Catechol-O-methyltransferase and monoamine oxidase B inhibitory activities of Australian bee pollen

Bee pollen is an apicultural product collected by honeybees from flower stamens and used as a functional food worldwide. In the present study, we aimed to elucidate the functions of Australian bee pollen. Australian bee pollen extracts and their main components were tested for catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) and monoamine oxidase B (MAOB) inhibitory activities. These enzymes are key neurotransmitters involved in Parkinson's disease and depression. Myricetin (5), tricetin (6), and luteolin (7) exhibited high COMT inhibitory activities (half maximal inhibitory concentration [IC50] = 23.3, 13.8, and 47.4 µM, respectively). In contrast, 5, 7, and annulatin (8) exhibited MAOB inhibitory activities (IC50 = 89.7, 32.8, and 153 µM, respectively). Quantitative analysis via high-performance liquid chromatography revealed that 5 was abundant in Australian bee pollen extracts. Our findings suggest that 5 contributes to the COMT and MAOB inhibitory activities of Australian bee pollen.

Flavor Chemical Research on Different Bee Pollen Varieties Using Fast E-Nose and E-Tongue Technology

Bee pollen, derived from various plant sources, is renowned for its nutritional and bioactive properties, aroma, and taste. This study examined the bee pollen with the highest yield in China obtained from four plant species, namely Brassica campestris (Bc), Nelumbo nucifera (Nn), Camellia japonica (Cj), and Fagopyrum esculentum (Fe), using fast e-nose and e-tongue technology to analyze their flavor chemistry. Results showed substantial differences in scent profiles among the varieties, with distinct odor compounds identified for each, including n-butanol, decanal, and ethanol, in Bc, Nn, and Cj, respectively. The primary odorants in Fe consist of E-2-hexen-1-ol and (Z)-3-hexen-1-ol. Additionally, e-tongue analysis revealed seven distinct tastes in bee pollen samples: AHS, PKS, CTS, NMS, CPS, ANS, and SCS, with variations in intensity across each taste. The study also found correlations between taste components and specific odor compounds, providing insights for enhancing product quality control in bee pollen processing.

Assessing monofloral bee pollens from Türkiye: Palynological verification, phenolic profile, and antioxidant activity

Honey bee pollen (HBP) is a hive product produced by worker bees from floral pollen grains agglutination. It is characterized by its excellent nutritional and bioactive composition, making it a superior source of human nutrition. This study aimed to evaluate the monofloral bee pollen samples, including Cistus, Crataegus monogyna, Cyanus, Elaeagnus angustifolia, Papaver somniferum, Quercus, Salix, Sinapis, and Silybum from Türkiye according to palynological analysis, antioxidant activity, phenolic profiles, and color. The phenolic profiles were detected using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Bee pollens were categorized into monofloral, bifloral, and multifloral, underscoring the significance of confirming the botanical source of them depending on palynological analyses. Total phenolic content (TPC) of bee pollens ranged from 4.5 to 14.4 mg gallic acid/g HBP. The samples exhibited antioxidant activity for 2,2'-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS •+ ) ranging from 94.9 to 233.5 µmol trolox/g HBP, whereas lower values were seen for 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH•) ranging from 25.86 to 70.81 µmol trolox/g HBP. A yellowish-red tint color was also displayed for whole samples, whereas only E. angustifolia bee pollen indicated a darker color (L* = 31.6). Among the phenolic compounds, luteolin, kaempferol, isorhamnetin, rutin, and genistein were the most abundant, and their profiles varied across the samples. It was also observed that TPC, antioxidant activities, and polyphenol composition were higher in samples containing pollen grains of P. somniferum, Quercus, Plantago, and E. angustifolia species. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The increasing number of new findings on honey bee pollen is crucial to food science and technology. In this sense, this study offers a robust method for verifying the authenticity and quality of 11 monofloral bee pollens, which is crucial for the food industry. It also identifies potential sources of high-quality pollen, benefiting producers, and consumers seeking superior bee pollen products.

In Silico Safety Assessment of Bacillus Isolated from Polish Bee Pollen and Bee Bread as Novel Probiotic Candidates

Bacillus species isolated from Polish bee pollen (BP) and bee bread (BB) were characterized for in silico probiotic and safety attributes. A probiogenomics approach was used, and in-depth genomic analysis was performed using a wide array of bioinformatics tools to investigate the presence of virulence and antibiotic resistance properties, mobile genetic elements, and secondary metabolites. Functional annotation and Carbohydrate-Active enZYmes (CAZYme) profiling revealed the presence of genes and a repertoire of probiotics properties promoting enzymes. The isolates BB10.1, BP20.15 (isolated from bee bread), and PY2.3 (isolated from bee pollen) genome mining revealed the presence of several genes encoding acid, heat, cold, and other stress tolerance mechanisms, adhesion proteins required to survive and colonize harsh gastrointestinal environments, enzymes involved in the metabolism of dietary molecules, antioxidant activity, and genes associated with the synthesis of vitamins. In addition, genes responsible for the production of biogenic amines (BAs) and D-/L-lactate, hemolytic activity, and other toxic compounds were also analyzed. Pan-genome analyses were performed with 180 Bacillus subtilis and 204 Bacillus velezensis genomes to mine for any novel genes present in the genomes of our isolates. Moreover, all three isolates also consisted of gene clusters encoding secondary metabolites.

All That Glitters Is Not Gold: Assessment of Bee Pollen Supplementation Effects on Gastric Mucosa

The aim of this study was to assess the influence of bee pollen supplementation on the levels of enzymes important for gastric mucosal homeostasis, namely cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and a biomarker-asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA)-in the gastric mucosa of Wistar rats. The experimental phase divided the rats into four groups: two control groups, sedentary and active, both not supplemented, and two experimental groups, sedentary and active, supplemented with bee pollen. The results indicated that bee pollen supplementation reduced the levels of COX-1 and elevated iNOS levels, while showing no significant impact on COX-2 levels. These findings do not conclusively support the gastroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects of bee pollen on gastric mucosa. However, the supplementation could have resulted in reduced ADMA levels in the physically active supplemented group. Our study does not unequivocally demonstrate the positive effects of bee pollen supplementation on the gastric mucosa, which may be attributed to the specific metabolism and bioavailability of substances within unprocessed, dried bee pollen. Further research should explore the topic of potential therapeutic applications of bee pollen in gastrointestinal health and its interactions with ADMA signaling pathways.

Metric and Spectral Insight into Bee-Pollen-to-Bee-Bread Transformation Process

Due to numerous bioactive constituents, both bee pollen (BP) and bee bread (BB) represent valuable food supplements. The transformation of BP into BB is a complex biochemical in-hive process that enables the preservation of the pollen's nutritional value. The aim of this study was to determine the depth of the honeycomb cells in which bees store pollen and to provide a spectral insight into the chemical changes that occur during the BP-to-BB transformation process. This study was carried out on three experimental colonies of Apis mellifera carnica, from which fresh BP was collected using pollen traps, while BB samples were manually extracted from the cells two weeks after BP sampling. The samples were analyzed using infrared (FTIR-ATR) spectroscopy, and the depth of the cells was measured using a caliper. The results showed that the average depth of the cells was 11.0 mm, and that the bees stored BB up to an average of 7.85 mm, thus covering between ⅔ and ¾ (71.4%) of the cell. The FTIR-ATR analysis revealed unique spectral profiles of both BP and BB, indicating compositional changes primarily reflected in a higher water content and an altered composition of the carbohydrate fraction (and, to a lesser extent, the lipid fraction) in BB compared to BP.

Designing New Sport Supplements Based on Aronia melanocarpa and Bee Pollen to Enhance Antioxidant Capacity and Nutritional Value

With a high number of athletes using sport supplements targeting different results, the need for complex, natural and effective formulations represents an actual reality, while nutrition dosing regimens aiming to sustain the health and performance of athletes are always challenging. In this context, the main goal of this study was to elaborate a novel and complex nutraceutical supplement based on multiple bioactive compounds extracted from Aronia melanocarpa and bee pollen, aiming to support physiological adaptations and to minimize the stress generated by intense physical activity in the case of professional or amateur athletes. Our proposed formulations are based on different combinations of Aronia and bee pollen (A1:P1, A1:P2 and A2:P1), offering personalized supplements designed to fulfill the individual requirements of different categories of athletes. The approximate composition, fatty acid profile, identification and quantification of individual polyphenols, along with the antioxidant capacity of raw biological materials and different formulations, was performed using spectrophotometric methods, GS-MS and HPLC-DAD-MS-ESI+. In terms of antioxidant capacity, our formulations based on different ratios of bee pollen and Aronia were able to act as complex and powerful antioxidant products, highlighted by the synergic or additional effect of the combinations. Overall, the most powerful synergism was obtained for the A1:P2 formulation.

