1
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Ogawa M, Mitani Y. Distribution and composition of floating marine debris in Shiretoko peninsula, Japan, using opportunistic sighting survey. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2024; 201:116266. [PMID: 38522339 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2024.116266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2023] [Revised: 03/11/2024] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/26/2024]
Abstract
Floating marine debris (FMD) poses several threats to marine species, such as entanglement, ingestion, and the transport of pollutants. The Shiretoko Peninsula, located in northern Japan, is a registered World Natural Heritage Site and a biodiversity hotspot. However, FMD has not yet been thoroughly investigated in this region. In 2022, sighting surveys were conducted in Abashiri (west side of the peninsula) and Rausu (east side) to assess the abundance, composition, and distribution of FMD. The mean densities were notably higher in Abashiri, and there was more fishing-related debris in Rausu. Regarding local human activities, the population and number of tourists are higher in Abashiri, and fishing activities are higher in Rausu. While marine pollution is a global issue, our study suggests that addressing it should commence with community-based management at the local level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Ogawa
- Graduate School of Environmental Science, Hokkaido University, 20-5 Benten-cho, Hakodate, Hokkaido 040-0051, Japan.
| | - Yoko Mitani
- Wildlife Research Center, Kyoto University, 2-24, Tanaka-Sekiden-cho, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8203, Japan.
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2
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Boettcher H, Kukulka T, Cohen JH. Methods for controlled preparation and dosing of microplastic fragments in bioassays. Sci Rep 2023; 13:5195. [PMID: 36997607 PMCID: PMC10063547 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-32250-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Microplastic fragments (microfragments) are among the most abundant microplastic shapes found in marine ecosystems throughout the world. Due to their limited commercial availability, microfragments are rarely used in laboratory experiments. Here a novel method of microfragment production has been developed and validated. Polyethylene and polypropylene plastic stock (2 and 3 mm thick respectively) was ground using a cryomill, washed, and rinsed through a stack of sieves. Microfragments were prepared at three distinct size classes (53-150, 150-300, 300-1000 μm) and were confirmed to be accurate and consistent in size. Employing a novel ice cap dosing technique, microfragments were accurately dosed into experimental vials while excluding headspace, facilitating particle suspension without the aid of chemical surfactants. A proof of principle ingestion experiment confirmed the bioavailability of 53-150 μm polyethylene microfragments to brine shrimp Artemia sp. Together, these methods provide a controlled way to produce and dose microplastic fragments for experimental and analytical research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayden Boettcher
- School of Marine Science and Policy, University of Delaware, Lewes, DE, 19958, USA.
| | - Tobias Kukulka
- School of Marine Science and Policy, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, 19971, USA
| | - Jonathan H Cohen
- School of Marine Science and Policy, University of Delaware, Lewes, DE, 19958, USA
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3
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Canti S, González P, Suárez N, Yorio P, Marinao C. Interactions between breeding gulls and monofilament lines at one of the main recreational fishing sites in Argentina. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2023; 188:114720. [PMID: 36860016 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.114720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 02/04/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Monofilament fishing lines lost or discarded during recreational fishing activities often result in negative impacts on marine organisms. We assessed the interactions between Kelp and Olrog's gulls (Larus dominicanus and L. atlanticus, respectively) and recreational fishing at Bahía San Blas, Argentina. Monofilament lines constituted 61 and 29 % of total debris items recorded along beaches in the low and high fishing seasons, respectively. A total of 61 balls of tangled lines were also found within Kelp and Olrog's gull colonies. No Olrog's Gulls but nine Kelp Gulls were found tangled with monofilament lines within colony boundaries, seven of which were caught in vegetation. No Kelp or Olrog's gulls foraging in recreational fishing areas were observed tangled with lines. Monofilament lines did not negatively affect gull populations during the study period, but actions are needed to correctly manage their disposal given the relevance of Bahía San Blas as a recreational fishing area in the region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santiago Canti
- Olazábal 2590, Piso 4, Departamento A (C1428DHU), Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Paola González
- General Hornos 2422 (B1640AOS), Martínez, Provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Nicolás Suárez
- Centro para el Estudio de Sistemas Marinos, CONICET, Boulevard Brown 2915 (U9120ACV), Puerto Madryn, Chubut, Argentina
| | - Pablo Yorio
- Centro para el Estudio de Sistemas Marinos, CONICET, Boulevard Brown 2915 (U9120ACV), Puerto Madryn, Chubut, Argentina; Wildlife Conservation Society Argentina, Amenábar 1595, Piso 2, Of. 19 (C1426AKC), Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Cristian Marinao
- Centro para el Estudio de Sistemas Marinos, CONICET, Boulevard Brown 2915 (U9120ACV), Puerto Madryn, Chubut, Argentina
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4
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Roman L, Hardesty BD, Schuyler Q. A systematic review and risk matrix of plastic litter impacts on aquatic wildlife: A case study of the Mekong and Ganges River Basins. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 843:156858. [PMID: 35772547 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2022] [Revised: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 06/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Plastic litter is a pollutant of aquatic environments worldwide, with some of the world's highest litter densities occurring in freshwater ecosystems. Little information about the risk that plastic litter poses to aquatic wildlife is available across the world's most polluted waterways. To help assess the risk to aquatic species where empirical data is lacking, our review presents i) a risk assessment methodology for predicting plastic litter impacts on aquatic wildlife in data poor environments, ii) a case study demonstrating this risk assessment methodology for wildlife across two heavily polluted river basins in Asia, the Mekong and Ganges River Basins; and iii) a broad review summarising common trends in litter interactions and risk to freshwater fish, aquatic birds, cetaceans and raptors. This risk analysis unites a systematic review approach with risk matrices following International Standards Organization's risk assessment criteria, evaluating the risk of plastic entanglement and ingestion and the potential for harm to the animal. In the Mekong and Ganges River Basins, we found that the risk of litter entanglement is higher than litter ingestion. Four species were forecast to be at high risk of entanglement: Ganges River dolphin, Gharial, Mekong giant catfish and Irrawaddy dolphin. The eastern imperial eagle and greater spotted eagle were noted to be at moderate risk of entanglement. Both the Ganges River dolphin and Irrawaddy dolphin were predicted to have a moderate risk of plastic ingestion. Interestingly, cranes, waterfowl and wading birds were deemed at low or negligible risk from plastic litter. This risk matrix methodology can be applied to other waterways and taxa to assess the risk posed by plastic. It can also be readily updated as more information becomes available. This review enables decision makers to bridge a data gap by providing a tool for conservation and management before comprehensive empirical data is available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Roman
- CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia.
| | - Britta Denise Hardesty
- CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia; Centre for Marine Socioecology, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Qamar Schuyler
- CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
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5
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Thomas FL, Forys EA. The Role of Fishing Piers in Brown Pelican ( Pelecanus occidentalis) Entanglement. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12182352. [PMID: 36139212 PMCID: PMC9495162 DOI: 10.3390/ani12182352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Revised: 09/04/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Throughout their range, Brown Pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) are one of the most common species to become entangled in fishing gear. We surveyed four piers every other week for one year (6/2019−5/2020) in the Tampa Bay region, FL, USA, to determine frequency of pelican entanglement associated with fishing piers, and explored factors that might influence the rate of entanglement. We conducted a generalized linear model (GLM) to determine the influence that pier, pier closure due to COVID-19, time of day and season, number of anglers, and presence of human behaviors that might attract pelicans to the pier had on the number of entangled pelicans. We conducted 144 surveys and counted 3766 pelicans of which 254 (7%) were entangled. The variables significantly associated (p < 0.05) with entanglement were the pier, time of day, and pier closure status, while the number and behavior of anglers were not significant. The two piers that most significantly influenced the number of entanglements both had extensive perches within 10 m of the fishing pier. The management action most likely to reduce the number of entangled pelicans appears to be deterring pelicans from perching near piers or decreasing fishing near perching structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fairl L. Thomas
- Environmental Studies Discipline, Eckerd College, St. Petersburg, FL 33711, USA
| | - Elizabeth A. Forys
- Environmental Studies and Biology Disciplines, Eckerd College, St. Petersburg, FL 33711, USA
- Correspondence:
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6
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Dermawan D, Wang YF, You SJ, Jiang JJ, Hsieh YK. Impact of climatic and non-climatic stressors on ocean life and human health: A review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 821:153387. [PMID: 35081412 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Revised: 01/19/2022] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Ocean life forms are fundamentally well adapted to natural environmental variations, and they can even tolerate extreme conditions for a short time. However, several anthropogenic stressors are causing such drastic changes in the ocean ecosystem. First, the review attempts to outline the impact of climatic and non-climatic stressors on ocean life, and it also outlines the synergistic impact of both stressors. Then the impact on human health caused by the damage of the marine ecosystem has been discussed. Furthermore, the type of prior studies and current mitigation adaptation programs have been presented. Finally, some perspectives about future research and mitigation adaptation are offered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denny Dermawan
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chung-Li 320, Taiwan; Department of Civil Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chung-Li 320, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Fen Wang
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chung-Li 320, Taiwan; Center for Environmental Risk Management, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chung-Li 32023, Taiwan
| | - Sheng-Jie You
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chung-Li 320, Taiwan; Center for Environmental Risk Management, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chung-Li 32023, Taiwan
| | - Jheng-Jie Jiang
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chung-Li 320, Taiwan; Center for Environmental Risk Management, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chung-Li 32023, Taiwan
| | - Yen-Kung Hsieh
- Marine Ecology and Conservation Research Center, National Academy of Marine Research, Kaohsiung 80661, Taiwan; Department of Environmental Science and Occupational Safety and Health, Tajen University, Pingtung, Taiwan.
