Evolution of myelin proteolipid proteins: Gene duplication in teleosts and expression pattern divergence

Terra incognita of glial cell dynamics in the etiology of leukodystrophies: Broadening disease and therapeutic perspectives

Neuroglial cells, also known as glia, are primarily characterized as auxiliary cells within the central nervous system (CNS). The recent findings have shed light on their significance in numerous physiological processes and their involvement in various neurological disorders. Leukodystrophies encompass an array of rare and hereditary neurodegenerative conditions that were initially characterized by the deficiency, aberration, or degradation of myelin sheath within CNS. The primary cellular populations that experience significant alterations are astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and microglia. These glial cells are either structurally or metabolically impaired due to inherent cellular dysfunction. Alternatively, they may fall victim to the accumulation of harmful by-products resulting from metabolic disturbances. In either situation, the possible replacement of glial cells through the utilization of implanted tissue or stem cell-derived human neural or glial progenitor cells hold great promise as a therapeutic strategy for both the restoration of structural integrity through remyelination and the amelioration of metabolic deficiencies. Various emerging treatment strategies like stem cell therapy, ex-vivo gene therapy, infusion of adeno-associated virus vectors, emerging RNA-based therapies as well as long-term therapies have demonstrated success in pre-clinical studies and show promise for rapid clinical translation. Here, we addressed various leukodystrophies in a comprehensive and detailed manner as well as provide prospective therapeutic interventions that are being considered for clinical trials. Further, we aim to emphasize the crucial role of different glial cells in the pathogenesis of leukodystrophies. By doing so, we hope to advance our understanding of the disease, elucidate underlying mechanisms, and facilitate the development of potential treatment interventions.

Emerging concepts in oligodendrocyte and myelin formation, inputs from the zebrafish model

Oligodendrocytes (OLs) are the myelinating cells of the central nervous system (CNS), which are derived from OL precursor cells. Myelin insulates axons allowing the saltatory conduction of action potentials and also provides trophic and metabolic supports to axons. Interestingly, oligodendroglial cells have the capacity to sense neuronal activity, which regulates myelin sheath formation via the vesicular release of neurotransmitters. Neuronal activity-dependent regulation of myelination is mediated by specialized interaction between axons and oligodendroglia, involving both synaptic and extra-synaptic modes of communications. The zebrafish has provided key advantages for the study of the myelination process in the CNS. External development and transparent larval stages of this vertebrate specie combined with the existence of several transgenic reporter lines provided key advances in oligodendroglial cell biology, axo-glial interactions and CNS myelination. In this publication, we reviewed and discussed the most recent knowledge on OL development and myelin formation, with a focus on mechanisms regulating these fundamental biological processes in the zebrafish. Especially, we highlighted the critical function of axons and oligodendroglia modes of communications and calcium signaling in myelin sheath formation and growth. Finally, we reviewed the relevance of these knowledge's in demyelinating diseases and drug discovery of pharmacological compounds favoring myelin regeneration.

Endogenous Glycoprotein GPM6a Is Involved in Neurite Outgrowth in Rat Dorsal Root Ganglion Neurons

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) has a unique ability for self-repair. Dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons regulate the expression of different molecules, such as neurotrophins and their receptors, to promote axon regeneration after injury. However, the molecular players driving axonal regrowth need to be better defined. The membrane glycoprotein GPM6a has been described to contribute to neuronal development and structural plasticity in central-nervous-system neurons. Recent evidence indicates that GPM6a interacts with molecules from the PNS, although its role in DRG neurons remains unknown. Here, we characterized the expression of GPM6a in embryonic and adult DRGs by combining analysis of public RNA-seq datasets with immunochemical approaches utilizing cultures of rat DRG explants and dissociated neuronal cells. M6a was detected on the cell surfaces of DRG neurons throughout development. Moreover, GPM6a was required for DRG neurite elongation in vitro. In summary, we provide evidence on GPM6a being present in DRG neurons for the first time. Data from our functional experiments support the idea that GPM6a could contribute to axon regeneration in the PNS.

Lysophosphatidic acid signaling via LPA6 : A negative modulator of developmental oligodendrocyte maturation

The developmental process of central nervous system (CNS) myelin sheath formation is characterized by well-coordinated cellular activities ultimately ensuring rapid and synchronized neural communication. During this process, myelinating CNS cells, namely oligodendrocytes (OLGs), undergo distinct steps of differentiation, whereby the progression of earlier maturation stages of OLGs represents a critical step toward the timely establishment of myelinated axonal circuits. Given the complexity of functional integration, it is not surprising that OLG maturation is controlled by a yet fully to be defined set of both negative and positive modulators. In this context, we provide here first evidence for a role of lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) signaling via the G protein-coupled receptor LPA6 as a negative modulatory regulator of myelination-associated gene expression in OLGs. More specifically, the cell surface accessibility of LPA6 was found to be restricted to the earlier maturation stages of differentiating OLGs, and OLG maturation was found to occur precociously in Lpar6 knockout mice. To further substantiate these findings, a novel small molecule ligand with selectivity for preferentially LPA6 and LPA6 agonist characteristics was functionally characterized in vitro in primary cultures of rat OLGs and in vivo in the developing zebrafish. Utilizing this approach, a negative modulatory role of LPA6 signaling in OLG maturation could be corroborated. During development, such a functional role of LPA6 signaling likely serves to ensure timely coordination of circuit formation and myelination. Under pathological conditions as seen in the major human demyelinating disease multiple sclerosis (MS), however, persistent LPA6 expression and signaling in OLGs can be seen as an inhibitor of myelin repair. Thus, it is of interest that LPA6 protein levels appear elevated in MS brain samples, thereby suggesting that LPA6 signaling may represent a potential new druggable pathway suitable to promote myelin repair in MS.