The Comparison of Honey Enriched with Laboratory Fermented Pollen vs. Natural Bee Bread in Terms of Nutritional and Antioxidant Properties, Protein In Vitro Bioaccessibility, and Its Genoprotective Effect in Yeast Cells

The aim of the study was to compare the nutritional value and bioactivity of honey enriched with a 10% addition of natural bee bread and its substitutes obtained as a result of laboratory fermentation of bee pollen. Physicochemical parameters, antioxidant properties, as well as the bioaccessibility of proteins using an in vitro static digestion model were analyzed. The bioactivity of the obtained enriched honeys was tested using the yeast model. The research indicates the similarity of honeys with the addition of "artificial bee bread" to honey with natural ones. During in vitro digestion, good bioaccessibility of the protein from the tested products was demonstrated. The ability of the products to protect yeast cells against hydrogen superoxide-induced oxidative stress was demonstrated using a qualitative spot test, which was stronger in the case of enriched honey than in pure rapeseed control honey. Significant inhibition of the growth of both strains of yeast exposed to bee pollen-enriched honeys was also demonstrated. Furthermore, all tested samples showed significant genoprotective activity against the genotoxic effect of zeocin and the reduction of the number of DNA double-strand breaks by a minimum of 70% was observed.

Recent advances and opportunities related to the use of bee products in food processing

Nowadays, natural foods that can provide positive health effects are gaining more and more popularity. Bees and the products they produce are our common natural heritage that should be developed. In the article, we presented the characteristics of bee products and their use in industry. We described the development and importance of beekeeping in the modern world. Due to their high nutritional value and therapeutic properties, bee products are of great interest and their consumption is constantly growing. The basis for the use of bee products in human nutrition is their properties and unique chemical composition. The conducted research and opinions confirm the beneficial effect of bee products on health. The current consumer awareness of the positive impact of food having a pro-health effect on health and well-being affects the increase in interest and demand for this type of food among various social groups. Enriching the daily diet with bee products may support the functioning of the organism. New technologies have appeared on the market to improve the process of obtaining bee products. The use of bee products plays a large role in many industries; moreover, the consumption of bee products and promotion of their medicinal properties are very important in shaping proper eating habits.

(Ivy) Flower Pollen and Ivy Bee Pollen

Bee pollen, known as a 'life-giving dust', is a product of honeybees using flower pollen grains and combining them with their saliva secretions. Thus, flower pollen could be an indicator of the bee pollen botanical source. Identification of bee pollen sources is a highly crucial process for the evaluation of its health benefits, as chemical composition is directly related to its pharmacological activity. In this study, the chemical profiles, contents of phenolic marker compounds and pharmacological activities of Hedera helix L. (ivy) bee pollen samples from Türkiye and Slovenia, as well as ivy flower pollen grains, were compared. High-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) analyses revealed that pollen samples, regardless of where they were collected, have similar chemical profiles due to the fact that they have the same botanical origins. Marker compounds afzelin, platanoside and quercetin-3-O-β-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-galactopyranoside, common to both bee pollen and flower pollen, were isolated from bee pollen, and their structures were elucidated by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and mass spectrometry (MS). These three compounds, as well as chlorogenic acid and 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid (found in flower pollen), were quantified using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analyses. In vitro tests and effect-directed analyses were used to evaluate the xanthine oxidase inhibition and antioxidant activity of the marker compounds and extracts from flower pollen and bee pollen. This is the first report comparing chemical profiles and related bioactivities of the flower pollen and bee pollen of the same botanical origin, as well as the first report of the chemical profile and related bioactivities of ivy flower pollen.

Revolutionizing the Use of Honeybee Products in Healthcare: A Focused Review on Using Bee Pollen as a Potential Adjunct Material for Biomaterial Functionalization

The field of biomedical engineering highly demands technological improvements to allow the successful engraftment of biomaterials requested for healing damaged host tissues, tissue regeneration, and drug delivery. Polymeric materials, particularly natural polymers, are one of the primary suitable materials employed and functionalized to enhance their biocompatibility and thus confer advantageous features after graft implantation. Incorporating bioactive substances from nature is a good technique for expanding or increasing the functionality of biomaterial scaffolds, which may additionally encourage tissue healing. Our ecosystem provides natural resources, like honeybee products, comprising a rich blend of phytochemicals with interesting bioactive properties, which, when functionally coupled with biomedical biomaterials, result in the biomaterial exhibiting anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant effects. Bee pollen is a sustainable product recently discovered as a new functionalizing agent for biomaterials. This review aims to articulate the general idea of using honeybee products for biomaterial engineering, mainly focusing on describing recent literature on experimental studies on biomaterials functionalized with bee pollen. We have also described the underlying mechanism of the bioactive attributes of bee pollen and shared our perspective on how future biomedical research will benefit from the fabrication of such functionalized biomaterials.

Chemical Composition and Bioactivity of Laboratory-Fermented Bee Pollen in Comparison with Natural Bee Bread

Bee bread is a valuable product obtained from the hive on a relatively small scale, while bee pollen is more easily available. Therefore, an effective laboratory method of converting pollen into a bee bread substitute is desired. The aim of the research was to verify the influence of selected factors (temperature, ultrasound) on the quality of obtained product using Lactobacillus rhamnosus inoculum. The composition of the fermented pollen was analyzed using Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES), Raman spectroscopy, and SDS-PAGE and compared to natural bee bread and the original pollen. In vitro biological activity was assessed as antioxidant activity using a yeast model (BY4741 and sod1∆ strains). Fermentation of pollen occurred spontaneously and after inoculation, as demonstrated by lower pH and higher lactic acid content. Raman spectroscopy and ICP-OES confirmed changes in composition compared to the initial pollen. Compared to bee bread, the fermented pollen showed a higher content of polyphenols and comparable antioxidant activity; moreover, it accelerated yeast growth rate. In addition, a protective effect was observed for Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase 1 (sod1∆ yeast mutant exposed to hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress). The higher fermentation temperature (25 °C) produces a more bee-bread-like product, while the use of ultrasound and starter culture seems to have no positive effect.

Effects of Four Extraction Methods on Structure and In Vitro Fermentation Characteristics of Soluble Dietary Fiber from Rape Bee Pollen

In this study, soluble dietary fibers (SDFs) were extracted from rape bee pollen using four methods including acid extraction (AC), alkali extraction (AL), cellulase extraction (CL) and complex enzyme extraction (CE). The effects of different extraction methods on the structure of SDFs and in vitro fermentation characteristics were further investigated. The results showed that the four extraction methods significantly affected the monosaccharide composition molar ratio, molecular weight, surface microstructure and phenolic compounds content, but showed little effect on the typical functional groups and crystal structure. In addition, all SDFs decreased the Firmicutes/Bacteroidota ratio, promoted the growth of beneficial bacteria such as Bacteroides, Parabacteroides and Phascolarctobacterium, inhibited the growth of pathogenic bacteria such as Escherichia-Shigella, and increased the total short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) concentrations by 1.63-2.45 times, suggesting that the bee pollen SDFs had a positive regulation on gut microbiota. Notably, the SDF obtained by CE exhibited the largest molecular weight, a relatively loose structure, higher extraction yield and phenolic compounds content and the highest SCFA concentration. Overall, our results indicated that CE was an appropriate extraction method of high-quality bee pollen SDF.