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7
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Ayala F, Castillo-Morales K, Cárdenas-Alayza S. Impact of marine debris recorded in a sympatric colony of otariids in the south coast of Peru. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2022; 174:113281. [PMID: 34990935 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.113281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Marine debris, in particular plastic debris and debris related to fishing activities, have an impact on marine mammals and seabirds. In marine-coastal species such as otariids, we can detect the incidence of these interactions through land-based observations. In this study, we recorded and described interactions between marine debris and the otariids Arctocephalus australis and Otaria byronia in a natural protected area in Peru, according to age class categories. Between 2016 and 2020, we recorded 151 animals that were directly impacted and/or were observed interacting with marine debris. Residual collars from fishing gear, ropes, plastic bags and unidentified material were recorded. Direct interactions with debris at colonies (e.g., plastic bags) were also recorded, as well as animals evidenced interacting with hooks. The age class category and species with the highest number of individuals impacted by residual collars were adult female A. australis and subadult male O. byronia. Single-use plastics were the most commonly bitten/moved waste by animals in the reserve. In the case of hooks, these were mostly lodged in the mouths of otariids. Our results highlight the importance of continuing to promote segregation at source, as well as the correct disposal of waste, locally and globally, to mitigate impacts on marine fauna.
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Affiliation(s)
- Félix Ayala
- Centro para la Sostenibilidad Ambiental, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru.
| | - Karen Castillo-Morales
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ecologia e Conservação da Biodiversidade, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso (UFMT), Cuiabá, MT, Brazil
| | - Susana Cárdenas-Alayza
- Centro para la Sostenibilidad Ambiental, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
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8
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McCoy KS, Huntington B, Kindinger TL, Morioka J, O'Brien K. Movement and retention of derelict fishing nets in Northwestern Hawaiian Island reefs. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2022; 174:113261. [PMID: 34959103 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.113261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2021] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Derelict fishing nets pose hazards to marine systems as they travel through the ocean or become ensnared on coral reefs. Understanding of the movement of nets within shallow atolls can help to optimize operations to protect these shallow reefs. In 2018, six derelict fishing nets at Manawai (Pearl and Hermes Reef) in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands were tagged with satellite-transmitting buoys and tracked for three years. This study reveals that nets that enter the atoll from the northeast travel southwest towards the center of the atoll, and nets in the center can remain ensnared on the same reef for at least three years. This study shows that satellite buoys are a successful approach to tracking derelict net movement, and can inform future debris removal missions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaylyn S McCoy
- Ecosystem Sciences Division, Archipelagic Research Program, Pacific, Islands Fisheries Science Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Honolulu, HI, United States.
| | - Brittany Huntington
- Joint Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI, United States
| | - Tye L Kindinger
- Ecosystem Sciences Division, Archipelagic Research Program, Pacific, Islands Fisheries Science Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Honolulu, HI, United States
| | - James Morioka
- Joint Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI, United States
| | - Kevin O'Brien
- Papahānaumokuākea Marine Debris Project, Honolulu, HI, United States
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9
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Camedda A, Matiddi M, Vianello A, Coppa S, Bianchi J, Silvestri C, Palazzo L, Massaro G, Atzori F, Ruiu A, Piermarini R, Cocumelli C, Briguglio P, Hochscheid S, Brundu R, de Lucia GA. Polymer composition assessment suggests prevalence of single-use plastics among items ingested by loggerhead sea turtles in the western mediterranean sub-region. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2022; 292:118274. [PMID: 34606971 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The ingestion of plastic is becoming a major concern for various species and particularly for marine turtles across the globe. The loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) was recently chosen by the European Commission as a bio-indicator for plastic pollution within the Mediterranean basin. We further investigated which items this key species is more prone to ingest, following the standardised Marine Strategy Framework Directive protocols. Moreover, we integrated to this protocol the Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, which allowed us to determine the polymer type of each item. We analysed samples from 226 sea turtles from 2008 to 2017 in two areas of the western Mediterranean sub-region (sensu MSFD). In the Lazio area we found a frequency of occurrence of plastic ingestion of 78.33%, while in Sardinia 41.79%. The analysis of the litter categories, among all individuals, highlights a prevalence of user-sheet (Use-She; 69.13%) and user-fragment plastics (Use-Fra; 20.84%). In addition, the polymer analysis showed a dominance of polyethylene (65.98%) and polypropylene (26.23%). As a result, by looking at other works that have investigated polymer types and items sources, we are able to infer that 77.25% of the objects ingested by the C. caretta individuals are attributable to disposable daily-life objects managed in an improper way. Therefore, C. caretta apart from being an efficient bio-indicator for plastic pollution, highlighting spatial and temporal concentration differences, it could also be used to verify the effectiveness of the Single-use Plastic Directive (EU 2019/904).
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Camedda
- Institute of Anthropic Impact and Sustainability in Marine Environment - National Research Council Oristano Section, Località Sa Mardini 09170 Torregrande, Oristano, Italy
| | - Marco Matiddi
- Italian National Institute for Environmental Protection and Research (ISPRA), Via Vitaliano Brancati 48, 00144, Roma, Italy
| | - Alvise Vianello
- Aalborg University, Section of Water and Environment, Department of the Built Environment, Thomas Manns Vej 23, 9220, Aalborg Øst, Denmark
| | - Stefania Coppa
- Institute of Anthropic Impact and Sustainability in Marine Environment - National Research Council Oristano Section, Località Sa Mardini 09170 Torregrande, Oristano, Italy.
| | - Jessica Bianchi
- Italian National Institute for Environmental Protection and Research (ISPRA), Via Vitaliano Brancati 48, 00144, Roma, Italy; Department of Ecology and Biology, University of Tuscia, Via S. Camillo de Lellis 44, 01100, Viterbo, VT, Italy
| | - Cecilia Silvestri
- Italian National Institute for Environmental Protection and Research (ISPRA), Via Vitaliano Brancati 48, 00144, Roma, Italy
| | - Luca Palazzo
- Institute of Anthropic Impact and Sustainability in Marine Environment - National Research Council Oristano Section, Località Sa Mardini 09170 Torregrande, Oristano, Italy; Department of Ecology and Biology, University of Tuscia, Via S. Camillo de Lellis 44, 01100, Viterbo, VT, Italy
| | - Giorgio Massaro
- Institute of Anthropic Impact and Sustainability in Marine Environment - National Research Council Oristano Section, Località Sa Mardini 09170 Torregrande, Oristano, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Atzori
- Department of Ecology and Biology, University of Tuscia, Via S. Camillo de Lellis 44, 01100, Viterbo, VT, Italy; Capo Carbonara MPA- Municipality of Villasimius, 09049, Villasimius (SU), Italy
| | - Angelo Ruiu
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Della Sardegna - Struttura Complessa Diagnostica di Oristano, Via Atene, Z.I., 09170, Oristano, Italy
| | - Raffaella Piermarini
- Italian National Institute for Environmental Protection and Research (ISPRA), Via Vitaliano Brancati 48, 00144, Roma, Italy
| | - Cristiano Cocumelli
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Del Lazio e Della Toscana M. Aleandri, via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178, Roma, Italy
| | - Paolo Briguglio
- Clinica Veterinaria "due Mari", Via Cagliari 313, 09170, Oristano, Italy
| | - Sandra Hochscheid
- Marine Turtle Research Center, Dipartment of Animal Conservation and Public Engagement, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Via Nuova Macello 16, 80055, Portici, Italy
| | - Roberto Brundu
- "Penisola Del Sinis e Isola di Mal di Ventre" Marine Protected Area, P.zza Eleonora 1, 09072, Cabras, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Andrea de Lucia
- Institute of Anthropic Impact and Sustainability in Marine Environment - National Research Council Oristano Section, Località Sa Mardini 09170 Torregrande, Oristano, Italy
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10
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Richard FJ, Southern I, Gigauri M, Bellini G, Rojas O, Runde A. Warning on nine pollutants and their effects on avian communities. Glob Ecol Conserv 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gecco.2021.e01898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
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11
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Massetti L, Rangel-Buitrago N, Pietrelli L, Merlino S. Litter impacts on marine birds: The Mediterranean Northern gannet as case study. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2021; 171:112779. [PMID: 34340148 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.112779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 07/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/24/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Litter are ubiquitous and increasing in the coastal and marine environments. Entanglement with litter is one of the principal causes of mortality in seabirds, but the population-level consequences are unknown. Currently, all seabirds collect litter for nesting material. Northern Gannets are not the exception and there are several cases where elevated percentages of polymers are part of the life cycle of gannets, especially during breeding. This baseline paper presents an analysis of litter content and its related impacts on the two gannet nests located in South France (Carry-Le-Rouet) and Northwest Italy (Portovenere) from 2017 to 2019. 654 items from both gannet nests were collected with 277 items (42%) being of natural origin, while 377 items (58%) were litter. Most of the nesting material was nautical cordage, which appears to be used preferentially. A more restrictive litter management regulation must be adopted to reduce litter generation from fishing/aquaculture-related activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciano Massetti
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto per la BioEconomia, CNR-IBE, Via Madonna del Piano, 10, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy.
| | - Nelson Rangel-Buitrago
- Programas de Física y Biologia, Facultad de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad del Atlántico, Barranquilla, Atlántico, Colombia.
| | - Loris Pietrelli
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
| | - Silvia Merlino
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Scienze Marine (CNR-ISMAR) U. O. S., di Pozzuolo di Lerici, La Spezia, Italy.