Neuronal membrane glycoprotein (nmgp-1) gene deficiency affects chemosensation-related behaviors, dauer exit and egg-laying in Caenorhabditis elegans

The nervous system monitors the environment to maintain homeostasis, which can be affected by stressful conditions. Using mammalian models of chronic stress, we previously observed altered brain levels of GPM6A, a protein involved in neuronal morphology. However, GPM6A's role in systemic stress responses remains unresolved. The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans expresses a GPM6A ortholog, the neuronal membrane glycoprotein 1 (NMGP-1). Because of the shared features between nematode and mammalian nervous systems and the vast genetic tools available in C. elegans, we used the worm to elucidate the role of GPM6A in the stress response. We first identified nmgp-1 expression in different amphid and phasmid neurons. To understand the nmgp-1 role, we characterized the behavior of nmgp-1(RNAi) animals and two nmgp-1 mutant alleles. Compared to control animals, mutant and RNAi-treated worms exhibited increased recovery time from the stress-resistant dauer stage, altered SDS chemosensation and reduced egg-laying rate resulting in egg retention (bag-of-worms phenotype). Silencing of nmgp-1 expression induced morphological abnormalities in the ASJ sensory neurons, partly responsible for dauer exit. These results indicate that nmgp-1 is required for neuronal morphology and for behaviors associated with chemosensation. Finally, we propose nmgp-1 mutants as a tool to screen drugs for human nervous system pathologies.

Proteome Profile of Myelin in the Zebrafish Brain

The velocity of nerve conduction along vertebrate axons depends on their ensheathment with myelin. Myelin membranes comprise specialized proteins well characterized in mice. Much less is known about the protein composition of myelin in non-mammalian species. Here, we assess the proteome of myelin biochemically purified from the brains of adult zebrafish (Danio rerio), considering its increasing popularity as model organism for myelin biology. Combining gel-based and gel-free proteomic approaches, we identified > 1,000 proteins in purified zebrafish myelin, including all known constituents. By mass spectrometric quantification, the predominant Ig-CAM myelin protein zero (MPZ/P0), myelin basic protein (MBP), and the short-chain dehydrogenase 36K constitute 12%, 8%, and 6% of the total myelin protein, respectively. Comparison with previously established mRNA-abundance profiles shows that expression of many myelin-related transcripts coincides with the maturation of zebrafish oligodendrocytes. Zebrafish myelin comprises several proteins that are not present in mice, including 36K, CLDNK, and ZWI. However, a surprisingly large number of ortholog proteins is present in myelin of both species, indicating partial evolutionary preservation of its constituents. Yet, the relative abundance of CNS myelin proteins can differ markedly as exemplified by the complement inhibitor CD59 that constitutes 5% of the total zebrafish myelin protein but is a low-abundant myelin component in mice. Using novel transgenic reporter constructs and cryo-immuno electron microscopy, we confirm the incorporation of CD59 into myelin sheaths. These data provide the first proteome resource of zebrafish CNS myelin and demonstrate both similarities and heterogeneity of myelin composition between teleost fish and rodents.

Ensheathment and Myelination of Axons: Evolution of Glial Functions

Myelination of axons provides the structural basis for rapid saltatory impulse propagation along vertebrate fiber tracts, a well-established neurophysiological concept. However, myelinating oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells serve additional functions in neuronal energy metabolism that are remarkably similar to those of axon-ensheathing glial cells in unmyelinated invertebrates. Here we discuss myelin evolution and physiological glial functions, beginning with the role of ensheathing glia in preventing ephaptic coupling, axoglial metabolic support, and eliminating oxidative radicals. In both vertebrates and invertebrates, axoglial interactions are bidirectional, serving to regulate cell fate, nerve conduction, and behavioral performance. One key step in the evolution of compact myelin in the vertebrate lineage was the emergence of the open reading frame for myelin basic protein within another gene. Several other proteins were neofunctionalized as myelin constituents and help maintain a healthy nervous system. Myelination in vertebrates became a major prerequisite of inhabiting new ecological niches.

Identification of Potential Interacting Proteins With the Extracellular Loops of the Neuronal Glycoprotein M6a by TMT/MS