Nutritional, biological, and structural properties of bioactive peptides from bellflower, Persian-willow, and bitter-orange pollens

In this study, the composition of amino acids, nutritional characteristics, degree of hydrolysis (DH), antioxidant properties, and antibacterial activity of proteins and hydrolysates of bellflower (Campanula latifolia), Persian willow (Salix aegyptiaca), and bitter orange (Citrus aurantium L.) were investigated under the influence of different proteases (Alcalase: Al, trypsin: Tr, pancreatin: Pa, and pepsin: Pe). Evaluation of the structural features of the proteins showed amide regions (amide A, B, I-III) and secondary structures. Hydrophobic amino acids (∼38%), antioxidants (∼21%), and essential types (∼46%) form a significant part of the structure of flower pollen. The digestibility and nutritional quality (PER) of the hydrolyzed samples (CP: 1.67; CA: 1.89, and PW: 1.93) were more than the original protein. Among proteins and peptides, the highest degree of hydrolysis (34.6%: Al-PWH), inhibition of free radicals DPPH (84.2%: Al-CPH), ABTS (95.2%: Pa-CPH), OH (86.7%: Tr-CAH), NO (57.8%: Al-CPH), reducing power (1.31: Pa-CPH), total antioxidant activity (1.46: Pa-CPH), and chelation of iron ions (80%: Al-CPH and Al-CAH) and copper (50.3%: Pa-CAH) were affected by protein type, enzyme type, and amino acid composition. Also, the highest inhibition of the growth of Escherichia coli (25 mm) and Bacillus cereus (24 mm) were related to CP and PW hydrolysates, respectively. The results of this research showed that hydrolyzed flower pollens can be used as a rich source of essential amino acids as well as natural antioxidants and antibacterial in food and dietary products. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Enzymatic hydrolysis of Campanula latifolia, Persian willow, and Citrus aurantium pollen proteins was performed. The hydrolyzed ones had high nutritional quality and digestibility (essential amino acids and PER index). Antioxidant properties and chelation of metal ions of peptides were affected by the type of protein and enzyme. The hydrolysates showed inhibitory activity against the growth of Esherichia coli and Bacillus cereus.

Bee Pollen and Probiotics' Potential to Protect and Treat Intestinal Permeability in Propionic Acid-Induced Rodent Model of Autism

Rodent models may help investigations on the possible link between autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and gut microbiota since autistic patients frequently manifested gastrointestinal troubles as co-morbidities. Thirty young male rats were divided into five groups: Group 1 serves as control; Group 2, bee pollen and probiotic-treated; and Group 3, propionic acid (PPA)-induced rodent model of autism; Group 4 and Group 5, the protective and therapeutic groups were given bee pollen and probiotic combination treatment either before or after the neurotoxic dose of PPA, respectively. Serum occludin, zonulin, lipid peroxides (MDA), glutathione (GSH), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), catalase, and gut microbial composition were assessed in all investigated groups. Recorded data clearly indicated the marked elevation in serum occludin (1.23 ± 0.15 ng/mL) and zonulin (1.91 ± 0.13 ng/mL) levels as potent biomarkers of leaky gut in the PPA- treated rats while both were normalized to bee pollen/probiotic-treated rats. Similarly, the high significant decrease in catalase (3.55 ± 0.34 U/dL), GSH (39.68 ± 3.72 µg/mL), GST (29.85 ± 2.18 U/mL), and GPX (13.39 ± 1.54 U/mL) concomitant with a highly significant increase in MDA (3.41 ± 0.12 µmoles/mL) as a marker of oxidative stress was also observed in PPA-treated animals. Interestingly, combined bee pollen/probiotic treatments demonstrated remarkable amelioration of the five studied oxidative stress variables as well as the fecal microbial composition. Overall, our findings demonstrated a new approach to the beneficial use of bee pollen and probiotic combination as a therapeutic intervention strategy to relieve neurotoxic effects of PPA, a short-chain fatty acid linked to the pathoetiology of autism.

Floral Pollen Bioactive Properties and Their Synergy in Honeybee Pollen

Honeybee pollen (HBP) is a mixture of floral pollen collected by honeybees near the hive. It is characterized by a composition rich in phenolic compounds, carotenoids and vitamins that act as free radicals scavengers, conferring antioxidant and antibacterial capacity to the matrix. These bioactive properties are related to the botanical origin of the honeybee pollen. Honeybee pollen samples were collected from different geographical locations in central Chile, and their total carotenoid content, polyphenols profile by HPLC/MS/MS, DPPH radical scavenging capacity, and antimicrobial capacity against S. pyogenes, E. coli, S. aureus, and P. auriginosa strains were evaluated. Our results showed a good carotenoids content and polyphenols composition, while antioxidant capacity presented values between 0-95 % for the scavenging effect related to the botanical origin of the samples. Inhibition diameter for the different strains presented less variability among the samples, Furthermore, binary mixtures representing the two most abundant species in each HBP were prepared to assess the synergy effect of the floral pollen (FP) present in the samples. Data shows an antagonist effect was observed when assessing the carotenoid content, and a synergy effect often presents for antimicrobial and antioxidant capacity for bee pollen samples. The bioactive capacities of the honeybee pollen and their synergy effect could apply to develop new functional ingredients for the food industry.

Quality Assessment of Bee Pollen-Honey Mixtures Using Thin-Layer Chromatography in Combination with Chemometrics

The aim of this study is to develop a rapid, effect-directed screening method for quality assessment of bee pollen-honey mixtures. The comparative antioxidant potential and phenolic content of honey, bee pollen, and the bee pollen-honey mixtures, was performed using spectrophotometry. The total phenolic content and antioxidative activity of bee pollen-honey mixtures with 20 % bee pollen share were in the range 3.03-3.11 mg GAE/g, and 6.02-6.96 mmol TE/kg, respectively, while mixtures with 30 % bee pollen share contained 3.92-4.18 mg GAE/g, and 9.69-10.11 mmol TE/kg. Chromatographic fingerprint of bee pollen-honey mixtures was performed by high-performance thin-layer chromatography with conditions developed by authors and reported for the first time. Fingerprint analysis hyphenated with chemometrics enabled authenticity assessments of honey in mixtures. Results indicate that bee pollen-honey mixtures represent a food with highly, both, nutritious characteristics and health-promoting effect.

Changes in the Histological Structure of Adrenal Glands and Corticosterone Level after Whey Protein or Bee Pollen Supplementation in Running and Non-Running Rats

Due to the many health-promoting properties of bee pollen and whey protein, both products are widely used as dietary supplements. According to these reports on their health-promoting properties, the aim of our study is to assess whether these products can influence the structure and function of the adrenal glands in rats. Thirty male Wistar rats were divided into six equal groups. Among them, there were three groups which included non-running rats and three groups which included running rats. Both of these running (n = 3) and non-running (n = 3) groups included non-supplemented (control groups), bee-pollen-supplemented groups, and whey-protein-supplemented groups. After 8 weeks, the rats were decapitated, their adrenal glands were collected, and paraffin slides were prepared. Then, staining according to the standard H&E and Masson's trichrome protocols was performed. Fecal and urine samples were collected prior to the end of the study to measure corticosterone levels. In the group of non-running rats, the consumption of bee pollen was noted to be significantly higher when compared to the group of running rats (p < 0.05). The thickness of the particular adrenal cortex layers was similar among all of the groups (p > 0.05). The statistically significant changes in the microscopic structure of the adrenal glands, especially regarding cell nuclei diameter and structure, as well as the architecture of sinusoids, were observed between the groups. Moreover, urine corticosterone concentrations were found to vary between all of the analyzed groups (p < 0.05). These results indicate that both bee pollen and whey protein have limited stress-reducing potential.