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12
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Potvin DA, Opitz F, Townsend KA, Knutie SA. Use of anthropogenic-related nest material and nest parasite prevalence have increased over the past two centuries in Australian birds. Oecologia 2021; 196:1207-1217. [PMID: 34236465 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-021-04982-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Global plastic production has increased exponentially since the 1940s, resulting in the increased presence of anthropogenic debris in the environment. Recent studies have shown that birds incorporate anthropogenic debris into their nests, which can reduce nest ectoparasite loads. However, we know little about the long-term history of interactions among birds, anthropogenic debris, and ectoparasites. Our study took a unique approach to address this issue by determining the prevalence of anthropogenic debris and ectoparasitic nest flies (Protocalliphora and Passeromyia spp.) in 893 bird nests from 224 species between 1832 and 2018, which were sourced from Australian museum collections. The prevalence of anthropogenic material increased from approximately 4% in 1832 to almost 30% in 2018. This change was driven by an increase in the incorporation of synthetic rather than biodegradable anthropogenic debris (by 2018 ~ 25% of all nests contained synthetics), with the first synthetic item being found in a nest from 1956 in the city of Melbourne. Nest parasite prevalence increased over time but contrary to other studies, there was no relationship between habitat type or anthropogenic material and parasite presence. Our study is the first to use museum specimens to quantify temporal and spatial impacts of anthropogenic material on birds, the results of which justifies contemporary concerns regarding the ubiquitous nature of human impacts on terrestrial wildlife.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominique A Potvin
- University of the Sunshine Coast, Moreton Bay Campus, Petrie, Australia.
| | | | - Kathy A Townsend
- University of the Sunshine Coast, Fraser Coast Campus, Hervey Bay, Australia
| | - Sarah A Knutie
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, 06269, USA.,Institute for Systems Genomics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, 06269, USA
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13
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Animal Harms and Food Production: Informing Ethical Choices. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11051225. [PMID: 33922738 PMCID: PMC8146968 DOI: 10.3390/ani11051225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2021] [Revised: 04/17/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Consideration of animal welfare in food choices has become an influential contemporary theme. Traditional animal welfare views about food have been largely restricted to direct and intentional harms to livestock in intensive animal agriculture settings. However, many harms to animals arising from diverse food production practices in the world are exerted indirectly and unintentionally and often affect wildlife. Here we apply a qualitative analysis of food production by considering the breadth of harms caused by different food production systems to wild as well as domestic animals. Production systems are identified that produce relatively few and relatively many harms. The ethical implications of these findings are discussed for consumers concerned with the broad animal welfare impacts of their food choices. Abstract Ethical food choices have become an important societal theme in post-industrial countries. Many consumers are particularly interested in the animal welfare implications of the various foods they may choose to consume. However, concepts in animal welfare are rapidly evolving towards consideration of all animals (including wildlife) in contemporary approaches such as “One Welfare”. This approach requires recognition that negative impacts (harms) may be intentional and obvious (e.g., slaughter of livestock) but also include the under-appreciated indirect or unintentional harms that often impact wildlife (e.g., land clearing). This is especially true in the Anthropocene, where impacts on non-human life are almost ubiquitous across all human activities. We applied the “harms” model of animal welfare assessment to several common food production systems and provide a framework for assessing the breadth (not intensity) of harms imposed. We considered all harms caused to wild as well as domestic animals, both direct effects and indirect effects. We described 21 forms of harm and considered how they applied to 16 forms of food production. Our analysis suggests that all food production systems harm animals to some degree and that the majority of these harms affect wildlife, not livestock. We conclude that the food production systems likely to impose the greatest overall breadth of harms to animals are intensive animal agriculture industries (e.g., dairy) that rely on a secondary food production system (e.g., cropping), while harvesting of locally available wild plants, mushrooms or seaweed is likely to impose the least harms. We present this conceptual analysis as a resource for those who want to begin considering the complex animal welfare trade-offs involved in their food choices.
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López-Martínez S, Morales-Caselles C, Kadar J, Rivas ML. Overview of global status of plastic presence in marine vertebrates. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2021; 27:728-737. [PMID: 33111371 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.15416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Revised: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The presence of plastic in the environment is generating impacts on all habitats and has become a major global problem in marine megafauna. Macroplastics can cause entanglement, ingestion and loss of suitable habitats. In addition to entanglement problems, there is evidence that plastics are entering the food web through ingestion by marine organisms, which could ultimately be affecting humans. Much of the available information on the impact of plastic in biota is scattered and disconnected due to the use of different methodologies. Here, we review the variety of approaches and protocols followed to assess macro- and microplastic ingestion in marine vertebrates such as sea turtles, cetaceans and fishes in order to offer a global overview of their current status. The analysis of 112 studies indicates the highest plastic ingestion in organisms collected in the Mediterranean and Northeast Indian Ocean with significant differences among plastic types ingested by different groups of animals, including differences in colour and the type of prevalent polymers. In sea turtles, the most prevalent types of plastics are white plastics (66.60%), fibres (54.54%) and LDPE polymer (39.09%); in cetaceans, white macro- and microplastics (38.31%), fibres (79.95%) and PA polymer (49.60%); and in fishes, transparent plastics (45.97%), fibres (66.71%) and polyester polymer (36.20%). Overall, clear fibre microplastics are likely the most predominant types ingested by marine megafauna around the globe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio López-Martínez
- CECOUAL Scientific Collection Centre, University of Almería, Almería, Spain
- CEIMAR Marine Campus of International Excellence, UAL-UCA, Almeria, Spain
| | - Carmen Morales-Caselles
- CEIMAR Marine Campus of International Excellence, UAL-UCA, Almeria, Spain
- Biology Depart, Faculty of Ciencias del Mar y Ambientales, University of Cadiz, Cadiz, Spain
| | | | - Marga L Rivas
- CECOUAL Scientific Collection Centre, University of Almería, Almería, Spain
- CEIMAR Marine Campus of International Excellence, UAL-UCA, Almeria, Spain
- Universidad Central "Marta Abreu de las Villas", Santa Clara, Cuba
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15
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Haywood BK, Parrish JK, He Y. Shapeshifting attachment: Exploring multi‐dimensional people–place bonds in place‐based citizen science. PEOPLE AND NATURE 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/pan3.10174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Yurong He
- The University of Washington Seattle WA USA
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16
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Costa RA, Sá S, Pereira AT, Ângelo AR, Vaqueiro J, Ferreira M, Eira C. Prevalence of entanglements of seabirds in marine debris in the central Portuguese coast. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2020; 161:111746. [PMID: 33068788 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Plastic pollution and the subsequent entanglement of marine animals is a global and increasing problem. In this study we present an analysis of the seabirds recorded as entangled by a rehabilitation centre and an associated marine animal stranding network, along the central coast of Portugal, between 2008 and 2018. Results show a high annual rate of entangled seabirds (average 6.9%) compared to other studies and fisheries related materials are a relevant cause of seabird entanglement (82%) compared to other debris. When comparing age classes, juveniles were more vulnerable to entanglement than other age classes in the species studied. Regarding the rehabilitation of entangled seabirds, the release rate was higher in non-fishing material entanglement cases. In conclusion, this study highlights the impact of fisheries related material on marine fauna and the need for reinforcement of the existing legislation for protecting seabirds and the implementation of mitigation measures associated with fishing activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A Costa
- CESAM & Departamento de Biologia, Universidade de Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - S Sá
- CESAM & Departamento de Biologia, Universidade de Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; Sociedade Portuguesa de Vida Selvagem, Estação de Campo de Quiaios, 3081-101 Figueira da Foz, Portugal
| | - A T Pereira
- CESAM & Departamento de Biologia, Universidade de Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; Sociedade Portuguesa de Vida Selvagem, Estação de Campo de Quiaios, 3081-101 Figueira da Foz, Portugal
| | - A R Ângelo
- CESAM & Departamento de Biologia, Universidade de Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - J Vaqueiro
- CESAM & Departamento de Biologia, Universidade de Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; Sociedade Portuguesa de Vida Selvagem, Estação de Campo de Quiaios, 3081-101 Figueira da Foz, Portugal
| | - M Ferreira
- Sociedade Portuguesa de Vida Selvagem, Estação de Campo de Quiaios, 3081-101 Figueira da Foz, Portugal
| | - C Eira
- CESAM & Departamento de Biologia, Universidade de Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; Sociedade Portuguesa de Vida Selvagem, Estação de Campo de Quiaios, 3081-101 Figueira da Foz, Portugal
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Korshenko E, Zhurbas V, Osadchiev A, Belyakova P. Fate of river-borne floating litter during the flooding event in the northeastern part of the Black Sea in October 2018. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2020; 160:111678. [PMID: 33181951 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2020] [Revised: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This study is focused on delivery and fate of floating marine litter (FML) carried by rivers to coastal sea. We examine a large flooding event which happened in the northeastern part of the Black Sea in October 2018. A high resolution circulation model coupled with a Lagrangian particle model is applied to simulate transport of riverine FML in the coastal sea. During this flood multiple river plumes in the study area coalesced into one stripe of freshened water which occupied large segment of coastal sea along the shoreline. Riverine FML was transported within this stripe far off its sources in river mouths and remained arrested near the shore. As a result, approximately half of the discharged FML was washed ashore by the Stokes drift. FML, which remained in the sea, accumulated at convergence lines associated with large salinity gradients at the fronts between the river plumes and the ambient sea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evgeniya Korshenko
- N.N. Zubov State Oceanographic Institute, Roshydromet, 119034 Moscow, Kropotkinskiy Lane 6, Russian Federation; Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 117997 Moscow, Nahimovskiy Prospect 36, Russian Federation.