Nowadays, great efforts are made to gain insight into the molecular mechanisms that underlie structural neuronal plasticity. Moreover, the identification of signaling pathways involved in the development of psychiatric disorders aids the screening of possible therapeutic targets. Genetic variations or alterations in GPM6A expression are linked to neurological disorders such as schizophrenia, depression, and Alzheimer's disease. GPM6A encodes the neuronal surface glycoprotein M6a that promotes filopodia/spine, dendrite, and synapse formation by unknown mechanisms. A substantial body of evidence suggests that the extracellular loops of M6a command its function. However, the proteins that associate with them and that modulate neuronal plasticity have not been determined yet. To address this question, we generated a chimera protein that only contains the extracellular loops of M6a and performed a co-immunoprecipitation with rat hippocampus samples followed by TMT/MS. Here, we report 72 proteins, which are good candidates to interact with M6a's extracellular loops and modify its function. Gene ontology (GO) analysis showed that 63% of the potential M6a's interactor proteins belong to the category "synapse," at both sides of the synaptic cleft, "neuron projections" (51%) and "presynapse" (49%). In this sense, we showed that endogenous M6a interacts with piccolo, synaptic vesicle protein 2B, and synapsin 1 in mature cultured hippocampal neurons. Interestingly, about 28% of the proteins left were related to the "myelin sheath" annotation, suggesting that M6a could interact with proteins at the surface of oligodendrocytes. Indeed, we demonstrated the (cis and trans) interaction between M6a and proteolipid protein (PLP) in neuroblastoma N2a cells. Finally, the 72 proteins were subjected to disease-associated genes and variants screening by DisGeNET. Apart from the diseases that have already been associated with M6a, most of the proteins are also involved in "autistic disorder," "epilepsy," and "seizures" increasing the spectrum of disorders in which M6a could play a role. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD017347.

CNS myelin protein 36K regulates oligodendrocyte differentiation through Notch

In contrast to humans and other mammals, zebrafish can successfully regenerate and remyelinate central nervous system (CNS) axons following injury. In addition to common myelin proteins found in mammalian myelin, 36K protein is a major component of teleost fish CNS myelin. Although 36K is one of the most abundant proteins in zebrafish brain, its function remains unknown. Here we investigate the function of 36K using translation-blocking Morpholinos. Morphant larvae showed fewer dorsally migrated oligodendrocyte precursor cells as well as upregulation of Notch ligand. A gamma secretase inhibitor, which prevents activation of Notch, could rescue oligodendrocyte precursor cell numbers in 36K morphants, suggesting that 36K regulates initial myelination through inhibition of Notch signaling. Since 36K like other short chain dehydrogenases might act on lipids, we performed thin layer chromatography and mass spectrometry of lipids and found changes in lipid composition in 36K morphant larvae. Altogether, we suggest that during early development 36K regulates membrane lipid composition, thereby altering the amount of transmembrane Notch ligands and the efficiency of intramembrane gamma secretase processing of Notch and thereby influencing oligodendrocyte precursor cell differentiation and further myelination. Further studies on the role of 36K short chain dehydrogenase in oligodendrocyte precursor cell differentiation during remyelination might open up new strategies for remyelination therapies in human patients.

Axonal Ensheathment in the Nervous System of Lamprey: Implications for the Evolution of Myelinating Glia

In the nervous system, myelination of axons enables rapid impulse conduction and is a specialized function of glial cells. Myelinating glia are the last cell type to emerge in the evolution of vertebrate nervous systems, presumably in ancient jawed vertebrates (gnathostomata) because jawless vertebrates (agnathans) lack myelin. We have hypothesized that, in these unmyelinated species, evolutionary progenitors of myelinating cells must have existed that should still be present in contemporary agnathan species. Here, we used advanced electron microscopic techniques to reveal axon-glia interactions in the sea lamprey Petromyzon marinus By quantitative assessment of the spinal cord and the peripheral lateral line nerve, we observed a marked maturation-dependent growth of axonal calibers. In peripheral nerves, all axons are ensheathed by glial cells either in bundles or, when larger than the threshold caliber of 3 μm, individually. The ensheathing glia are covered by a basal lamina and express SoxE-transcription factors, features of mammalian Remak-type Schwann cells. In larval lamprey, the ensheathment of peripheral axons leaves gaps that are closed in adults. CNS axons are also covered to a considerable extent by glial processes, which contain a high density of intermediate filaments, glycogen particles, large lipid droplets, and desmosomes, similar to mammalian astrocytes. Indeed, by in situ hybridization, these glial cells express the astrocyte marker Aldh1l1 Specimens were of unknown sex. Our observations imply that radial sorting, ensheathment, and presumably also metabolic support of axons are ancient functions of glial cells that predate the evolutionary emergence of myelin in jawed vertebrates.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT We used current electron microscopy techniques to examine axon-glia units in a nonmyelinated vertebrate species, the sea lamprey. In the PNS, lamprey axons are fully ensheathed either individually or in bundles by cells ortholog to Schwann cells. In the CNS, axons associate with astrocyte orthologs, which contain glycogen and lipid droplets. We suggest that ensheathment, radial sorting, and metabolic support of axons by glial cells predate the evolutionary emergence of myelin in ancient jawed vertebrates.

Down-regulation of interleukin 7 receptor (IL-7R) contributes to central nervous system demyelination

Interleukin 7 receptor (IL-7R) has been associated with the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS), though the mechanisms are not clear. Because myelin expression is highly conserved between zebrafish and mammals, zebrafish have become an ideal model for studying demyelination. We used a transgenic (Tg; mbp:nfsB-egfp) zebrafish line in which oligodendrocytes expressed green fluorescent protein (GFP) from the larval stage to adulthood. Exposing adult transgenic zebrafish to metronidazole induced demyelination that resembled the morphological changes associated with the early stages of MS. The metronidazole-induced demyelination was confirmed by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for the first time. Microarray analysis revealed down-regulation of IL-7R during demyelination. Targeted knockdown of IL-7R demonstrated that IL-7R is essential for myelination in embryonic and larval zebrafish. Moreover, IL-7R down-regulation induced signaling via the JAK/STAT pathway leading to apoptosis in oligodendrocytes. These findings contribute to our understanding of the role of IL-7R in demyelination, and provide a rationale for the development of IL-7R-based therapies for MS and other demyelinating diseases.