Simultaneous Administration of Bevacizumab with Bee-Pollen Extract-Loaded Hybrid Protein Hydrogel NPs Is a Promising Targeted Strategy against Cancer Cells

Bevacizumab (Bev) a humanized monoclonal antibody that fights vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A). It was the first specifically considered angiogenesis inhibitor and it has now become the normative first-line therapy for advanced non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). In the current study, polyphenolic compounds were isolated from bee pollen (PCIBP) and encapsulated (EPCIBP) inside moieties of hybrid peptide-protein hydrogel nanoparticles in which bovine serum albumin (BSA) was combined with protamine-free sulfate and targeted with folic acid (FA). The apoptotic effects of PCIBP and its encapsulation (EPCIBP) were further investigated using A549 and MCF-7 cell lines, providing significant upregulation of Bax and caspase 3 genes and downregulation of Bcl2, HRAS, and MAPK as well. This effect was synergistically improved in combination with Bev. Our findings may contribute to the use of EPCIBP simultaneously with chemotherapy to strengthen the effectiveness and minimize the required dose.

on the Lipid Composition of Royal Jelly Secreted by Honeybees

Royal jelly is a specific product secreted by honeybees, and has been sought after to maintain health because of its valuable bioactive substances, e.g., lipids and vitamins. The lipids in royal jelly come from the bee pollen consumed by honeybees, and different plant source of bee pollen affects the lipid composition of royal jelly. However, the effect of bee pollen consumption on the lipid composition of royal jelly remains unclear. Herein, we examined the influence of two factors on the lipid composition of royal jelly: first, two plant sources of bee pollen, i.e., Acer mono Maxim. (BP-Am) and Phellodendron amurense Rupr. (BP-Pa); secondly, different feeding times. Lipidomic analyses were conducted on the royal jelly produced by honeybees fed BP-Am or BP-Pa using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UPLC)-Q-Exactive Orbitrap mass spectrometry. The results showed that the phospholipid and fatty acid contents differed in royal jelly produced by honeybees fed BP-Am compared to those fed BP-Pa. There were also differences between timepoints, with many lipid compounds decreasing in abundance soon after single-pollen feeding began, slowly increasing over time, then decreasing again after 30 days of single-pollen feeding. The single bee pollen diet destroyed the nutritional balance of bee colonies and affected the development of hypopharyngeal and maxillary glands, resulting in differences in royal jelly quality. This study provides guidance for optimal selection of honeybee feed for the production of high-quality royal jelly.

Bee Pollen and Bread as a Super-Food: A Comparative Review of Their Metabolome Composition and Quality Assessment in the Context of Best Recovery Conditions

Recently, functional foods have been a subject of great interest in dietetics owing not only to their nutritional value but rather their myriad of health benefits. Moreover, an increase in consumers' demands for such valuable foods warrants the development in not only production but rather tools of quality and nutrient assessment. Bee products, viz., pollen (BP) and bread, are normally harvested from the flowering plants with the aid of bees. BP is further subjected to a fermentation process in bee hives to produce the more valuable and bioavailable BB. Owing to their nutritional and medicinal properties, bee products are considered as an important food supplements rich in macro-, micro-, and phytonutrients. Bee products are rich in carbohydrates, amino acids, vitamins, fatty acids, and minerals in addition to a myriad of phytonutrients such as phenolic compounds, anthocyanins, volatiles, and carotenoids. Moreover, unsaturated fatty acids (USFAs) of improved lipid profile such as linoleic, linolenic, and oleic were identified in BP and BB. This work aims to present a holistic overview of BP and BB in the context of their composition and analysis, and to highlight optimized extraction techniques to maximize their value and future applications in nutraceuticals.

Botanical Origin of Galician Bee Pollen (Northwest Spain) for the Characterization of Phenolic Content and Antioxidant Activity

Bee pollen is considered a natural product, relevant for its nutritional and antioxidant properties. Its composition varies widely depending on its botanical and geographical origins. In this study, the botanical characteristics of 31 bee pollen samples from Galicia (Northwest Spain) were analyzed; samples have not been studied until now from this geographical area. The study focused on the evaluation of the influence of plant origin on total phenol and flavonoid contents and antioxidant activity measured by radical scavenging methods. The multivariate statistical treatment showed the contribution of certain pollen types in the extract of bee pollen as to phenols, flavonoids and antioxidant capacity. Specifically, the bee pollen samples with higher presence of Castanea, Erica, Lythrum and Campanula type indicated higher total phenol and flavonoid contents and antioxidant activities according to the principal component analysis. On the contrary, Plantago and Taraxacum officinale type contributed a lower content of these compounds and radical scavenging activity. The cluster analysis classified the bee pollen samples into three groups with significant differences (p > 0.05) for the main pollen types, total phenol and flavonoid contents and antioxidant capacities. These results demonstrate the richness and botanical diversity in the pollen spectrum of bee pollen and enhance the possible beneficial nutraceutical properties of this beekeeping product.

Bio-Functional Activities of Tuscan Bee Pollen

Bee pollen represents one of the most complete natural foods playing an important role in the diet for its health qualities and therapeutic properties. This work aimed to characterize a Tuscan bee pollen by evaluating its phytochemical profile and the in vitro and ex vivo antioxidant activities. The isolation and taxonomic and functional characterization of yeasts in the sample has been also conducted. Finally, the pollen anti-inflammatory potential has been assessed on a TNFα-inflamed human colorectal adenocarcinoma cell line (HT-29). Our results highlighted a good phytochemical composition in terms of polyphenols, flavonoids, flavonols, monomeric anthocyanins, and carotenoids. In addition, we detected good antioxidant activity and radical scavenging capacity by in vitro and ex vivo assays, as well as good antioxidant activity by isolated yeasts. Data showed no cytotoxic effects of bee pollen extracts, with average viability values >80% at each tested dose. Moreover, TNFα treatment did not affect HT-29 viability while upregulating IL-8, COX-2, and ICAM-1 gene expression, otherwise reduced by both doses of bee pollen. In conclusion, our sample represents an interesting functional food and a potential probiotic product, having high phytochemical compound levels and good antioxidant activities, as well as anti-inflammatory effects on the TNFα-inflamed HT-29 cell line.

Hemolymph Metabolism Analysis of Honey Bee (Apis mellifera L.) Response to Different Bee Pollens

Pollen is essential to the development of honey bees. The nutrients in bee pollen vary greatly among plant species. Here, we analyzed the differences in the amino acid compositions of pear (Pyrus bretschneideri), rape (Brassica napus), and apricot (Armeniaca sibirica) pollens and investigated the variation in hemolymph metabolites and metabolic pathways through untargeted metabolomics in caged adult bees at days 7 and 14. The results showed that the levels of five essential amino acids (isoleucine, phenylalanine, lysine, methionine, and histidine) were the highest in pear pollen, and the levels of four amino acids (isoleucine: 50.75 ± 1.93 mg/kg, phenylalanine: 87.25 ± 2.66 mg/kg, methionine: 16.00 ± 0.71 mg/kg and histidine: 647.50 ± 24.80 mg/kg) were significantly higher in pear pollen than in the other two kinds of bee pollen (p < 0.05). The number of metabolites in bee hemolymph on day 14 (615) was significantly lower than that on day 7 (1466). The key metabolic pathways of bees, namely, “sphingolipid metabolism (p = 0.0091)”, “tryptophan metabolism (p = 0.0245)”, and “cysteine and methionine metabolism (p = 0.0277)”, were significantly affected on day 7. There was no meaningful pathway enrichment on day 14. In conclusion, pear pollen had higher nutritional value among the three bee pollens in terms of amino acid level, followed by rape and apricot pollen, and the difference in amino acid composition among bee pollens was reflected in the lipid and amino acid metabolism pathways of early adult honey bee hemolymph. This study provides new insights into the physiological and metabolic functions of different bee pollens in bees.

Development of a Protein-Rich By-Product by 23 Factorial Design: Characterization of Its Nutritional Value and Sensory Analysis

The aim of this study was the development of a cereal bar based on bee pollen (BP), honey (H), and flour by-products (peel passion fruit flour-PPFF), generating an innovative product. BP is a protein-rich ingredient and can be used in the composition of cereal bars. PPFF is a by-product rich in fibers. The formulations were developed using a 2³ factorial design with four replicates in the center point, studying the sensory analysis as a response variable. The texture and nutritional parameters were performed for the optimal formulation. BP showed ca. 15% of protein. The final formulation (10.35% BP, 6.8% PPFF, and 25% H) presented 22.2% moisture, 1.8% ash, 0.4% total fat, 3.0% fiber, 63.1% carbohydrates, and 74.0 Kcal/25 g. The sensory analysis presented valued around 7 (typical of a traditional bar). Regarding the possibility of purchasing the product, 51% of the panelists said they would probably buy the developed product. The formulated cereal bar had a similar composition as those already marketed. Moreover, it can be considered a source of fiber and is sensory acceptable. This approach opens up new opportunities for developing nutritional and functional foodstuff with improved sensorial aspects.