| | - Victor Zhurbas
- Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 117997 Moscow, Nahimovskiy Prospect 36, Russian Federation.
| | - Alexander Osadchiev
- Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 117997 Moscow, Nahimovskiy Prospect 36, Russian Federation.
| | - Pelagiya Belyakova
- Water Problems Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119333 Moscow, Gubkina Street 3, Russian Federation
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18
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Alisha F, Davlasheridze M, Mykoniatis N. Socioeconomic drivers of marine debris in North America. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 160:105042. [PMID: 32907740 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2020.105042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2020] [Revised: 05/04/2020] [Accepted: 06/03/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Economic development, coastal population growth, and expansion of tourism-related activities along coastlines have been the leading causes of marine debris pollution worldwide. While the problem of marine debris pollution has been increasingly recognized, there has been limited research on its socioeconomic drivers, primarily due to a paucity of consistent data on debris. The research described here utilizes newly available data from the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA) on marine debris along eight coastal states of North America to examine the relationship of such debris pollution with socioeconomic variables including population, age, education, and tourism, as well as the mitigating effect of social capital on debris pollution. The results indicate that marine debris increases with income; however, at higher income levels the amount of pollution starts to decline, supporting the "Environmental Kuznets" hypothesis. We also find that population growth along coastlines contributes to greater debris accumulation. Our results further highlight the significant roles social capital and education play in curbing debris pollution. Understanding the socioeconomic drivers of marine debris is an important first step in informing abatement policy and allocation of resources by public agencies to address the marine pollution problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fnu Alisha
- Staff Environmental Scientist, Professional Service Industries, Inc. (PSI), Houston, TX, USA
| | - Meri Davlasheridze
- Department of Marine and Coastal Environmental Science, Texas A&M University at Galveston, 1001 Texas Clipper Rd, OCSB, Office 362, Galveston, 77554, TX, USA.
| | - Nikolaos Mykoniatis
- Department of Maritime Business Administration, Texas A&M University at Galveston, 1001 Texas Clipper Rd, CLB, Office 219A, USA
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19
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Allyn EM, Scordino JJ. Entanglement rates and haulout abundance trends of Steller (Eumetopias jubatus) and California (Zalophus californianus) sea lions on the north coast of Washington state. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0237178. [PMID: 32841298 PMCID: PMC7447031 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0237178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Entanglements affect marine mammal species around the globe, and for some, those impacts are great enough to cause population declines. This study aimed to document rates and causes of entanglement and trends in local haulout abundance for Steller and California sea lions on the north coast of Washington from 2010–2018. We conducted small boat surveys to count sea lions and document entangled individuals. Rates of entanglement and entangling material occurrence were compared with records of stranded individuals on the Washington and Oregon coast and with packing bands recorded during beach debris surveys. The rate of entanglement for California sea lions was 2.13%, almost entirely composed of adult males, with a peak rate during June and July potentially due to some entangled individuals not migrating to their breeding grounds. For Steller sea lions, the rate of entanglement was 0.41%, composed of 77% adults (32.4% male, 63.3% female), 17.1% juveniles, 5.9% unknown age, and no pups. Steller sea lions exhibited a 7.9% ± 3.2 rate of increase in abundance at the study haulouts, which was similar to that seen in California sea lions (7.8% ± 4.2); both increases were greater than the population growth rates observed range-wide despite high rates of entanglement. Most entanglements for both species were classified as packing bands, followed by entanglement scars. Salmon flashers were also prevalent and only occurred from June–September during the local ocean salmon troll fishery. Packing band occurrence in beach debris surveys correlated with packing band entanglements observed on haulouts. However, no packing band entanglements were observed in the stranding record and the rate of stranded animals exhibiting evidence of entanglement was lower than expected, indicating that entanglement survival is higher than previously assumed. Future studies tracking individual entanglement outcomes are needed to develop effective, targeted management strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Marina Allyn
- Marine Mammal Program, Makah Fisheries Management, Makah Tribe, Neah Bay, Washington, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Jonathan Joseph Scordino
- Marine Mammal Program, Makah Fisheries Management, Makah Tribe, Neah Bay, Washington, United States of America
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20
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Donnelly-Greenan EL, Nevins HM, Harvey JT. Entangled seabird and marine mammal reports from citizen science surveys from coastal California (1997-2017). MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2019; 149:110557. [PMID: 31542598 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.110557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2019] [Revised: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Marine fauna in the California Current System is susceptible to entanglement in anthropogenic debris. We examined beach survey data from six California counties to describe trends of entangled marine birds and mammals (1997-2017). Surveyors reported 357 cases of entanglements among 65,604 carcasses. Monterey County had the greatest average entanglement rate (0.007) of surveyed counties, however, was not statistically different from Santa Cruz (p > 0.05). Twenty-six seabird species (97%) and three marine mammal species (3%), and three non-marine birds were affected. Numerically, Common Murre (23%), Brandt's Cormorant (13%), Western Gull (9.6%), Sooty Shearwater (8%) and Brown Pelican (7%) were the most affected due to abundance, but their entanglement rates were not statistically different (p > 0.05). The most vulnerable species were those frequently documented as entanglement despite low deposition numbers (Merganser spp. 25%). Entangling material consisted primarily of monofilament line (some hooks/lures), but other entanglement items were reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica L Donnelly-Greenan
- Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, 8272 Moss Landing Road, Moss Landing, CA 95039, USA; California Department of Fish and Wildlife Office of Spill Prevention and Response, Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research Center, 1451 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA.
| | - Hannahrose M Nevins
- Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, 8272 Moss Landing Road, Moss Landing, CA 95039, USA; California Department of Fish and Wildlife Office of Spill Prevention and Response, Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research Center, 1451 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA.
| | - James T Harvey
- Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, 8272 Moss Landing Road, Moss Landing, CA 95039, USA.
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21
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Han X, Lu X, Vogt RD. An optimized density-based approach for extracting microplastics from soil and sediment samples. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2019; 254:113009. [PMID: 31419661 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2019] [Revised: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/02/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Microplastic pollution in the environment has received growing attention worldwide. A major impediment for accurate measurements of microplastics in environmental matrixes is to extract the particles. The most commonly-used method for separation from soil or sediment is flotation in dense liquid based on the relatively low density of plastic particles. This study provides an improved and optimized process for extraction of microplastic particles by modifying the floatation technique and floatation solution. Microplastics in soils and sediments are extracted by adding 200 g dry soil or sediment sample to 1.3 L mix of the saturated NaCl and NaI solutions in a volume ratio of 1:1 and aerating for 40 s then filtering the supernatant. The accuracy and precision of the new approach is validated by recovery experiments using soil and sediment samples spiked with six common microplastic compounds: polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS) and expanded polystyrene (EPS), and comparison with the previous method. The optimized approach is further compared with the previous approach using the real soil and sediment samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxin Han
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Technology for Complex Trans-Media Pollution, Tianjin 300350, China; Tianjin International Joint Research Center for Environmental Biogeochemical Technology, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Xueqiang Lu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Technology for Complex Trans-Media Pollution, Tianjin 300350, China; Tianjin International Joint Research Center for Environmental Biogeochemical Technology, Tianjin 300350, China.
| | - Rolf D Vogt
- Tianjin International Joint Research Center for Environmental Biogeochemical Technology, Tianjin 300350, China; Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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22
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Rambonnet L, Vink SC, Land-Zandstra AM, Bosker T. Making citizen science count: Best practices and challenges of citizen science projects on plastics in aquatic environments. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2019; 145:271-277. [PMID: 31590787 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.05.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2019] [Revised: 05/23/2019] [Accepted: 05/23/2019] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
There is considerable scientific and societal concern about plastic pollution, which has resulted in citizen science projects to study the scale of the issue. Citizen science is a cost-effective way to gather data over a large geographical range while simultaneously raising public awareness on the problem. Because the experiences of researchers involved in these projects are not yet adequately covered, this paper presents the findings from ten semi-structured qualitative interviews with researchers leading a citizen science project on micro- or macroplastics. Our results show it is important to specify the goal(s) of the project and that expertise on communication and data science is needed. Furthermore, simple protocols, quality control, and engagement with volunteers and the public are key elements for successful projects. From these results, a framework with recommendations was drafted, which can be used by anyone who wants to develop or improve citizen science projects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liselotte Rambonnet
- Science Communication and Society, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9505, 2300 RA Leiden, the Netherlands.
| | - Suzanne C Vink
- Science Communication and Society, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9505, 2300 RA Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Anne M Land-Zandstra
- Science Communication and Society, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9505, 2300 RA Leiden, the Netherlands.
| | - Thijs Bosker
- Leiden University College, Leiden University, P.O. Box 13228, 2501 EE The Hague, the Netherlands; Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, the Netherlands.