Axonal regeneration in zebrafish spinal cord

In the present review we discuss two interrelated events-axonal damage and repair-known to occur after spinal cord injury (SCI) in the zebrafish. Adult zebrafish are capable of regenerating axonal tracts and can restore full functionality after SCI. Unlike fish, axon regeneration in the adult mammalian central nervous system is extremely limited. As a consequence of an injury there is very little repair of disengaged axons and therefore functional deficit persists after SCI in adult mammals. In contrast, peripheral nervous system axons readily regenerate following injury and hence allow functional recovery both in mammals and fish. A better mechanistic understanding of these three scenarios could provide a more comprehensive insight into the success or failure of axonal regeneration after SCI. This review summarizes the present understanding of the cellular and molecular basis of axonal regeneration, in both the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system, and large scale gene expression analysis is used to focus on different events during regeneration. The discovery and identification of genes involved in zebrafish spinal cord regeneration and subsequent functional experimentation will provide more insight into the endogenous mechanism of myelination and remyelination. Furthermore, precise knowledge of the mechanism underlying the extraordinary axonal regeneration process in zebrafish will also allow us to unravel the potential therapeutic strategies to be implemented for enhancing regrowth and remyelination of axons in mammals.

Analysis of myelinated axon formation in zebrafish

Myelin is a lipid-rich sheath formed by the spiral wrapping of specialized glial cells around axon segments. Myelinating glia allow for rapid transmission of nerve impulses and metabolic support of axons, and the absence of or disruption to myelin results in debilitating motor, cognitive, and emotional deficits in humans. Because myelin is a jawed vertebrate innovation, zebrafish are one of the simplest vertebrate model systems to study the genetics and development of myelinating glia. The morphogenetic cellular movements and genetic program that drive myelination are conserved between zebrafish and mammals, and myelin develops rapidly in zebrafish larvae, within 3-5days postfertilization. Myelin ultrastructure can be visualized in the zebrafish from larval to adult stages via transmission electron microscopy, and the dynamic development of myelinating glial cells may be observed in vivo via transgenic reporter lines in zebrafish larvae. Zebrafish are amenable to genetic and pharmacological screens, and screens for myelinating glial phenotypes have revealed both genes and drugs that promote myelin development, many of which are conserved in mammalian glia. Recently, zebrafish have been employed as a model to understand the complex dynamics of myelinating glia during development and regeneration. In this chapter, we describe these key methodologies and recent insights into mechanisms that regulate myelination using the zebrafish model.

Role of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in zebrafish retinal neurogenesis and myelination

AIM

To investigate the role of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) in zebrafish retinal development and myelination.

METHODS

Morpholino oligonucleotides (MO), which are complementary to the translation start site of the wild-type embryonic zebrafish TNF-α mRNA sequence, were synthesized and injected into one- to four-cell embryos. The translation blocking specificity was verified by Western blotting using an anti-TNF-α antibody, whole-mount in situ hybridization using a hepatocyte-specific mRNA probe ceruloplasmin (cp), and co-injection of TNF-α MO and TNF-α mRNA. An atonal homolog 7 (atoh7) mRNA probe was used to detect neurogenesis onset. The retinal neurodifferentiation was analyzed by immunohistochemistry using antibodies Zn12, Zpr1, and Zpr3 to label ganglion cells, cones, and rods, respectively. Myelin basic protein (mbp) was used as a marker to track and observe the myelination using whole-mount in situ hybridization.

RESULTS

Targeted knockdown of TNF-α resulted in specific suppression of TNF-α expression and a severely underdeveloped liver. The co-injection of TNF-α MO and mRNA rescued the liver development. Retinal neurogenesis in TNF-α morphants was initiated on time. The retina was fully laminated, while ganglion cells, cones, and rods were well differentiated at 72 hours post-fertilization (hpf). mbp was expressed in Schwann cells in the lateral line nerves and cranial nerves from 3 days post-fertilization (dpf) as well as in oligodendrocytes linearly along the hindbrain bundles and the spinal cord from 4 dpf, which closely resembled its endogenous profile.

CONCLUSION

TNF-α is not an essential regulator for retinal neurogenesis and optic myelination.

Oligodendrocyte differentiation

In the nervous system, axons transmit information in the form of electrical impulses over long distances. The speed of impulse conduction is enhanced by myelin, a lipid-rich membrane that wraps around axons. Myelin also is required for the long-term health of axons by providing metabolic support. Accordingly, myelin deficiencies are implicated in a wide range of neurodevelopmental and neuropsychiatric disorders, intellectual disabilities, and neurodegenerative conditions. Central nervous system myelin is formed by glial cells called oligodendrocytes. During development, oligodendrocyte precursor cells migrate from their origins to their target axons, extend long membrane processes that wrap axons, and produce the proteins and lipids that provide myelin membrane with its unique characteristics. Myelination is a dynamic process that involves intricate interactions between multiple cell types. Therefore, an in vivo myelination model, such as the zebrafish, which allows for live observation of cell dynamics and cell-to-cell interactions, is well suited for investigating oligodendrocyte development. Zebrafish offer several advantages to investigating myelination, including the use of transgenic reporter lines, live imaging, forward genetic screens, chemical screens, and reverse genetic approaches. This chapter will describe how these tools and approaches have provided new insights into the regulatory mechanisms that guide myelination.