Fast Chromatographic Determination of Free Amino Acids in Bee Pollen

The consumption of bee pollen has increased in the last few years due to its nutritional and health-promoting properties, which are directly related to its bioactive constituents, such as amino acids. Currently, there is great interest in understanding the role of these in bee products as it provides relevant information, e.g., regarding nutritional value or geographical and botanical origins. In the present study, two fast chromatographic methods were adapted based on commercial EZ:faast™ kits for gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography−mass spectrometry for determining free amino acids in bee pollen. Both methods involved the extraction of amino acids with water, followed by a solid phase extraction to eliminate interfering compounds, and a derivatization of the amino acids prior to their chromatographic separation. The best results in terms of run time (<7 min), matrix effect, and limits of quantification (3−75 mg/kg) were obtained when gas chromatography−mass spectrometry was employed. This latter methodology was applied to analyze several bee pollen samples obtained from local markets and experimental apiaries. The findings obtained from a statistical examination based on principal component analysis showed that bee pollen samples from commercial or experimental apiaries were different in their amino acid composition.

Characterisation of Bee Pollen from the Marche Region (Italy) According to the Botanical and Geographical Origin with Analysis of Antioxidant Activity and Colour, Using a Chemometric Approach

Attempts have often been made to isolate and characterise monofloral pollens to correlate nutritional with botanical properties. Nevertheless, pollen harvested in a particular area that can have a high biodiversity could have healthier properties. In addition, the analysis of the pollen's botanical composition can be important for characterising the typical flora of a specific geographical area. On this basis, various pollens collected in different locations of the Marche region (Italy) and in different harvesting periods were analyzed for botanical composition and antioxidant (total phenolic content, ABTS, DPPH and ORAC tests), granulometry and colour (CIE L*a*b*) properties to evaluate the biodiversity of pollen sources within a particular geographical area and to correlate this to the nutraceutical characteristics. Antioxidant activity results showed values generally higher than those of monofloral pollens harvested in the same areas but manually separated according to colour, shape and size. This suggests that even the floral species present in low percentages may have an influence on the nutraceutical properties of these products. The multivariate statistical elaboration of the obtained results permitted the separation of samples containing a prevalent botanical species and the grouping of all the samples into separate clusters corresponding to different areas of Marche.

Optimization of Ultrasonic Extraction of Nutraceutical and Pharmaceutical Compounds from Bee Pollen with Deep Eutectic Solvents Using Response Surface Methodology

In recent years, there has been increasing interest in green extraction methods and green solvents due to their many advantages. In this study, the effects of an ultrasonic extraction method and deep eutectic solvents (DESs) on the extraction of different bioactive substances from bee pollen were investigated. In this regard, the effects of process variables such as the molar ratio of the DES (1, 1.5, and 2), sonication time (15, 30, and 45 min), and ultrasonic power (90, 135 and 180 W) on total individual amino acids, total individual organic acids, and total individual phenolic compounds were investigated by response surface methodology (RSM). The optimal conditions were found to be a molar ratio of 2, sonication time of 45 min, and ultrasonic power of 180 W (R² = 0.84). Extracts obtained via the maceration method using ethanol as a solvent were evaluated as the control group. Compared with the control group, the total individual amino acid and total individual organic acid values were higher using DESs. In addition, compounds such as myricetin, kaempferol, and quercetin were extracted at higher concentrations using DESs compared to controls. The results obtained in antimicrobial activity tests showed that the DES groups had broad-spectrum antibacterial effects against all bacterial samples, without exception. However, in yeast-like fungus samples, this inhibition effect was negligibly low. This study is the first to evaluate the impact of DESs on the extraction of bioactive substances from bee pollen. The obtained results show that this innovative and green extraction technique/solvent (ultrasonic extraction/DES) can be used successfully to obtain important bioactive compounds from bee pollen.

Mass Spectrometry-Based Identification of Bioactive Bee Pollen Proteins: Evaluation of Allergy Risk after Bee Pollen Supplementation

Bee pollen, because of its high content of nutrients, is a very valuable medicinal and nutritional product. However, since its composition is not completely studied, the consumption of this product may cause adverse effects, including allergic reactions. Therefore, this study aimed to discover and characterize the bioactive proteins of bee pollen collected in Poland, focusing mainly on the allergens. For this purpose, the purified and concentrated pollen aqueous solutions were analyzed using the nanoLC-MALDI-TOF/TOF MS analytical platform. As a result of the experiments, 197 unique proteins derived from green plants (Viridiplantae) and 10 unique proteins derived from bees (Apis spp.) were identified. Among them, potential plant allergens were discovered. Moreover, proteins belonging to the group of hypothetical proteins, whose expression had not been confirmed experimentally before, were detected. Because of the content of bioactive compounds-both beneficial and harmful-there is a critical need to develop guidelines for standardizing bee pollen, especially intended for consumption or therapeutic purposes. This is of particular importance because awareness of the allergen content of bee pollen and other bee products can prevent health- or life-threatening incidents following the ingestion of these increasingly popular "superfoods".

Modulation of Antioxidant Defense, Immune Response, and Growth Performance by Inclusion of Propolis and Bee Pollen into Broiler Diets

(1) Background: Propolis and bee pollen have natural bioactive compounds that may support the performance and immunological response of broilers. (2) Methods: The study included 300 1 d old Cobb-500 broiler chicks. Starting from 22−42 d of age, chicks were divided according to a 2 × 2 factorial design into one of the four treatment groups (5 replicates × 15 chicks per replicate); a basal diet without supplementation (CONT) or supplemented with 1 g/kg of propolis (PR) or bee pollen (BP) separately or in an even combination (PR + BP). (3) Results: A significant (p < 0.05) increase was obtained in the body-weight gain of broilers treated with PR, BP, and PR + BP compared to the CONT. The total antioxidant capacity and superoxide dismutase were highly (p < 0.05) activated in all treated groups compared to the CONT. Immunological parameters, especially the leukocyte cell viability, T- and B-lymphocyte proliferation, immunoglobulins (IgA and IgM), antibody titers, and wattle-swelling test were significantly (p < 0.05) enhanced in the treated broilers with PR and/or BP compared to the CONT. (4) Conclusions: The dietary supplementation of PR and/or BP could be beneficial for broiler growth through maximizing the antioxidant- and immune-system defenses.

Bee Pollen and Probiotics May Alter Brain Neuropeptide Levels in a Rodent Model of Autism Spectrum Disorders

Neuropeptides play a major role in maintaining normal brain development in children. Dysfunction of some specific neuropeptides can lead to autism spectrum disorders (ASD) in terms of social interaction and repetitive behavior, but the exact underlying etiological mechanisms are still not clear. In this study, we used an animal model of autism to investigate the role of bee pollen and probiotic in maintaining neuropeptide levels in the brain. We measured the Alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH), Beta-endorphin (β-End), neurotensin (NT), and substance P (SP) in brain homogenates of six studied groups of rats. Group I served as control, given only PBS for 30 days; Group II as an autistic model treated with 250 mg PPA/kg BW/day for 3 days after being given PBS for 27 days. Groups III-VI were denoted as intervention groups. G-III was treated with bee pollen (BP) 250 mg/kg body weight/day; G-IV with Lactobacillus paracaseii (LB) (109 CFU/mL) suspended in PBS; G-V with 0.2 g/kg body weight/day Protexin^®, a mixture of probiotics (MPB); and G-VI was transplanted with stool from normal animals (FT) for 27 days prior to the induction of PPA neurotoxicity on the last 3 days of study (days 28–30). The obtained data were analyzed through the use of principal component analysis (PCA), discriminant analysis (DA), hierarchical clustering, and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves as excellent statistical tools in the field of biomarkers. The obtained data revealed that brain levels of the four measured neuropeptides were significantly reduced in PPA-treated animals compared to healthy control animals. Moreover, the findings demonstrate the ameliorative effects of bee pollen as a prebiotic and of the pure or mixed probiotics. This study proves the protective effects of pre and probiotics against the neurotoxic effects of PPA presented as impaired levels of α-MSH, β-End, NT, and SP.