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23
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Alimba CG, Faggio C. Microplastics in the marine environment: Current trends in environmental pollution and mechanisms of toxicological profile. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2019; 68:61-74. [PMID: 30877952 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2019.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 334] [Impact Index Per Article: 66.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2018] [Revised: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 03/01/2019] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The global plastics production has increased from 1.5 million tons in the 1950s to 335 million tons in 2016, with plastics discharged into virtually all components of the environment. Plastics rarely biodegrade but through different processes they fragment into microplastics and nanoplastics, which have been reported as ubiquitous pollutants in all marine environments worldwide. This study is a review of trend in marine plastic pollution with focus on the current toxicological consequences. Microplastics are capable of absorbing organic contaminants, metals and pathogens from the environment into organisms. This exacerbates its toxicological profile as they interact to induced greater toxic effects. Early studies focused on the accumulation of plastics in the marine environment, entanglement of and ingestions by marine vertebrates, with seabirds used as bioindicators. Entanglement in plastic debris increases asphyxiation through drowning, restrict feeding but increases starvation, skin abrasions and skeletal injuries. Plastic ingestion causes blockage of the guts which may cause injury of the gut lining, morbidity and mortality. Small sizes of the microplastics enhance their translocation across the gastro-intestinal membranes via endocytosis-like mechanisms and distribution into tissues and organs. While in biological systems, microplastics increase dysregulation of gene expression required for the control of oxidative stress and activating the expression of nuclear factor E2-related factor (Nrf) signaling pathway in marine vertebrates and invertebrates. These alterations are responsible for microplastics induction of oxidative stress, immunological responses, genomic instability, disruption of endocrine system, neurotoxicity, reproductive abnormities, embryotoxicity and trans-generational toxicity. It is possible that the toxicological effects of microplastics will continue beyond 2020 the timeline for its ending by world environmental groups. Considering that most countries in African and Asia (major contributors of global plastic pollutions) are yet to come to terms with the enormity of microplastic pollution. Hence, majority of countries from these regions are yet to reduce, re-use or re-circle plastic materials to enhance its abatement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chibuisi Gideon Alimba
- Cell Biology and Genetics unit, Department of Zoology, University of Ibadan, Nigeria; Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors (IfADo), Technical University of Dortmund, 44139 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Caterina Faggio
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina Viale Ferdinando Stagno d'Alcontres 31 98166, S Agata, Messina, Italy.
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Kiessling T, Knickmeier K, Kruse K, Brennecke D, Nauendorf A, Thiel M. Plastic Pirates sample litter at rivers in Germany - Riverside litter and litter sources estimated by schoolchildren. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2019; 245:545-557. [PMID: 30469125 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.11.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2018] [Revised: 11/06/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Rivers are an important source of marine anthropogenic litter, but the particular origins of riverine litter itself have not been well established. Here we used a citizen science approach where schoolchildren examined litter at riversides and identified possible sources at over 250 sampling spots along large and small rivers in Germany, during autumn 2016 and spring 2017. Litter densities have an overall median of 0.14, interquartile range 0-0.57 items m-2 and an overall average (±standard deviation) of 0.54 ± 1.20 litter items m-2. Litter quantities differed only little by sampling year. The principal litter types found were plastics and cigarette butts (31% and 20%, respectively), followed by glass, paper, and metal items, indicating recreational visitors as the principal litter source. At many sites (85%), accumulations of litter, consisting principally of cigarettes and food packaging, have been found. At almost all sampling sites (89%), litter potentially hazardous to human health has been observed, including broken glass, sharp metal objects, used personal hygiene articles and items containing chemicals. In the search for litter sources, the schoolchildren identified mainly people who use the rivers as recreational areas (in contrast to residents living in the vicinity, illegal dumping, or the river itself depositing litter from upstream sources). These results indicate the urgent need for better education and policy measures in order to protect riparian environments and reduce input of riverine litter to the marine environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Kiessling
- Facultad de Ciencias del Mar, Universidad Católica del Norte, Coquimbo, Chile; Kieler Forschungswerkstatt, University of Kiel and Leibniz Institute for Science and Mathematics Education (IPN), Kiel, Germany.
| | - Katrin Knickmeier
- Kieler Forschungswerkstatt, University of Kiel and Leibniz Institute for Science and Mathematics Education (IPN), Kiel, Germany.
| | - Katrin Kruse
- Kieler Forschungswerkstatt, University of Kiel and Leibniz Institute for Science and Mathematics Education (IPN), Kiel, Germany
| | - Dennis Brennecke
- Kieler Forschungswerkstatt, University of Kiel and Leibniz Institute for Science and Mathematics Education (IPN), Kiel, Germany
| | - Alice Nauendorf
- Kieler Forschungswerkstatt, University of Kiel and Leibniz Institute for Science and Mathematics Education (IPN), Kiel, Germany
| | - Martin Thiel
- Facultad de Ciencias del Mar, Universidad Católica del Norte, Coquimbo, Chile; Millennium Nucleus Ecology and Sustainable Management of Oceanic Islands (ESMOI), Coquimbo, Chile; Centro de Estudios Avanzados en Zonas Áridas (CEAZA), Coquimbo, Chile.
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25
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Valdivia A, Wolf S, Suckling K. Marine mammals and sea turtles listed under the U.S. Endangered Species Act are recovering. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0210164. [PMID: 30650125 PMCID: PMC6334928 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0210164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA) is a powerful environmental law protecting imperiled plants and animals, and a growing number of marine species have been protected under this law as extinction risk in the oceans has increased. Marine mammals and sea turtles comprise 38% of the 163 ESA-listed marine "species", which includes subspecies and distinct population segments, yet analyses of recovery trends after listing are lacking. Here we gathered the best available annual abundance estimates for geographically delimited populations of all 62 marine mammal and sea turtle species listed under the ESA. Of these, we chose representative populations of species that were listed before 2012, occur and reproduce in U.S. waters, and have data of sufficient quality and timespan for trend analyses. Thus, we quantitatively analyzed population trends, magnitude of population change, and recovery status for 23 and 8 representative populations of 14 marine mammal and 5 sea turtle species, respectively. Using generalized linear and non-linear models, we found that 18 marine mammal (78%) and 6 sea turtle (75%) populations significantly increased after listing; 3 marine mammal (13%) and 2 sea turtle (25%) populations showed non-significant changes; while 2 marine mammal (9%), but no sea turtle populations declined after ESA protection. Overall, the 24 populations that increased in abundance were from species listed for 20 years or more (e.g., large whales, manatees, and sea turtles). Conservation measures triggered by ESA listing such as ending exploitation, tailored species management, and fishery regulations, and other national and international measures, appear to have been largely successful in promoting species recovery, leading to the delisting of some species and to increases in most populations. These findings underscore the capacity of marine mammal and sea turtle species to recover from substantial geographical population declines when conservation actions are implemented in a timely and effective manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abel Valdivia
- Center for Biological Diversity, Oakland, California, United States of America
| | - Shaye Wolf
- Center for Biological Diversity, Oakland, California, United States of America
| | - Kieran Suckling
- Center for Biological Diversity, Tucson, Arizona, United States of America
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Staffieri E, de Lucia GA, Camedda A, Poeta G, Battisti C. Pressure and impact of anthropogenic litter on marine and estuarine reptiles: an updated "blacklist" highlighting gaps of evidence. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 26:1238-1249. [PMID: 30417235 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-018-3616-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
We report an arrangement on the effect of anthropogenic litter on marine and estuarine reptiles, checking for evidence about different types of impact (ingestion vs. entanglement) and pressure (three size-based categories). From 1976 to 2018, we obtained a "blacklist" of 11 species impacted by marine litter (about 13% of 85 species of marine and estuarine reptiles), belonging to three orders (Testudines, Squamata, and Crocodilia). We obtained only occasional evidence of an impact for Squamata (Hidrophis elegans, Disteira major) and Crocodilia (Crocodylus porosus). Regarding the different types of pressure, the highest number of evidence has been obtained for macro-litter (10 species) and the lowest for micro-litter (4 species, all Chelonidae). Among Testudines, Lepidochelys kempii and Natator depressus evidenced a lack of data for micro-plastic. In Squamata, information is lacking for micro-plastic with only occasional references for meso-plastic (in Hydrophis elegans) and macro-plastic (Disteira major and Crocodylus porosus). We obtained a direct correlation between the research effort and the number of citations regarding different types of pressure and impact of marine litter: therefore, our blacklist of impacted species could be increased, carrying out further research focused on other poorly studied marine and estuarine reptiles. We suggest the use of a standardized nomenclature to reduce the amount of lost information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Staffieri
- Dipartimento di Scienze, Università degli Studi di Roma Tre, Viale Marconi 446, 00146, Rome, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Andrea de Lucia
- Institute for Coastal Marine Environment-National Research Council (IAMC-CNR), loc. Sa Mardini, 09170, Oristano, Italy
| | - Andrea Camedda
- Institute for Coastal Marine Environment-National Research Council (IAMC-CNR), loc. Sa Mardini, 09170, Oristano, Italy
| | - Gianluca Poeta
- Dipartimento di Scienze, Università degli Studi di Roma Tre, Viale Marconi 446, 00146, Rome, Italy
| | - Corrado Battisti
- "Torre Flavia" LTER (Long Term Ecological Research) Station, Città Metropolitana di Roma Capitale - Servizio Aree protette - Parchi regionali, via Tiburtina 691, Rome, Italy.
