. This paper reviewed the physicochemical and therapeutic properties of stingless bee honey and its efficacy in treating wound infection, as well as the incorporation of stingless bee honey into hydrogels for optimized wound dressing.

Antioxidant Properties and Characterization of Heterotrigona itama Honey from Various Botanical Origins according to Their Polyphenol Compounds

Stingless bee honey is a good source of antioxidants, which is attributed to the phenolic compounds. The type and concentration of phenolic compounds in honey can be affected by botanical origin. Therefore, in this study, Heterotrigona itama honey from three botanical origins (gelam, acacia, and starfruit) was evaluated for its antioxidant activity and profile of phenolic compounds. Apis mellifera honey was used as a comparison. Antioxidant activity and profile of phenolic compounds in honey were determined using spectrophotometric and chromatographic methods, respectively. The total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoids content (TFC), free radical scavenging activity (IC50), and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) of H. itama were ranged between 52.64 and 74.72 mg GAE/100 g honey, 10.70–25.71 mg QE/100 g honey, 11.27–24.09 mg/mL, and 77.88–164.88 µmol FeSO4.7H2O/100 g honey, respectively. The findings showed that the antioxidant activity and phenolic and flavonoid contents in H. itama honey were significantly higher than Apis honey. Benzoic acid and taxifolin were found as the predominant phenolic acid and flavonoid in all samples. However, chrysin was significantly highest in Apis honey than stingless bee honey. This result suggested that chrysin can be used as a chemical marker to distinguish Apis honey from stingless bee honey. Gallic acid and ellagic acid were found as the chemical marker for gelam honey, salicylic acid, benzoic acid, and 4-hydroxybenzoic acid for starfruit honey while ferulic acid for acacia honey.

Detecting adulteration of stingless bee honey using untargeted 1H NMR metabolomics with chemometrics

As stingless bee honey (SBH) is gaining in popularity in the Malaysian market, it is now prone to adulteration. The higher price of SBH compared to floral honey has led to the use of unusual adulterants such as vinegar and even floral honey to mimic the unique taste and appearance of SBH. Since the current AOAC 998.12 method fails to detect these adulterants as their δ¹³C values are in the range for C₃ plants, untargeted ¹H NMR metabolomics was proposed. Principal component analysis of SBH ¹H NMR fingerprints was able to distinguish authentic SBHs from adulterated ones down to 1% adulteration level for selected adulterants. Discriminant analysis showed promising results in distinguishing the preliminary datasets of authentic SBHs from the adulterated ones, including discriminating SBHs adulterated with different adulterants derived from C₃ and C₄ plants. Hence, to assure any emerging adulterant can be detected, all ¹H NMR regions should be considered.

The use of alternative food sources to improve health and guarantee access and food intake

To feed and provide Food Security to all people in the world is a big challenge to be achieved with the 2030 Agenda. Undernutrition and obesity are to the opposite of a healthy nutritional status. Both conditions are associated with unbalanced nutrition, absence of food or excess of non-nutritive foods intake. These two nutritional conditions associated with food production are closely related to some goals highlighted by the United Nations in the 2030 Agenda to achieve sustainable world development. In this context, the search for alternative foods whose sustainable production and high nutritional quality guarantee regular access to food for the population must be encouraged. Alternative foods can contribute to Food Security in many ways as they contribute to the local economy and income generation. Popularizing and demystifying the uses of unconventional food plants, ancestral grains, flowers, meliponiculture products, and edible insects as sources of nutrients and non-nutrients is another challenge. Herein, we present an overview of alternative foods - some of them cultivated mostly in Brazil - that can be explored as sources of nutrients to fight hunger and malnutrition, improve food production and the economic growth of nations.

Stingless bee honey: An overview of health benefits and main market challenges

This review aimed to evaluate the nutraceutical and medicinal effects of stingless bee honey (SBH) by bringing a discussion focused on the main known in vitro/in vivo health-promoting effects. SBH has a high-water content, slight sweetness, acidic flavor, fluid texture, and slow crystallization. The type and concentration of phenolic compounds and consequent antioxidant activity were mainly associated with the floral sources, geographical location, bee species, and processing steps. SBH has anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial (against spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms), anti-diabetic, and skin aging delay activities in in vitro tests. It has also shown antioxidant and hypolipidemic effects, can protect from injuries caused by dyslipidemia, possess anti-inflammatory activity against chronic subclinical systemic inflammation and anti-diabetic properties, and can control and prevent Staphylococcus aureus infection on infected wound healings in in vivo tests (rats). However, clinical trials are crucial for the probation of the medicinal and nutraceutical properties of SBH. Despite this, there are still no general norms and/or quality standards for this type of honey. The information summarized in this review is important to add value to this little-consumed food, providing helpful information to spread knowledge about its benefits, assisting future studies, and raising perspectives for its recognition as a functional food. Furthermore, it may encourage the creation of standard quality for the production and marketing of SBH. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Previous studies have already summarized the chemical profile and physicochemical properties of stingless bee honey (SBH) and its potential health properties. However, no study has performed an overview of the potential nutraceutical and medicinal effects of SBH, presenting results from in vitro and in vivo investigations. Therefore, this review is the first study to overview the potential nutraceutical and medicinal effects of SBH, showing results of in vitro/in vivo health-promoting effects. The bioactivity of SBH is related to bee species and floral sources. The SBH has anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-diabetic, and antioxidant in vitro activity. It has also shown hypolipidemic effects and protection from injuries caused by dyslipidemia in rats.