Bee Products: An Emblematic Example of Underutilized Sources of Bioactive Compounds

Beside honey, honeybees (Apis mellifera L.) are able to produce many byproducts, including bee pollen, propolis, bee bread, royal jelly, and beeswax. Even if the medicinal properties of these byproducts have been recognized for thousands of years by the ancient civilizations, in the modern era, they have a limited use, essentially as nutritional supplements or health products. However, these natural products are excellent sources of bioactive compounds, macro- and micronutrients, that, in a synergistic way, confer multiple biological activities to these byproducts, such as, for example, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. This work aims to update the chemical and phytochemical composition of bee pollen, propolis, bee bread, royal jelly, and beeswax and to summarize the main effects exerted by these byproducts on human health, from the anticancer and immune-modulatory activities to the antidiabetic, hypolipidemic, hypotensive, and anti-allergic properties.

Glucosinolates as Markers of the Origin and Harvesting Period for Discrimination of Bee Pollen by UPLC-MS/MS

Bee pollen is currently one of the most commonly consumed food supplements, as it is considered to be a good source of bioactive substances and energy. It contains various health-promoting compounds, such as proteins, amino acids, lipids, as well as glucosinolates. In the present study, the glucosinolate content was determined, by means of ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to a quadrupole time-of-flight mass detector, in 72 bee pollen samples from four different apiaries in Guadalajara (Spain), harvested in three different periods. In addition, 11 commercial multifloral samples from different Spanish regions were also analyzed. The aim was to verify the suitability of these compounds as biomarkers of their geographical origin, and to test their potential for distinguishing the harvesting period. By means of a canonical discriminant analysis, it was possible to differentiate the apiary of origin of most of the samples, and these could also be clearly differentiated from the commercial ones, simply as a result of the glucosinolate content. In addition, it was also demonstrated for the first time that bee pollen samples were capable of being differentiated according to the time of harvesting and their glucosinolate content.

The Impact of Fermentation on Bee Pollen Polyphenolic Compounds Composition

Bee-collected pollen is one of the most valuable natural products. However, the pollen cell walls limit the digestibility and release of nutrients to the human body. Solid-state lactic acid fermentation can be used to ease the release of bioactive compounds from the pollen cell. The aim of this research was to determine the impact of a solid-state lactic acid fermentation process on biologically active compound composition and antioxidant activity of bee-collected pollen from various European regions (Italy, Netherlands, Lithuania, Poland, Sweden, Denmark, Malta, Slovakia, and Spain). Spontaneous fermentation and fermentation using an L. rhamnosus culture were performed. The total content of phenolic compounds, total content of flavonoids, and radical (DPPH) scavenging activity were measured by spectrophotometric tests, while UPLC was employed for quantification of phenolic compounds. The determined fermentation positive effects included an increase of total phenolic content by 1.4-2.3 times, total flavonoid content by 1.1-1.6 times, and radical scavenging activity by 1.4-2.3 times. Naringenin (21.09-135.03 µg/g), quercetin (6.62-78.86 µg/g), luteolin (29.41-88.90 µg/g), and rutin (21.40-89.93 µg/g) were the most abundant flavonoids in all samples; however, their variation level was both geographical in origin and fermentation-type dependent. Fermentation increased the content of phenolic acids with high antioxidant potentials such as ellagic, ferulic and caffeic, while reduction of chlorogenic acid was determined.

Psychobiotics improve propionic acid-induced neuroinflammation in juvenile rats, rodent model of autism

This study aimed to evaluate the protective and therapeutic potency of bee pollen and probiotic mixture on brain intoxication caused by propionic acid (PPA) in juvenile rats. Five groups of six animals each, were used: the control group only receiving phosphate-buffered saline; the bee pollen and probiotic-treated group receiving a combination of an equal quantity of bee pollen and probiotic (0.2 kg/kg body weight); the PPA group being treated for 3 days with an oral neurotoxic dose of PPA (0.25 kg/kg body weight); the protective and therapeutic groups receiving bee pollen and probiotic mixture treatment right before and after the neurotoxic dose of PPA, respectively. The levels of interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, tumor necrosis factor α, and interferon γ (IFN-γ) were investigated to evaluate the neuroinflammatory responses in brain tissues from different animal groups. The much higher IL-1β, IL-8, and IFN-γ, as pro-inflammatory cytokines (P < 0.001), together with much lower IL-10, as anti-inflammatory cytokine (P < 0.001) compared to controls clearly demonstrated the neurotoxic effects of PPA. Interestingly, the mixture of bee pollen and probiotics was effective in alleviating PPA neurotoxic effects in both therapeutic and protective groups demonstrating highly significant changes in IL-1β, IL-8, IL-10, and IFN-γ levels together with non-significant reduction in IL-6 levels compared to PPA-treated rats. Overall, our findings demonstrated a new approach to the beneficial use of psychobiotics presenting as bee pollen and probiotic combination in neuroinflammation through cytokine changes as a possible role of glial cells in gut–brain axis.

Screening of Plant Pollen Sources, Polyphenolic Compounds, Fatty Acids and Antioxidant/Antimicrobial Activity from Bee Pollen

In this study, the botanical origin, total flavonoid and phenolic content, antioxidant activity, phenolic profile and fatty acid composition of mixed bee pollen loads collected in Bayburt, Turkey, were determined. In addition to these assays, antibacterial activity of bee-collected pollen extract (BCPE) against a variety of food-borne pathogenic bacteria was determined in vitro. Pollen loads were classified into five botanical families based on their color: Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Campanulaceae, Cistaceae and Rosaceae. Total flavonoid, total phenolic, CUPRAC and CERAC concentrations were 173.52 mg GAE/g, 79.21 mg QE/g, 85.59 mg Trolox/g and 118.13 mg Trolox/g, respectively. Twenty-three phenolic compounds were scanned in bee pollen extract by LC-MS/MS, with rutin being the most abundant. Cis-4,7,10,13,16,19 docosahexaenoic acid was the predominant fatty acid, followed by cis-11-eicosenoic acid, palmitic acid, and alfa linolenic acid. In addition, the agar well diffusion (AWD) and micro-broth dilution methods were used to determine of the antibacterial activity of the BCPE sample. MIC values were observed to vary between 2.5-5 mg/mL for Gram-positive bacteria and 5-10 mg/mL for Gram-negative bacteria. These findings indicate that bee pollen could be a potential source of antioxidants and antimicrobials.

Potential Activity of Abrantes Pollen Extract: Biochemical and Cellular Model Studies

The aim of this study was to determine the grain composition and (poly)phenolic profile of pollen from Abrantes (Portugal), as well as its antioxidative and antidiabetic properties, and abilities to protect human erythrocytes against induced hemoglobin oxidation, lipid peroxidation, and hemolysis. The phytochemical profile of the Abrantes’ bee pollen revealed twenty phenolic compounds, identified by high-performance liquid chromatography with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry coupled with photodiode array detection. Among them, quercetin derivatives were the most abundant. Concerning the biological potential, the pollen extract showed notable capacity for 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, nitric oxide, and superoxide radicals, as well as for inhibition of α-glucosidase action, and protection of human erythrocytes against oxidative damage. Non-cytotoxic effects regarding the NHDF normal cell line, human adenocarcinoma Caco-2, and human liver HepG2 cells were observed. The results obtained contributed to further research on modes of action related to oxidative damage and metabolic health problems, to generate deeper knowledge of potential health-promoting effects to develop novel pharmaceutical drugs, nutraceuticals, and dietary supplements.

Microbial Decontamination of Bee Pollen by Direct Ozone Exposure

The bee pollen is a complete and healthy food with important nutritional properties. Usually, bee pollen is consumed dehydrated, but it is possible to market it as fresh frozen pollen, favoring the maintenance of its properties and greatly increasing its palatability, compared to dried pollen. However, fresh frozen pollen maintains a high microbiological load that can include some pathogenic genus to human health. In this work, ozonation combined with drying is applied to reduce the microbiological load. The lowest timing exposure to ozone (30 min) was chosen together with hot-air drying during 15 min to evaluate the shelf-life of treated bee-pollen under cold storage (4 °C), and initial reductions of 3, 1.5, and 1.7 log cycles were obtained for Enterobacteriaceae, mesophilic aerobes, and molds and yeasts counting, respectively. Six weeks after treatment the microbial load was held at a lower level than initially observed in fresh bee-pollen. In addition, ozone treatment did not have a negative impact on the polyphenols evaluated. Likewise, the sensory profile of the bee pollen under different treatments was studied. For all these assays the results have been favorable, so we can say that ozonation of fresh pollen is safe for human consumption, which maintains its polyphenols composition and organoleptically is better valued than dried pollen.