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Battisti C, Staffieri E, Poeta G, Sorace A, Luiselli L, Amori G. Interactions between anthropogenic litter and birds: A global review with a 'black-list' of species. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2019; 138:93-114. [PMID: 30660318 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2018] [Revised: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The interaction of anthropogenic litter (by incorporation litter in nests, ingestion, and entanglement) with birds was systematically reviewed using Google Scholar database. A 'black-list' of 258 species was compiled. Among them 206 (79.8%) were seabirds. Four seabird orders (Gaviiformes, Phaetontiformes, Procellariformes, Sphenisciformes) showed the highest percentage of interacting species. At family level, >70% of species of Gaviidae, Diomedeidae, Sulidae, Stercoraridae and Alcidae were involved in interactions with litter. We observed (i) a significant correlation between Scholar recurrences and species citations about anthropogenic litter only when considering seabirds; (ii) a low number of references before 1981 with a bimodal pattern showing a first peak in 1986-90 and a progressively increasing trend in the 2000s. Regarding the type of interaction, there was a significantly higher percentage of species involved in ingestion when compared to the percentage involved in entanglement. We suggest the use of consolidated standardized litter nomenclature and characterization and the adoption of a logical causal chain helping researchers in defining suitable frameworks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corrado Battisti
- "Torre Flavia" LTER (Long Term Ecological Research) Station, Città Metropolitana di Roma Capitale - Servizio Aree protette - Parchi regionali, via Tiburtina 691, Rome, Italy.
| | - Eleonora Staffieri
- Dipartimento di Scienze, Università degli Studi di Roma Tre, Viale Marconi 446, 00146 Rome, Italy
| | - Gianluca Poeta
- Dipartimento di Scienze, Università degli Studi di Roma Tre, Viale Marconi 446, 00146 Rome, Italy
| | | | - Luca Luiselli
- Niger Delta Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation Unit, Department of Applied and Environmental Biology, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, PMB 5080, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria; IDECC - Institute for Development, Ecology, Conservation and Cooperation, via G. Tomasi di Lampedusa 33, 00144 Rome, Italy
| | - Giovanni Amori
- CNR - Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Viale dell'Università 32, 00185 Rome, Italy
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Miller M, Steele C, Horn D, Hanna C. Marine Debris Trends: 30 Years of Change on Ventura County and Channel Island Beaches. WEST N AM NATURALIST 2018. [DOI: 10.3398/064.078.0308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Clare Steele
- California State University Channel Islands, Camarillo, CA
| | | | - Cause Hanna
- Santa Rosa Island Research Station, California State University Channel Islands, Camarillo, CA
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29
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Ryan PG. Entanglement of birds in plastics and other synthetic materials. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2018; 135:159-164. [PMID: 30301025 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.06.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2018] [Revised: 06/21/2018] [Accepted: 06/23/2018] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Entanglement of animals is one of the main environmental impacts of waste plastic. A 2015 review of entanglement records found that the proportion of affected seabirds increased from 16% of species to 25% over the last two decades. However, this was restricted to published records; Google Images and other web-based sources indicate that at least 147 seabird species (36%), as well as 69 freshwater birds (10%) and 49 landbirds (0.5%) from 53 families have been entangled in plastic or other synthetic materials. Fishing gear is responsible for entangling most species (83%), although it is often difficult to differentiate entanglement from bycatch on active gear. Mitigation measures include banning high-risk applications where there are alternatives (e.g. six-pack rings), discouraging the use of high-risk items (e.g. balloons on strings, 'manja' kites), and encouraging fishers to not discard waste fishing gear by providing specific receptacles and associated educational signage in fishing areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter G Ryan
- FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, DST-NRF Centre of Excellence, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch 7701, South Africa.
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30
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Marinao C, Kasinsky T, Suárez N, Yorio P. Contribution of recreational fisheries to the diet of the opportunistic Kelp Gull. AUSTRAL ECOL 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/aec.12627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Cristian Marinao
- Centro Para el Estudio de Sistemas Marinos; CONICET; Blv. Brown 2915 (U9120ACV) Puerto Madryn Chubut 9100 Argentina
| | - Tatiana Kasinsky
- Centro Para el Estudio de Sistemas Marinos; CONICET; Blv. Brown 2915 (U9120ACV) Puerto Madryn Chubut 9100 Argentina
| | - Nicolás Suárez
- Centro Para el Estudio de Sistemas Marinos; CONICET; Blv. Brown 2915 (U9120ACV) Puerto Madryn Chubut 9100 Argentina
| | - Pablo Yorio
- Centro Para el Estudio de Sistemas Marinos; CONICET; Blv. Brown 2915 (U9120ACV) Puerto Madryn Chubut 9100 Argentina
- Wildlife Conservation Society Argentina; Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires Argentina
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31
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Miketa M, Krzyszczyk E, Mann J. Behavioral responses to fishing line entanglement of a juvenile bottlenose dolphin in Shark Bay, Australia. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.19185/matters.201711000011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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32
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Duncan EM, Botterell ZLR, Broderick AC, Galloway TS, Lindeque PK, Nuno A, Godley BJ. A global review of marine turtle entanglement in anthropogenic debris: a baseline for further action. ENDANGER SPECIES RES 2017. [DOI: 10.3354/esr00865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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33
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Currie JJ, Stack SH, McCordic JA, Kaufman GD. Quantifying the risk that marine debris poses to cetaceans in coastal waters of the 4-island region of Maui. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2017; 121:69-77. [PMID: 28552248 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.05.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2017] [Revised: 05/12/2017] [Accepted: 05/13/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Marine debris poses considerable threat to biodiversity and ecosystems and has been identified as a stressor for a variety of marine life. Here we present results from the first study quantifying the amount and type of debris accumulation in Maui leeward waters and relate this to cetacean distribution to identify areas where marine debris may present a higher threat. Transect surveys were conducted within the 4-island region of Maui, Hawai'i from April 1, 2013 to April 15, 2016. Debris was found in all areas of the study region with higher concentrations observed where the Au'au, Kealaikahiki, and Alalakeiki channels converge. The degree of overlap between debris and cetaceans varied among species but was largest for humpback whales, which account for the largest portion of reported entanglements in the 4-island region of Maui. Identifying areas of high debris-cetacean density overlap can facilitate species management and debris removal efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens J Currie
- Pacific Whale Foundation, 300 Ma'alaea Road, Suite 211, Wailuku, Maui, HI 96793, USA.
| | - Stephanie H Stack
- Pacific Whale Foundation, 300 Ma'alaea Road, Suite 211, Wailuku, Maui, HI 96793, USA
| | - Jessica A McCordic
- Pacific Whale Foundation, 300 Ma'alaea Road, Suite 211, Wailuku, Maui, HI 96793, USA
| | - Gregory D Kaufman
- Pacific Whale Foundation, 300 Ma'alaea Road, Suite 211, Wailuku, Maui, HI 96793, USA
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Asmutis-Silvia R, Barco S, Cole T, Henry A, Johnson A, Knowlton A, Landry S, Mattila D, Moore M, Robbins J, van der Hoop J. Rebuttal to published article "A review of ghost gear entanglement amongst marine mammals, reptiles and elasmobranchs" by M. Stelfox, J. Hudgins, and M. Sweet. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2017; 117:554-555. [PMID: 28012737 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.11.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2016] [Accepted: 11/22/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Regina Asmutis-Silvia
- Whale and Dolphin Conservation, North America, 7 Nelson Street, 02360-4044 Plymouth, MA, USA.
| | - Susan Barco
- Virginia Aquarium & Marine Science Center Foundation, USA.
| | - Tim Cole
- NOAA's Northeast Fisheries Science Center, USA.
| | | | - Amanda Johnson
- Integrated Statistics under contract to the Greater Atlantic Regional Fisheries Office, USA.
| | | | | | - David Mattila
- International Whaling Commission and Center for Coastal Studies, USA.
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35
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van der Hoop JM, Corkeron P, Henry AG, Knowlton AR, Moore MJ. Predicting lethal entanglements as a consequence of drag from fishing gear. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2017; 115:91-104. [PMID: 27923466 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.11.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2016] [Revised: 11/23/2016] [Accepted: 11/24/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Large whales are frequently entangled in fishing gear and sometimes swim while carrying gear for days to years. Entangled whales are subject to additional drag forces requiring increased thrust power and energy expenditure over time. To classify entanglement cases and aid potential disentanglement efforts, it is useful to know how long an entangled whale might survive, given the unique configurations of the gear they are towing. This study establishes an approach to predict drag forces on fishing gear that entangles whales, and applies this method to ten North Atlantic right whale cases to estimate the resulting increase in energy expenditure and the critical entanglement duration that could lead to death. Estimated gear drag ranged 11-275N. Most entanglements were resolved before critical entanglement durations (mean±SD 216±260days) were reached. These estimates can assist real-time development of disentanglement action plans and U.S. Federal Serious Injury assessments required for protected species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie M van der Hoop
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology-Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Joint Program in Oceanography and Applied Ocean Science and Engineering, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Biology Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA.
| | - Peter Corkeron
- NOAA Fisheries, Northeast Fisheries Science Center, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA
| | - Allison G Henry
- NOAA Fisheries, Northeast Fisheries Science Center, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA
| | - Amy R Knowlton
- New England Aquarium, Central Wharf, Boston, MA 02110, USA
| | - Michael J Moore
- Biology Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA
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36
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Abstract
Plastics contamination in the marine environment was first reported nearly 50 years ago, less than two decades after the rise of commercial plastics production, when less than 50 million metric tons were produced per year. In 2014, global plastics production surpassed 300 million metric tons per year. Plastic debris has been detected worldwide in all major marine habitats, in sizes from microns to meters. In response, concerns about risks to marine wildlife upon exposure to the varied forms of plastic debris have increased, stimulating new research into the extent and consequences of plastics contamination in the marine environment. Here, I present a framework to evaluate the current understanding of the sources, distribution, fate, and impacts of marine plastics. Despite remaining knowledge gaps in mass budgeting and challenges in investigating ecological impacts, the increasing evidence of the ubiquity of plastics contamination in the marine environment, the continued rapid growth in plastics production, and the evidence-albeit limited-of demonstrated impacts to marine wildlife support immediate implementation of source-reducing measures to decrease the potential risks of plastics in the marine ecosystem.