Electron microscopy of myelin: Structure preservation by high-pressure freezing

Electron microscopic visualization of nervous tissue morphology is crucial when aiming to understand the biogenesis and structure of myelin in healthy and pathological conditions. However, accurate interpretation of electron micrographs requires excellent tissue preservation. In this short review we discuss the recent utilization of tissue fixation by high-pressure freezing and freeze-substitution, which now supplements aldehyde fixation in the preparation of samples for electron microscopy of myelin. Cryofixation has proven well suited to yield both, improved contrast and excellent preservation of structural detail of the axon/myelin-unit in healthy and mutant mice and can also be applied to other model organisms, including aquatic species. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Myelin Evolution.

Myelin in cartilaginous fish

Myelin is probably one of the most fascinating and innovative biological acquisition: a glia plasma membrane tightly wrapped around an axon and insulating it. Chondrichthyans (cartilaginous fishes) form a large group of vertebrates, and they are among oldest extant jawed vertebrate lineage. It has been known from studies 150 years ago, that they are positioned at the root of the successful appearance of compact myelin and main adhesive proteins in vertebrates. More importantly, the ultrastructure of their compact myelin is indistinguishable from the one observed in tetrapods and the first true myelin basic protein (MBP) and myelin protein zero (MPZ) seem to have originated on cartilaginous fish or their ancestors, the placoderms. Thus, the study of their myelin formation would bring new insights in vertebrate׳s myelin evolution. Chondrichthyans central nervous system (CNS) myelin composition is also very similar to peripheral nervous system (PNS) myelin composition. And while they lack true proteolipid protein (PLP) like tetrapods, they express a DM-like protein in their myelin. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Myelin Evolution.

Insights into mechanisms of central nervous system myelination using zebrafish

Myelin is the multi-layered membrane that surrounds most axons and is produced by oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system (CNS). In addition to its important role in enabling rapid nerve conduction, it has become clear in recent years that myelin plays additional vital roles in CNS function. Myelinating oligodendrocytes provide metabolic support to axons and active myelination is even involved in regulating forms of learning and memory formation. However, there are still large gaps in our understanding of how myelination by oligodendrocytes is regulated. The small tropical zebrafish has become an increasingly popular model organism to investigate many aspects of nervous system formation, function, and regeneration. This is mainly due to two approaches for which the zebrafish is an ideally suited vertebrate model--(1) in vivo live cell imaging using vital dyes and genetically encoded reporters, and (2) gene and target discovery using unbiased screens. This review summarizes how the use of zebrafish has helped understand mechanisms of oligodendrocyte behavior and myelination in vivo and discusses the potential use of zebrafish to shed light on important future questions relating to myelination in the context of CNS development, function and repair.

Altered GPM6A/M6 dosage impairs cognition and causes phenotypes responsive to cholesterol in human and Drosophila

Glycoprotein M6A (GPM6A) is a neuronal transmembrane protein of the PLP/DM20 (proteolipid protein) family that associates with cholesterol-rich lipid rafts and promotes filopodia formation. We identified a de novo duplication of the GPM6A gene in a patient with learning disability and behavioral anomalies. Expression analysis in blood lymphocytes showed increased GPM6A levels. An increase of patient-derived lymphoblastoid cells carrying membrane protrusions supports a functional effect of this duplication. To study the consequences of GPM6A dosage alterations in an intact nervous system, we employed Drosophila melanogaster as a model organism. We found that knockdown of Drosophila M6, the sole member of the PLP family in flies, in the wing, and whole organism causes malformation and lethality, respectively. These phenotypes as well as the protrusions of patient-derived lymphoblastoid cells with increased GPM6A levels can be alleviated by cholesterol supplementation. Notably, overexpression as well as loss of M6 in neurons specifically compromises long-term memory in the courtship conditioning paradigm. Our findings thus indicate a critical role of correct GPM6A/M6 levels for cognitive function and support a role of the GPM6A duplication for the patient's phenotype. Together with other recent findings, this study highlights compromised cholesterol homeostasis as a recurrent feature in cognitive phenotypes.

A novel model of demyelination and remyelination in a GFP-transgenic zebrafish

Demyelinating diseases consist of a variety of autoimmune conditions in which the myelin sheath is damaged due to genetic and/or environmental factors. During clinical treatment, some patients undergo partial remyelination, especially during the early disease stages. However, the mechanisms that regulate demyelination remain unclear. The myelin structure, myelin formation and myelin-related gene expression are highly conserved between mammals and zebrafish. Therefore, the zebrafish is an ideal model organism to study myelination. In this study, we generated a transgenic zebrafish Tg(mbp:nfsB-egfp) expressing a fusion protein composed of enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) and NTR from the myelin basic protein (mbp) promoter. Tg(mbp:nfsB-egfp) expressed NTR-EGFP reproducibly and hereditarily in oligodendrocytes along the spinal cord. Treatment of zebrafish larvae Tg(mbp:nfsB-egfp) with metronidazole (Mtz) resulted in the selective ablation of oligodendrocytes and led to demyelination, accompanied by behavioral changes, including decreased total movement distance, velocity, total movement time and fast movement time. After withdrawal of Mtz for a seven day recovery period, the expression of EGFP and MBP protein was observed again which indicates remyelination. Additionally, locomotor capacity was restored. Collectively, Tg(mbp:nfsB-egfp), a heritable and stable transgenic line, provides a novel, powerful tool to study the mechanisms of demyelination and remyelination.