Rapid and Accurate Approach for Honeybee Pollen Analysis Using ED-XRF and FTIR Spectroscopy

Since honeybee pollen is considered a “perfectly complete food” and is characterized by many beneficial properties (anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-bacterial, etc.), it has begun to be used for therapeutic purposes. Consequently, there is a high need to develop methods for controlling its composition. A thorough bee pollen analysis can be very informative regarding its safety for consumption, the variability of its composition, its biogeographical origin, or harvest date. Therefore, in this study, two reliable and non-destructive spectroscopy methods, i.e., ED-XRF and ATR–FTIR, are proposed as a fast approach to characterize bee pollen. The collected samples were derived from apiaries located in west-central Poland. Additionally, some commercially available samples were analyzed. The applied methodology was optimized and combined with sophisticated chemometric tools. Data derived from IR analyses were also subjected to two-dimensional correlation spectroscopy. The developed ED-XRF method allowed the reliable quantification of eight macro- and micro-nutrients, while organic components were characterized by IR spectroscopy. Principal component analysis, cluster analysis, and obtained synchronous and asynchronous maps allowed the study of component changes occurring dependently on the date and location of harvest. The proposed approach proved to be an excellent tool to monitor the variability of the inorganic and organic content of bee pollen.

Nutritive Value of 11 Bee Pollen Samples from Major Floral Sources in Taiwan

Bee pollen is a nutrient-rich food that meets the nutritional requirements of honey bees and supports human health. This study aimed to provide nutritive composition data for 11 popular bee pollen samples (Brassica napus (Bn), Bidens pilosa var. radiata (Bp), Camellia sinensis (Cs), Fraxinus griffithii (Fg), Prunus mume (Pm), Rhus chinensis var. roxburghii (Rc), Bombax ceiba (Bc), Hylocereus costaricensis (Hc), Liquidambar formosana (Lf), Nelumbo nucifera (Nn), and Zea mays (Zm)) in Taiwan for the global bee pollen database. Macronutrients, such as carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids, were analyzed, which revealed that Bp had the highest carbohydrate content of 78.8 g/100 g dry mass, Bc had the highest protein content of 32.2 g/100 g dry mass, and Hc had the highest lipid content of 8.8 g/100 g dry mass. Only the bee pollen Hc completely met the minimum requirements of essential amino acids for bees and humans, and the other bee pollen samples contained at least 1-3 different limiting essential amino acids, i.e., methionine, tryptophan, histidine, valine, and isoleucine. Regarding the fatty acid profile of bee pollen samples, palmitic acid (C_16:0), stearic acid (C_18:0), oleic acid (C_18:1), linoleic acid (C_18:2), and linolenic acid (C_18:3) were predominant fatty acids that accounted for 66.0-97.4% of total fatty acids. These data serve as an indicator of the nutritional quality and value of the 11 bee pollen samples.

Characterization of Bee Pollen: Physico-Chemical Properties, Headspace Composition and FTIR Spectral Profiles

Chemical characterization of bee pollen is of great importance for its quality estimation. Multifloral and unifloral bee pollen samples collected from continental, mountain and Adriatic regions of Croatia were analyzed by means of physico-chemical, chromatographic (GC-MS), and spectroscopic (FTIR-ATR) analytical tools, aiming to conduct a comprehensive characterization of bee pollen. The most distinctive unifloral bee pollen with regard to nutritional value was Aesculus hippocastanum (27.26% of proteins), Quercus spp. (52.58% of total sugars), Taraxacumofficinale (19.04% of total lipids), and Prunusavium (3.81% of ash). No statistically significant differences between multifloral and unifloral bee pollen from different regions were found for most of the physico-chemical measurement data, with an exception of melezitose (p = 0.04). Remarkable differences were found among the bee pollen HS VOCs. The major ones were lower aliphatic compounds, monoterpenes (mainly linalool derivatives, especially in Prunusmahaleb and P.avium bee pollen), and benzene derivatives (mainly benzaldehyde in T.officinale and Salix spp.). Aldehydes C₉ to C₁₇ were present in almost all samples. FTIR-ATR analysis revealed unique spectral profiles of analyzed bee pollen exhibiting its overall chemical composition arising from molecular vibrations related to major macromolecules-proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates (sugars).

Testing the combined effects of probiotics and prebiotics against neurotoxic effects of propionic acid orally administered to rat pups

The present study investigated the combined effects of mixed probiotic and bee pollen on brain intoxication induced by propionic acid (PPA) in rat pups. Thirty western albino rats were divided into five groups, six animals each: (1) Control group receiving phosphate-buffered saline; (2) Probiotic and bee pollen-treated group being administered at the same dose with 200 mg/kg body weight; (c) PPA-treated group receiving a neurotoxic dose 250 mg/kg body weight of PPA for 3 days; (d) Therapeutic group being administered the neurotoxic dose of PPA followed by probiotic and bee pollen treatment 200 mg/kg body weight; (e) Protective group receiving probiotic and bee pollen mixture treatment followed by neurotoxic dose of PPA. Selected biochemical parameters linked to oxidative stress, energy metabolism, and neurotransmission were investigated in brain homogenates from all the five groups. PPA treatment showed an increase in oxidative stress markers like lipid peroxidation coupled with a significant decrease in glutathione level. Impaired energy metabolism was ascertained via the alteration of creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activities. Dramatic increase of Na+ and K+ concentrations together with a decrease of GABA and IL-6 and an elevation of glutamate levels in PPA-treated rat's pups confirmed the neurotoxicity effect of PPA. Interestingly, the mixed probiotic and bee pollen treatment were effective in restoring the levels of glutamate, GABA, and IL-6 in addition to normalizing the levels of lipid peroxidation and glutathione and the activities of CK and LDH. The present study indicates that mixed probiotic and bee pollen treatment can improve poor detoxification, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation as mechanisms implicated in the etiology of autism.

Spectroscopic Discrimination of Bee Pollen by Composition, Color, and Botanical Origin

Bee pollen samples were discriminated using vibrational spectroscopic methods by connecting with botanical sources, composition, and color. SEM and light microscope images of bee pollen loads were obtained and used to assess the botanical origin. Fourier transform (FT) mid- and near-infrared (FT-MIR, FT-NIR), and FT-Raman spectra of bee pollen samples (a set of randomly chosen loads can be defined as an independent sample) were measured and processed by principal component analysis (PCA). The CIE L*a*b* color space parameters were calculated from the image analysis. FT-MIR, FT-NIR, and FT-Raman spectra showed marked sensitivity to bee pollen composition. In addition, FT-Raman spectra indicated plant pigments as chemical markers of botanical origin. Furthermore, the fractionation of bee pollen was also performed, and composition of the fractions was characterized as well. The combination of imaging, spectroscopic, and statistical methods is a potent tool for bee pollen discrimination and thus may evaluate the quality and composition of this bee-keeping product.

Modeling of Antioxidant Activity, Polyphenols and Macronutrients Content of Bee Pollen Applying Solid-State 13C NMR Spectra

An application of solid ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy for the determination of macronutrients, total polyphenols content, antioxidant activity, N C S elements, and pH in commercially available bee pollens is reported herein. Solid-state ¹³C NMR spectra were recorded for homogenized pollen granules without chemical treatment or dissolution of samples. By combining spectral data with the results of reference analyses, partial least squares models were constructed and validated separately for each of the studied parameters. To characterize and compare the models’ quality, the relative standard errors of prediction (RSEP) were calculated for calibration and validation sets. In the case of the analysis of protein, fat and reducing sugars, these errors were in the 1.8–2.5% range. Modeling the elemental composition of bee pollen on the basis of ¹³C NMR spectra resulted in RSEP_cal/RSEP_val values of 0.3/0.6% for the sum of NHCS elements, 0.3/0.4% for C, 1.8/1.9% for N, and 4.2/6.1% for S quantification. Analyses of total phenolics and ABTS antioxidant activity resulted in RSEP values in the 2.7–3.5% and 2.8–3.8% ranges, respectively, whereas they were 1.4–2.1% for pH. The obtained results demonstrate the usefulness of ¹³C solid-state NMR spectroscopy for direct determination of various important physiochemical parameters of bee pollen.