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37
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Stelfox M, Hudgins J, Sweet M. A review of ghost gear entanglement amongst marine mammals, reptiles and elasmobranchs. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2016; 111:6-17. [PMID: 27345709 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.06.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2016] [Revised: 06/06/2016] [Accepted: 06/08/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
This review focuses on the effect that ghost gear entanglement has on marine megafauna, namely mammals, reptiles and elasmobranchs. A total of 76 publications and other sources of grey literature were assessed, and these highlighted that over 5400 individuals from 40 different species were recorded as entangled in, or associated with, ghost gear. Interestingly, there appeared to be a deficit of research in the Indian, Southern, and Arctic Oceans; and so, we recommend that future studies focus efforts on these areas. Furthermore, studies assessing the effects of ghost gear on elasmobranchs, manatees, and dugongs should also be prioritised, as these groups were underrepresented in the current literature. The development of regional databases, capable of recording entanglement incidences following a minimum global set of criteria, would be a logical next step in order to analyse the effect that ghost gear has on megafauna populations worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Stelfox
- Environment Sustainability Research Centre, College of Life and Natural Sciences, University of Derby, UK; Olive Ridley Project, 8 Thornton Avenue, Plymouth, UK
| | | | - Michael Sweet
- Environment Sustainability Research Centre, College of Life and Natural Sciences, University of Derby, UK
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38
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Li WC, Tse HF, Fok L. Plastic waste in the marine environment: A review of sources, occurrence and effects. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 566-567:333-349. [PMID: 27232963 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.05.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 625] [Impact Index Per Article: 78.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2016] [Revised: 05/12/2016] [Accepted: 05/13/2016] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
This review article summarises the sources, occurrence, fate and effects of plastic waste in the marine environment. Due to its resistance to degradation, most plastic debris will persist in the environment for centuries and may be transported far from its source, including great distances out to sea. Land- and ocean-based sources are the major sources of plastic entering the environment, with domestic, industrial and fishing activities being the most important contributors. Ocean gyres are particular hotspots of plastic waste accumulation. Both macroplastics and microplastics pose a risk to organisms in the natural environment, for example, through ingestion or entanglement in the plastic. Many studies have investigated the potential uptake of hydrophobic contaminants, which can then bioaccumulate in the food chain, from plastic waste by organisms. To address the issue of plastic pollution in the marine environment, governments should first play an active role in addressing the issue of plastic waste by introducing legislation to control the sources of plastic debris and the use of plastic additives. In addition, plastics industries should take responsibility for the end-of-life of their products by introducing plastic recycling or upgrading programmes.
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Affiliation(s)
- W C Li
- Department of Science and Environmental Studies, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong.
| | - H F Tse
- Department of Science and Environmental Studies, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong
| | - L Fok
- Department of Science and Environmental Studies, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong
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39
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Lenzi J, Burgues MF, Carrizo D, Machín E, Teixeira-de Mello F. Plastic ingestion by a generalist seabird on the coast of Uruguay. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2016; 107:71-76. [PMID: 27098991 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2015] [Revised: 04/06/2016] [Accepted: 04/08/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
We analyzed plastic ingestion by Kelp Gull (Larus dominicanus) from 806 pellets collected between 2011 and 2013. Employing a Raman spectroscopy, we characterized those polymers used to produce the plastics ingested. Debris was recorded in 143 pellets (%FO=17.7%, n=202, 92.58g). Plastic was found in 119 pellets (%FO=83%) and non-plastic occurred in 56 pellets (%FO=39%). The most important debris category was plastic film with 55.3% (n=79). Plastic bags were observed in 19 pellets (%FO=2.4%, weight=25.02g). Glass was the second most important component (%FO=18.9%) followed by plastic fragments (%FO=17.8%). Plastic debris represented the 65.3% of the debris fragments (n=132, weight=58.84g), and was composed by polyethylene (52%), polypropylene (26%), polyamide (12%), polystyrene (6%), polyvinyl chloride (2%), and polyethylene terephthalate (2%). How plastics were obtained by gulls and the effects on individuals are discussed, as well as environmental considerations about plastic pollution on coastal environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Lenzi
- Centro de Investigación y Conservación Marina - CICMAR, Avenida Giannattasio Km 30.5, Canelones 15008, Uruguay; Department of Forestry and Natural Resources & Ecological Sciences and Engineering Program, Purdue University, 715 West State Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907, United States.
| | - María Fernanda Burgues
- Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República (UDELAR), Iguá 4225, Montevideo 11400, Uruguay
| | - Daniel Carrizo
- Institute for Global Food Security, Queen's University, Belfast, 18-30 Malone Road, BT9 5BN, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom; Department of Planetology and Habitability, Astrobiology Centre (CSIC-INTA), 28850, Torrejón de Ardoz, Madrid, Spain
| | - Emanuel Machín
- Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República (UDELAR), Iguá 4225, Montevideo 11400, Uruguay
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40
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Browne MA, Underwood AJ, Chapman MG, Williams R, Thompson RC, van Franeker JA. Linking effects of anthropogenic debris to ecological impacts. Proc Biol Sci 2016; 282:20142929. [PMID: 25904661 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2014.2929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Accelerated contamination of habitats with debris has caused increased effort to determine ecological impacts. Strikingly, most work on organisms focuses on sublethal responses to plastic debris. This is controversial because (i) researchers have ignored medical insights about the mechanisms that link effects of debris across lower levels of biological organization to disease and mortality, and (ii) debris is considered non-hazardous by policy-makers, possibly because individuals can be injured or removed from populations and assemblages without ecological impacts. We reviewed the mechanisms that link effects of debris across lower levels of biological organization to assemblages and populations. Using plastic, we show microplastics reduce the 'health', feeding, growth and survival of ecosystem engineers. Larger debris alters assemblages because fishing-gear and tyres kill animals and damage habitat-forming plants, and because floating bottles facilitate recruitment and survival of novel taxa. Where ecological linkages are not known, we show how to establish hypothetical links by synthesizing studies to assess the likelihood of impacts. We also consider how population models examine ecological linkages and guide management of ecological impacts. We show that by focusing on linkages to ecological impacts rather than the presence of debris and its sublethal impacts, we could reduce threats posed by debris.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Anthony Browne
- National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis, University of California, 735 State Street, Suite 300, Santa Barbara, CA 93101-3351, USA Evolution and Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - A J Underwood
- School of Biological Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - M G Chapman
- School of Biological Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Rob Williams
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Gatty Marine Laboratory, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, UK
| | - Richard C Thompson
- Marine Biology and Ecology Research Centre, School of Marine Science and Engineering, Plymouth University, Plymouth PL4 8 AA, UK
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41
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Rochman CM, Browne MA, Underwood AJ, van Franeker JA, Thompson RC, Amaral-Zettler LA. The ecological impacts of marine debris: unraveling the demonstrated evidence from what is perceived. Ecology 2016; 97:302-12. [DOI: 10.1890/14-2070.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 313] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chelsea M. Rochman
- Aquatic Health Program; School of Veterinary Medicine; University of California; Davis California 95616 USA
| | - Mark Anthony Browne
- National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis; University of California; Santa Barbara California 93101 USA
- Evolution & Ecology Research Centre; School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences; University of New South Wales; Sydney NSW 2052 Australia
| | - A. J. Underwood
- Centre For Research on Ecological Impacts of Coastal Cities; A11 School of Biological Sciences; University of Sydney; Sydney NSW 2006 Australia
| | - Jan A. van Franeker
- Institute for Marine Research and Ecosystem Studies IMARES; 1797SH Texel, 1780 AB Den Helder The Netherlands
| | - Richard C. Thompson
- Marine Biology and Ecology Research Centre; School of Marine Science and Engineering; Plymouth University; Plymouth PL4 8AA United Kingdom
| | - Linda A. Amaral-Zettler
- Marine Biological Laboratory; Josephine Bay Paul Center for Comparative Molecular Biology and Evolution; Woods Hole Massachusetts 02543 USA
- Department of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences; Brown University; Providence Rhode Island 02912 USA
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42
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McIntosh RR, Kirkwood R, Sutherland DR, Dann P. Drivers and annual estimates of marine wildlife entanglement rates: A long-term case study with Australian fur seals. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2015; 101:716-725. [PMID: 26475026 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2015] [Revised: 10/06/2015] [Accepted: 10/06/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Methods of calculating wildlife entanglement rates are not standardised between studies and often ignore the influence of observer effort, confounding comparisons. From 1997-2013 we identified 359 entangled Australian fur seals at Seal Rocks, south-eastern Australia. Most entanglement materials originated from commercial fisheries; most frequently entangling pups and juveniles. Using Generalized Additive Mixed Models, which incorporated observer effort and survey frequency, we identified that entanglements were observed more frequently amongst pups from July to October as they approached weaning. Neither the decline in regional fishing intensity nor changing seal population size influenced the incidence of entanglements. Using the models, we estimated that 302 (95% CI=182-510) entangled seals were at Seal Rocks each year, equivalent to 1.0% (CI=0.6-1.7%) of the site population. This study highlights the influence of observer effort and the value of long-term datasets for determining the drivers of marine debris entanglements.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Roger Kirkwood
- IMARES Wageningen UR, Postbus 57, 1780 AB Den Helder, The Netherlands
| | | | - Peter Dann
- Phillip Island Nature Parks, P.O. Box 97, Cowes, VIC 3922, Australia