Zebrafish as a model to investigate CNS myelination

Myelin plays a critical role in proper neuronal function by providing trophic and metabolic support to axons and facilitating energy-efficient saltatory conduction. Myelination is influenced by numerous molecules including growth factors, hormones, transmembrane receptors and extracellular molecules, which activate signaling cascades that drive cellular maturation. Key signaling molecules and downstream signaling cascades controlling myelination have been identified in cell culture systems. However, in vitro systems are not able to faithfully replicate the complex in vivo signaling environment that occurs during development or following injury. Currently, it remains time-consuming and expensive to investigate myelination in vivo in rodents, the most widely used model for studying mammalian myelination. As such, there is a need for alternative in vivo myelination models, particularly ones that can test molecular mechanisms without removing oligodendrocyte lineage cells from their native signaling environment or disrupting intercellular interactions with other cell types present during myelination. Here, we review the ever-increasing role of zebrafish in studies uncovering novel mechanisms controlling vertebrate myelination. These innovative studies range from observations of the behavior of single cells during in vivo myelination as well as mutagenesis- and pharmacology-based screens in whole animals. Additionally, we discuss recent efforts to develop novel models of demyelination and oligodendrocyte cell death in adult zebrafish for the study of cellular behavior in real time during repair and regeneration of damaged nervous systems.

Transcallosal Projections Require Glycoprotein M6-Dependent Neurite Growth and Guidance

The function of mature neurons critically relies on the developmental outgrowth and projection of their cellular processes. It has long been postulated that the neuronal glycoproteins M6a and M6b are involved in axon growth because these four-transmembrane domain-proteins of the proteolipid protein family are highly enriched on growth cones, but in vivo evidence has been lacking. Here, we report that the function of M6 proteins is required for normal axonal extension and guidance in vivo. In mice lacking both M6a and M6b, a severe hypoplasia of axon tracts was manifested. Most strikingly, the corpus callosum was reduced in thickness despite normal densities of cortical projection neurons. In single neuron tracing, many axons appeared shorter and disorganized in the double-mutant cortex, and some of them were even misdirected laterally toward the subcortex. Probst bundles were not observed. Upon culturing, double-mutant cortical and cerebellar neurons displayed impaired neurite outgrowth, indicating a cell-intrinsic function of M6 proteins. A rescue experiment showed that the intracellular loop of M6a is essential for the support of neurite extension. We propose that M6 proteins are required for proper extension and guidance of callosal axons that follow one of the most complex trajectories in the mammalian nervous system.

Restoration of the normal splicing pattern of the PLP1 gene by means of an antisense oligonucleotide directed against an exonic mutation

An exonic missense mutation, c.436C>G, in the PLP1 gene of a patient affected by the hypomyelinating leukodystrophy, Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease, has previously been found to be responsible for the alteration of the canonical alternative splicing profile of the PLP1 gene leading to the loss of the longer PLP isoform. Here we show that the presence of the c.436C>G mutation served to introduce regulatory motifs that appear to be responsible for the perturbed splicing pattern that led to loss of the major PLP transcript. With the aim of disrupting the interaction between the PLP1 splicing regulatory motifs and their cognate splicing factors, we designed an antisense oligonucleotide-based in vitro correction protocol that successfully restored PLP transcript production in oligodendrocyte precursor cells.

A critical role for the cholesterol-associated proteolipids PLP and M6B in myelination of the central nervous system

The formation of central nervous system myelin by oligodendrocytes requires sterol synthesis and is associated with a significant enrichment of cholesterol in the myelin membrane. However, it is unknown how oligodendrocytes concentrate cholesterol above the level found in nonmyelin membranes. Here, we demonstrate a critical role for proteolipids in cholesterol accumulation. Mice lacking the most abundant myelin protein, proteolipid protein (PLP), are fully myelinated, but PLP-deficient myelin exhibits a reduced cholesterol content. We therefore hypothesized that "high cholesterol" is not essential in the myelin sheath itself but is required for an earlier step of myelin biogenesis that is fully compensated for in the absence of PLP. We also found that a PLP-homolog, glycoprotein M6B, is a myelin component of low abundance. By targeting the Gpm6b-gene and crossbreeding, we found that single-mutant mice lacking either PLP or M6B are fully myelinated, while double mutants remain severely hypomyelinated, with enhanced neurodegeneration and premature death. As both PLP and M6B bind membrane cholesterol and associate with the same cholesterol-rich oligodendroglial membrane microdomains, we suggest a model in which proteolipids facilitate myelination by sequestering cholesterol. While either proteolipid can maintain a threshold level of cholesterol in the secretory pathway that allows myelin biogenesis, lack of both proteolipids results in a severe molecular imbalance of prospective myelin membrane. However, M6B is not efficiently sorted into mature myelin, in which it is 200-fold less abundant than PLP. Thus, only PLP contributes to the high cholesterol content of myelin by association and co-transport.