Optimisation of Bee Pollen Extraction to Maximise Extractable Antioxidant Constituents

This paper presents the findings of a comprehensive review on common bee pollen processing methods which can impact extraction efficiency and lead to differences in measured total phenolic content (TPC) and radical scavenging activity based on 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) data. This hampers the comparative analysis of bee pollen from different floral sources and geographical locations. Based on the review, an in-depth investigation was carried out to identify the most efficient process to maximise the extraction of components for measurement of TPC, DPPH and FRAP antioxidant activity for two bee pollen samples from western Australia (Jarrah and Marri pollen). Optimisation by Design of Experiment with Multilevel Factorial Analysis (Categorical) modelling was performed. The independent variables included pollen pulverisation, the extraction solvent (70% aqueous ethanol, ethanol, methanol and water) and the extraction process (agitation, maceration, reflux and sonication). The data demonstrate that non-pulverised bee pollen extracted with 70% aqueous ethanol using the agitation extraction method constitute the optimal conditions to maximise the extraction of phenolics and antioxidant principles in these bee pollen samples.

Antimicrobial Activity and Protective Effect of Tuscan Bee Pollens on Oxidative and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress in Different Cell-Based Models

Bee pollen is an apiary product of great interest owing to its high nutritional and therapeutic properties. This study aimed to assess the cellular antioxidant activity and the antihemolytic effect of Castanea, Rubus, and Cistus bee pollens on human erythrocytes. We also tested the antimicrobial potential of each sample on selected Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Finally, the effect of Castanea bee pollen, showing the best phytochemical profile, was analyzed on human microvascular endothelial cells exposed to thapsigargin, used as endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stressor. Our results showed good biological activities of all bee pollen samples that, under oxidative conditions, significantly improved the erythrocytes’ antioxidant activity and limited cell lyses. Castanea and Cistus showed comparable antihemolytic activities, with higher % hemolysis inhibition than Rubus. All samples exerted antimicrobial activity with different selectivity among all the tested microorganisms with minimal inhibitory concentration values ranging from 5 to 10 mg/mL. Finally, Castanea bee pollen was effective in reducing gene over-expression and oxidation process arising from thapsigargin treatment, with a maximum protective effect at 10 µg/mL. In conclusion, bee pollen represents a potential natural antibacterial and a good nutraceutical product useful in the prevention of free radical and ER stress-associated diseases.

Bee Pollen and Bee Bread as a Source of Bacteria Producing Antimicrobials

The principal objective of the study was the isolation and identification of bacteria that are present in mature bee bread (BB) and dried (ready for selling and consumption) bee pollen (BP). Obtained isolates were screened for their potential to inhibit select human pathogenic bacteria and their ability to produce enzymes of particular industrial importance. Four and five samples of BP and BB, respectively, were used for the study. In total, 81 strains of bacteria were isolated, and 34 (42%) of them exhibited antagonistic interactions with at least one reference strain of pathogenic bacteria, namely Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213, Staphylococcus epidermidis 12228, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27857, and Escherichia coli ATCC 25922. The sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene revealed that all strains producing antimicrobials belong to the genus Bacillus spp., and among them, five species were identified: B. pumilus (n = 17), B. altitudinis (n = 9), B. licheniformis (n = 4), B. subtilis (n = 2), and B. safensis (n = 1). Furthermore, 69, 54, 39, and 29 of the strains exhibited lipolytic, proteolytic, cellulolytic, and esterolytic activity, respectively. Alpha amylase and beta galactosidase activity were rarely observed, and none of the strains produced laccase. The outcomes of the study revealed that BP and BB can be considered potential sources of bacteria producing antimicrobial agents and/or enzymes of particular industrial importance. Of course, additional research is required to verify this hypothesis, but the results of preliminary studies are promising.

Bee Pollen Diet Alters the Bacterial Flora and Antimicrobial Peptides in the Oral Cavities of Mice

BACKGROUND

Bee pollen (BP) has a broad range of beneficial effects on health. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of BP on the oral environment, including the microbiome and antimicrobial peptides.

METHODS

C57BL/6J mice were randomly divided into two groups: control and BP. The BP group was fed with a 5% BP diet for 1 month. Swabs from the oral and buccal mucosa and samples of the intestinal stool were collected. Genomic DNA was extracted and the microbiome was analyzed via 16S rRNA sequencing.

RESULTS

BP inhibited the growth of P. gingivalis at a concentration of >2.5%. The metagenomic study showed that the abundance of genus Lactococcus was significantly elevated in the oral and intestinal microbiomes of the BP group when compared to those of the control group. Significant alterations in alpha and beta diversity were observed between the oral microbiomes of the two groups. The mRNA levels of beta-defensin-2 and -3 were significantly upregulated in the buccal mucosa of the BP group.

CONCLUSION

A BP diet may have a beneficial effect on oral and systemic health by modulating the bacterial flora and antimicrobial peptides of the oral cavity. Further investigations are needed to clarify how a BP diet affects overall human health.

Harvest Season Significantly Influences the Fatty Acid Composition of Bee Pollen

Simple Summary

Harvesting pollen loads collected from a specific botanical origin is a complicated process that takes time and effort. Therefore, we aimed to determine the optimal season for harvesting pollen loads rich in essential fatty acids (EFAs) and unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs) from the Al-Ahsa Oasis in eastern Saudi Arabia. Pollen loads were collected throughout one year, and the tested samples were selected during the top collecting period in each season. Lipids and fatty acid composition were determined. The highest values of lipids concentration, linolenic acid (C_18:3), stearic acid (C_18:0), linoleic acid (C_18:2), arachidic acid (C_20:0) concentrations, and EFAs were obtained from bee pollen harvested during autumn. The maximum values (%) of oleic acid (C_18:1), palmitic acid (C_16:0), UFAs, and the UFA/saturated fatty acid (SFA) ratio were found in bee pollen harvested during summer. Bee pollen harvested during spring ranked second in its oleic, palmitic, linolenic, stearic, arachidic, behenic, and lignoceric acid concentrations and for EFAs, UFAs, and the UFA/SFA ratio. It was concluded that the FA composition of bee pollen varied among the harvest seasons. We recommend harvesting pollen loads during spring and summer to feed honeybee colonies during periods of scarcity and for use as a healthy, nutritious food for humans.

Abstract

Seasonal variations in the fatty acid (FA) compositions of pollen loads collected from the Al-Ahsa Oasis in eastern Saudi Arabia throughout one year were determined to identify the optimal season for harvesting bee pollen rich in essential fatty acids (EFAs) and unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs). The highest values (%) of lipids, linolenic acid (C_18:3), stearic acid (C_18:0), linoleic acid (C_18:2), arachidic acid (C_20:0), the sum of the C18:0, C18:1, C18:2, and C18:3 concentrations, and EFAs were obtained from bee pollen harvested during autumn. The maximum values (%) of oleic acid (C_18:1), palmitic acid (C_16:0), UFAs, and the UFA/saturated fatty acid (SFA) ratio were found in bee pollen harvested during summer. The highest concentrations (%) of behenic acid (C_22:0), lignoceric acid (C_24:0), and SFAs were found in bee pollen harvested during winter. Bee pollen harvested during spring ranked second in its oleic, palmitic, linolenic, stearic, arachidic, behenic, and lignoceric acid concentrations and for EFAs, UFAs, and the UFA/SFA ratio. The lowest SFA concentration was found in bee pollen harvested during summer. Oleic, palmitic, and linolenic acids were the most predominant FAs found in bee pollen. It was concluded that the FA composition of bee pollen varied among the harvest seasons due to the influence of the dominant botanical origins. We recommend harvesting pollen loads during spring and summer to feed honeybee colonies during periods of scarcity and for use as a healthy, nutritious food for humans.

Bee Pollen: Current Status and Therapeutic Potential

Bee pollen is a combination of plant pollen and honeybee secretions and nectar. The Bible and ancient Egyptian texts are documented proof of its use in public health. It is considered a gold mine of nutrition due to its active components that have significant health and medicinal properties. Bee pollen contains bioactive compounds including proteins, amino acids, lipids, carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins, and polyphenols. The vital components of bee pollen enhance different bodily functions and offer protection against many diseases. It is generally marketed as a functional food with affordable and inexpensive prices with promising future industrial potentials. This review highlights the dietary properties of bee pollen and its influence on human health, and its applications in the food industry.