Establishing Relationship between Vitamins, Total Phenolic and Total Flavonoid Content and Antioxidant Activities in Various Honey Types

Honey is a well-known natural sweetener and is rich in natural antioxidants that prevent the occurrence of oxidative stress, which is responsible for many human diseases. Some of the biochemical compounds in honey that contribute to this property are vitamins and phenolic compounds such as phenolic acids and flavonoids. However, the extent to which these molecules contribute towards the antioxidant capacity in vitro is inconsistently reported, especially with the different analytical methods used, as well as other extrinsic factors that influence these molecules' availability. Therefore, by reviewing recently published works correlating the vitamin, total phenolic, and flavonoid content in honey with its antioxidant activities in vitro, this paper will establish a relationship between these parameters. Based on the literature, vitamins do not contribute to honey's antioxidant capacity; however, the content of phenolic acids and flavonoids has an impact on honey's antioxidant activity.

Phenolic composition and biological activities of stingless bee honey: An overview based on its aglycone and glycoside compounds

Stingless bees are native to tropical and subtropical countries, such as Brazil. The wide variety of species, the sources of food collection (nectar and pollen), and the climate conditions strongly affect the chemical composition of the honey, making this a unique product with peculiar characteristics. Stingless bee honey presents higher water content, higher acidity, and a lower sugar concentration when compared to Apis mellifera honey. Moreover, there is a wide variety of microorganisms in stingless bees' environment, which leads their honey to go through a natural fermentative process during its production in the hive. Besides, fermentation and hydrolysis are effective ways to convert glycosides into aglycones, thus increasing the bioavailability of compounds. In this sense, stingless bee honey may possess a greater concentration of phenolic compounds aglycones than glycosides, which would increase its potential benefits. Therefore, this review aims to compile the most recent studies of stingless bee honey phenolic profile and its biological potential (antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities) and a possible connection to its natural fermentation process.

The stingless bee honey protects against hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative damage and lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation in vitro

Oxidative stress, DNA damage, and unresolved inflammation are the predisposing factors of many chronic and degenerative diseases, including cancer. Stingless bee honey (SBH) is recognized to have high medicinal value by traditional medicine practitioners and has been used to treat various illnesses traditionally. This study aimed to determine the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and genoprotective effects of SBH by using in vitro cell culture models. The sugar content, total phenolic content, radical scavenging activity, and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) of SBH were determined in this study. Then, the protective effect of SBH against hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)-induced cell death and DNA damage was studied by using WIL2-NS human lymphoblastoid cell line, while the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7 murine macrophages cell line was used to study the anti-inflammatory effects of SBH. Results from this present study showed that the major sugar contents of SBH were fructose (19.39 + 0.01%) and glucose (14.03 ± 0.03%). Besides, the total phenolic content, the radical scavenging activity, and the FRAP value of SBH were 15.38 ± 0.02 mg GAE/100 g of honey, 34.04 ± 0.21%, and 206.77 + 1.76 μM AAE/100 g honey respectively. Pretreatment with SBH protected WIL2-NS cells from H₂O₂-induced cell death and DNA damage (p < 0.001). Moreover, SBH was also able to attenuate the production of nitric oxide by inhibiting the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells (p < 0.001). In conclusion, SBH is rich in total phenolic content and possesses strong antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and genoprotective properties. Our current findings suggest that SBH might be useful in the prevention and treatment of many diseases caused by oxidative stress and inflammation assuming the observed effects are also achievable in vivo.

Antioxidant Activity in Bee Products: A Review

Bee products have been used since ancient times both for their nutritional value and for a broad spectrum of therapeutic purposes. They are deemed to be a potential source of natural antioxidants that can counteract the effects of oxidative stress underlying the pathogenesis of many diseases. In view of the growing interest in using bioactive substances from natural sources to promote health and reduce the risk of developing certain illnesses, this review aims to update the current state of knowledge on the antioxidant capacity of bee products such as honey, pollen, propolis, beeswax, royal jelly and bee venom, and on the analytical methods used. The complex, variable composition of these products and the multitude of analytical methods used to study their antioxidant activities are responsible for the wide range of results reported by a plethora of available studies. This suggests the need to establish standardized methods to more efficiently evaluate the intrinsic antioxidant characteristics of these products and make the data obtained more comparable.

Comparison of the Chemical Composition and Biological Activity of Mature and Immature Honey: An HPLC/QTOF/MS-Based Metabolomic Approach

Harvesting uncapped immature honey (IMH) followed by dehydration is a typical counterfeit honey production process, but the differences between IMH and capped mature honey (MH) have not been well described previously. In this study, MH and IMH from Apis mellifera colonies during the same rapeseed flower season were compared. MH was found to have lower water content, lower acidity, and higher fructose content. High-performance liquid chromatography combined with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry-based untargeted metabolomic analysis indicated that MH had a distinct metabolite composition to IMH. Targeted metabolomic analysis on 20 major polyphenolic constituents showed higher accumulation in MH. MH had greater bacteriostatic effect and stronger free radical scavenging effect. While both the honeys mitigated cell damage caused by H₂O₂, the effective dosage of IMH was higher and its inducing effect on the antioxidant gene expression was weaker. Overall, MH was shown to be of better quality than IMH not only because of its richer polyphenolic composition but also because of its stronger biological activity.