An independent genome duplication inferred from Hox paralogs in the American paddlefish--a representative basal ray-finned fish and important comparative reference

Vertebrates have experienced two rounds of whole-genome duplication (WGD) in the stem lineages of deep nodes within the group and a subsequent duplication event in the stem lineage of the teleosts—a highly diverse group of ray-finned fishes. Here, we present the first full Hox gene sequences for any member of the Acipenseriformes, the American paddlefish, and confirm that an independent WGD occurred in the paddlefish lineage, approximately 42 Ma based on sequences spanning the entire HoxA cluster and eight genes on the HoxD gene cluster. These clusters comprise different HOX loci and maintain conserved synteny relative to bichir, zebrafish, stickleback, and pufferfish, as well as human, mouse, and chick. We also provide a gene genealogy for the duplicated fzd8 gene in paddlefish and present evidence for the first Hox14 gene in any ray-finned fish. Taken together, these data demonstrate that the American paddlefish has an independently duplicated genome. Substitution patterns of the “alpha” paralogs on both the HoxA and HoxD gene clusters suggest transcriptional inactivation consistent with functional diploidization. Further, there are similarities in the pattern of sequence divergence among duplicated Hox genes in paddlefish and teleost lineages, even though they occurred independently approximately 200 Myr apart. We highlight implications on comparative analyses in the study of the “fin-limb transition” as well as gene and genome duplication in bony fishes, which includes all ray-finned fishes as well as the lobe-finned fishes and tetrapod vertebrates.

A role for the membrane protein M6 in the Drosophila visual system

BACKGROUND

Members of the proteolipid protein family, including the four-transmembrane glycoprotein M6a, are involved in neuronal plasticity in mammals. Results from our group previously demonstrated that M6, the only proteolipid protein expressed in Drosophila, localizes to the cell membrane in follicle cells. M6 loss triggers female sterility, which suggests a role for M6 in follicular cell remodeling. These results were the basis of the present study, which focused on the function and requirements of M6 in the fly nervous system.

RESULTS

The present study identified two novel, tissue-regulated M6 isoforms with variable N- and C- termini, and showed that M6 is the functional fly ortholog of Gpm6a. In the adult brain, the protein was localized to several neuropils, such as the optic lobe, the central complex, and the mushroom bodies. Interestingly, although reduced M6 levels triggered a mild rough-eye phenotype, hypomorphic M6 mutants exhibited a defective response to light.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on its ability to induce filopodium formation we propose that M6 is key in cell remodeling processes underlying visual system function. These results bring further insight into the role of M6/M6a in biological processes involving neuronal plasticity and behavior in flies and mammals.

Claudin k is specifically expressed in cells that form myelin during development of the nervous system and regeneration of the optic nerve in adult zebrafish

The zebrafish has become an important model organism to study myelination during development and after a lesion of the adult central nervous system (CNS). Here, we identify Claudin k as a myelin-associated protein in zebrafish and determine its localization during development and adult optic nerve regeneration. We find Claudin k in subcellular compartments consistent with location in autotypic tight junctions of oligodendrocytes and myelinating Schwann cells. Expression starts in the hindbrain at 2 days (mRNA) and 3 days (protein) postfertilization and is maintained in adults. A newly generated claudin k:green fluorescent protein (GFP) reporter line allowed us to characterize oligodendrocytes in the adult retina that express Claudin k and olig2, but not P0 and uniquely only form loose wraps of membrane around axons. After a crush of the adult optic nerve, Claudin k protein levels were first reduced and then recovered within 4 weeks postlesion, concomitant with optic nerve myelin de- and regeneration. During optic nerve regeneration, oligodendrocytes, many of which were newly generated, repopulated the lesion site and exhibited increasing morphological complexity over time. Thus, Claudin k is a novel myelin-associated protein expressed by oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells from early stages of wrapping and myelin formation in zebrafish development and adult regeneration, suggesting important functions of the gene for myelin formation and maintenance. Our Claudin k antibodies and claudin k:GFP reporter line represent excellent ways to visualize oligodendrocyte and Schwann cell differentiation in vivo.

Phosphorylation of the zebrafish M6Ab at serine 263 contributes to filopodium formation in PC12 cells and neurite outgrowth in zebrafish embryos

Background

Mammalian M6A, a member of the proteolipid protein (PLP/DM20) family expressed in neurons, was first isolated by expression cloning with a monoclonal antibody. Overexpression of M6A was shown to induce filopodium formation in neuronal cells; however, the underlying mechanism of is largely unknown. Possibly due to gene duplication, there are two M6A paralogs, M6Aa and M6Ab, in the zebrafish genome. In the present study, we used the zebrafish as a model system to investigate the role of zebrafish M6Ab in filopodium formation in PC12 cells and neurite outgrowth in zebrafish embryos.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We demonstrated that zebrafish M6Ab promoted extensive filopodium formation in NGF-treated PC12 cells, which is similar to the function of mammalian M6A. Phosphorylation at serine 263 of zebrafish M6Ab contributed to this induction. Transfection of the S263A mutant protein greatly reduced filopodium formation in PC12 cells. In zebrafish embryos, only S263D could induce neurite outgrowth.

Conclusions/Significance

Our results reveal that the phosphorylation status of zebrafish M6Ab at serine 263 is critical for its role in regulating filopodium formation and neurite outgrowth.

Molecular genetic analysis of the PLP1 gene in 38 families with PLP1-related disorders: identification and functional characterization of 11 novel PLP1 mutations

Background

The breadth of the clinical spectrum underlying Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease and spastic paraplegia type 2 is due to the extensive allelic heterogeneity in the X-linked PLP1 gene encoding myelin proteolipid protein (PLP). PLP1 mutations range from gene duplications of variable size found in 60-70% of patients to intragenic lesions present in 15-20% of patients.