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Lee K, Jang YC, Hong S, Lee J, Kwon IK. Plastic Marine Debris Used as Nesting Materials of the Endangered Species Black-Faced Spoonbill Platalea minor Decreases by Conservation Activities. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.7846/jkosmee.2015.18.1.45] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Yorio P, Marinao C, Suárez N. Kelp Gulls (Larus dominicanus) killed and injured by discarded monofilament lines at a marine recreational fishery in northern Patagonia. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2014; 85:186-189. [PMID: 24951250 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.05.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2014] [Revised: 05/18/2014] [Accepted: 05/19/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Among marine debris, monofilament fishing lines often result in negative impacts on marine organisms. We characterized marine debris and incidence of lost and discarded monofilament lines along beaches used by recreational fishers, and report the impact of lines on Kelp Gulls (Larus dominicanus) at the Bahía San Blas protected area, site of one of the main shore-based recreational fisheries of the southwestern Atlantic. Over 55% of the marine debris recorded originated from recreational fishing activities. Balls of tangled monofilament lines were found at a rate of 40.5 items per km. A total of 27 adult Kelp Gulls were found entangled with monofilament. All individuals were tangled to vegetation within colony boundaries. Four of the gulls had a monofilament line protruding from the bill, showing that they may be also killed when trying to obtain bait. Our results indicate that lost or discarded monofilament lines in the Bahía San Blas recreational fishing area result in undesired impacts on coastal wildlife.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Yorio
- Centro Nacional Patagónico (CONICET), Boulevard Brown 2915, 9120 Puerto Madryn, Chubut, Argentina; Wildlife Conservation Society Argentina, Amenábar 1595, Piso 2, Of. 19, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Cristian Marinao
- Centro Nacional Patagónico (CONICET), Boulevard Brown 2915, 9120 Puerto Madryn, Chubut, Argentina
| | - Nicolás Suárez
- Centro Nacional Patagónico (CONICET), Boulevard Brown 2915, 9120 Puerto Madryn, Chubut, Argentina
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Smith SDA, Markic A. Estimates of marine debris accumulation on beaches are strongly affected by the temporal scale of sampling. PLoS One 2013; 8:e83694. [PMID: 24367607 PMCID: PMC3867434 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0083694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2013] [Accepted: 11/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Marine debris is a global issue with impacts on marine organisms, ecological processes, aesthetics and economies. Consequently, there is increasing interest in quantifying the scale of the problem. Accumulation rates of debris on beaches have been advocated as a useful proxy for at-sea debris loads. However, here we show that past studies may have vastly underestimated the quantity of available debris because sampling was too infrequent. Our study of debris on a small beach in eastern Australia indicates that estimated daily accumulation rates decrease rapidly with increasing intervals between surveys, and the quantity of available debris is underestimated by 50% after only 3 days and by an order of magnitude after 1 month. As few past studies report sampling frequencies of less than a month, estimates of the scale of the marine debris problem need to be critically re-examined and scaled-up accordingly. These results reinforce similar, recent work advocating daily sampling as a standard approach for accurate quantification of available debris in coastal habitats. We outline an alternative approach whereby site-specific accumulation models are generated to correct bias when daily sampling is impractical.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen D. A. Smith
- National Marine Science Centre, Southern Cross University, Coffs Harbour, New South Wales, Australia
- * E-mail:
| | - Ana Markic
- National Marine Science Centre, Southern Cross University, Coffs Harbour, New South Wales, Australia
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Rosevelt C, Los Huertos M, Garza C, Nevins HM. Marine debris in central California: quantifying type and abundance of beach litter in Monterey Bay, CA. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2013; 71:299-306. [PMID: 23499538 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2012] [Revised: 01/18/2013] [Accepted: 01/21/2013] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Monitoring beach litter is essential for reducing ecological threats towards humans and wildlife. In Monterey Bay, CA information on seasonal and spatial patterns is understudied. Central California's coastal managers require reliable information on debris abundance, distribution, and type, to support policy aimed at reducing litter. We developed a survey method that allowed for trained citizen scientists to quantify the types and abundance of beach litter. Sampling occurred from July 2009-June 2010. Litter abundance ranged from 0.03 to 17.1 items m(-2). Using a mixed model approach, we found season and location have the greatest effect on litter abundance. Styrofoam, the most numerically abundant item, made up 41% of the total amount of litter. Unexpected items included fertilizer pellets. The results of this study provide a baseline on the types and abundance of litter on the central coast and have directly supported policy banning Styrofoam take out containers from local municipalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Rosevelt
- Division of Science & Environmental Policy, California State University Monterey Bay, Seaside, CA 93955, USA.
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de Stephanis R, Giménez J, Carpinelli E, Gutierrez-Exposito C, Cañadas A. As main meal for sperm whales: plastics debris. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2013; 69:206-214. [PMID: 23465618 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.01.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2012] [Revised: 01/23/2013] [Accepted: 01/29/2013] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Marine debris has been found in marine animals since the early 20th century, but little is known about the impacts of the ingestion of debris in large marine mammals. In this study we describe a case of mortality of a sperm whale related to the ingestion of large amounts of marine debris in the Mediterranean Sea (4th published case worldwide to our knowledge), and discuss it within the context of the spatial distribution of the species and the presence of anthropogenic activities in the area that could be the source of the plastic debris found inside the sperm whale. The spatial distribution modelled for the species in the region shows that these animals can be seen in two distinct areas: near the waters of Almería, Granada and Murcia and in waters near the Strait of Gibraltar. The results shows how these animals feed in waters near an area completely flooded by the greenhouse industry, making them vulnerable to its waste products if adequate treatment of this industry's debris is not in place. Most types of these plastic materials have been found in the individual examined and cause of death was presumed to be gastric rupture following impaction with debris, which added to a previous problem of starvation. The problem of plastics arising from greenhouse agriculture should have a relevant section in the conservation plans and should be a recommendation from ACCOBAMS due to these plastics' and sperm whales' high mobility in the Mediterranean Sea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renaud de Stephanis
- GEMA, Department of Conservation Biology, Estación Biológica de Doñana (CSIC), Americo Vespuccio S/N, Isla Cartuja, 41013 Sevilla, Spain.
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Moore MJ, der Hoop JV, Barco SG, Costidis AM, Gulland FM, Jepson PD, Moore KT, Raverty S, McLellan WA. Criteria and case definitions for serious injury and death of pinnipeds and cetaceans caused by anthropogenic trauma. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2013; 103:229-64. [PMID: 23574708 DOI: 10.3354/dao02566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Post-mortem examination of dead and live stranded beach-cast pinnipeds and cetaceans for determination of a cause of death provides valuable information for the management, mitigation and prosecution of unintentional and sometimes malicious human impacts, such as vessel collision, fishing gear entanglement and gunshot. Delayed discovery, inaccessibility, logistics, human safety concerns, and weather make these events challenging. Over the past 3 decades, in response to public concern and federal and state or provincial regulations mandating such investigations to inform mitigation efforts, there has been an increasing effort to objectively and systematically investigate these strandings from a diagnostic and forensic perspective. This Theme Section provides basic investigative methods, and case definitions for each of the more commonly recognized case presentations of human interactions in pinnipeds and cetaceans. Wild animals are often adversely affected by factors such as parasitism, anthropogenic contaminants, biotoxins, subclinical microbial infections and competing habitat uses, such as prey depletion and elevated background and episodic noise. Understanding the potential contribution of these subclinical factors in predisposing or contributing to a particular case of trauma of human origin is hampered, especially where putrefaction is significant and resources as well as expertise are limited. These case criteria descriptions attempt to acknowledge those confounding factors to enable an appreciation of the significance of the observed human-derived trauma in that broader context where possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Moore
- Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543, USA.
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Votier SC, Archibald K, Morgan G, Morgan L. The use of plastic debris as nesting material by a colonial seabird and associated entanglement mortality. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2011; 62:168-72. [PMID: 21112061 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2010] [Revised: 11/03/2010] [Accepted: 11/08/2010] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Entanglement with plastic debris is a major cause of mortality in marine taxa, but the population-level consequences are unknown. Some seabirds collect marine debris for nesting material, which may lead to entanglement. Here we investigate the use of plastics as nesting material by northern gannets Morus bassanus and assess the associated levels of mortality. On average gannet nests contained 469.91 g (range 0-1293 g) of plastic, equating to an estimated colony total of 18.46 tones (range 4.47-42.34 tones). The majority of nesting material was synthetic rope, which appears to be used preferentially. On average 62.85 ± 26.84 (range minima 33-109) birds were entangled each year, totalling 525 individuals over eight years, the majority of which were nestlings. Although mortality rates are high, they are unlikely to have population-level effects. The use of synthetic fibres as nesting material is a common strategy among seabirds, but the impacts of entanglement warrants further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen C Votier
- Marine Biology & Ecology Research Centre, University of Plymouth, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK.
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Jacobsen JK, Massey L, Gulland F. Fatal ingestion of floating net debris by two sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus). MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2010; 60:765-7. [PMID: 20381092 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2010] [Revised: 02/10/2010] [Accepted: 03/13/2010] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
In 2008 two male sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) stranded along the northern California coast with large amounts of fishing net scraps, rope, and other plastic debris in their stomachs. One animal had a ruptured stomach, the other was emaciated, and gastric impaction was suspected as the cause of both deaths. There were 134 different types of nets in these two animals, all made of floating material, varying in size from 10 cm(2) to about 16 m(2). The variability in size and age of the pieces suggests the material was ingested from the surface as debris rather than bitten off from active gear. These strandings demonstrate that ingestion of marine debris can be fatal to large whales, in addition to the well documented entanglements known to impact these species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeff K Jacobsen
- Humboldt State University, Department of Biological Sciences, 1 Harpst St., Arcata, CA 95521, USA.
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