Methods

Forty-eight male patients from 38 unrelated families with a PLP1-related disorder were studied. All DNA samples were screened for PLP1 gene duplications using real-time PCR. PLP1 gene sequencing analysis was performed on patients negative for the duplication. The mutational status of all 14 potential carrier mothers of the familial PLP1 gene mutation was determined as well as 15/24 potential carrier mothers of the PLP1 duplication.

Results and Conclusions

PLP1 gene duplications were identified in 24 of the unrelated patients whereas a variety of intragenic PLP1 mutations were found in the remaining 14 patients. Of the 14 different intragenic lesions, 11 were novel; these included one nonsense and 7 missense mutations, a 657-bp deletion, a microdeletion and a microduplication. The functional significance of the novel PLP1 missense mutations, all occurring at evolutionarily conserved residues, was analysed by the MutPred tool whereas their potential effect on splicing was ascertained using the Skippy algorithm and a neural network. Although MutPred predicted that all 7 novel missense mutations would be likely to be deleterious, in silico analysis indicated that four of them (p.Leu146Val, p.Leu159Pro, p.Thr230Ile, p.Ala247Asp) might cause exon skipping by altering exonic splicing elements. These predictions were then investigated in vitro for both p.Leu146Val and p.Thr230Ile by means of RNA or minigene studies and were subsequently confirmed in the case of p.Leu146Val. Peripheral neuropathy was noted in four patients harbouring intragenic mutations that altered RNA processing, but was absent from all PLP1-duplication patients. Unprecedentedly, family studies revealed the de novo occurrence of the PLP1 duplication at a frequency of 20%.

Major isoform of zebrafish P0 is a 23.5 kDa myelin glycoprotein expressed in selected white matter tracts of the central nervous system

The zebrafish mpz gene, encoding the ortholog of mammalian myelin protein zero, is expressed in oligodendrocytes of the zebrafish central nervous system (CNS). The putative gene product, P0, has been implicated in promoting axonal regeneration in addition to its proposed structural functions in compact myelin. We raised novel zebrafish P0-specific antibodies and established that P0 is a 23.5 kDa glycoprotein containing a 3 kDa N-linked carbohydrate moiety. P0 was localized to myelin sheaths surrounding axons, but was not detected in the cell bodies or proximal processes of oligodendrocytes. Many white matter tracts in the adult zebrafish CNS were robustly immunoreactive for P0, including afferent visual and olfactory pathways, commissural and longitudinal tracts of the brain, and selected ascending and descending tracts of the spinal cord. P0 was first detected during development in premyelinating oligodendrocytes of the ventral hindbrain at 48 hours postfertilization (hpf). By 72 hpf, short segments of longitudinally oriented P0-immunoreactive myelinating axons were seen in the hindbrain; expression in the spinal cord, optic pathways, hindbrain commissures, midbrain, and peripheral nervous system followed. The mpz transcript was found to be alternatively spliced, giving rise to P0 isoforms with alternative C-termini. The 23.5 kDa isoform was most abundant in the CNS, but other isoforms predominated in the myelin sheath surrounding the Mauthner axon. These data provide a detailed account of P0 expression and demonstrate novel P0 isoforms, which may have discrete functional properties. The restriction of P0 immunoreactivity to myelin sheaths indicates that the protein is subject to stringent intracellular compartmentalization, which likely occurs through posttranslational mechanisms.

M6 membrane protein plays an essential role in Drosophila oogenesis

We had previously shown that the transmembrane glycoprotein M6a, a member of the proteolipid protein (PLP) family, regulates neurite/filopodium outgrowth, hence, M6a might be involved in neuronal remodeling and differentiation. In this work we focused on M6, the only PLP family member present in Drosophila, and ortholog to M6a. Unexpectedly, we found that decreased expression of M6 leads to female sterility. M6 is expressed in the membrane of the follicular epithelium in ovarioles throughout oogenesis. Phenotypes triggered by M6 downregulation in hypomorphic mutants included egg collapse and egg permeability, thus suggesting M6 involvement in eggshell biosynthesis. In addition, RNAi-mediated M6 knockdown targeted specifically to follicle cells induced an arrest of egg chamber development, revealing that M6 is essential in oogenesis. Interestingly, M6-associated phenotypes evidenced abnormal changes of the follicle cell shape and disrupted follicular epithelium in mid- and late-stage egg chambers. Therefore, we propose that M6 plays a role in follicular epithelium maintenance involving membrane cell remodeling during oogenesis in Drosophila.

A rare myelin protein zero (MPZ) variant alters enhancer activity in vitro and in vivo

Background

Myelin protein zero (MPZ) is a critical structural component of myelin in the peripheral nervous system. The MPZ gene is regulated, in part, by the transcription factors SOX10 and EGR2. Mutations in MPZ, SOX10, and EGR2 have been implicated in demyelinating peripheral neuropathies, suggesting that components of this transcriptional network are candidates for harboring disease-causing mutations (or otherwise functional variants) that affect MPZ expression.

Methodology

We utilized a combination of multi-species sequence comparisons, transcription factor-binding site predictions, targeted human DNA re-sequencing, and in vitro and in vivo enhancer assays to study human non-coding MPZ variants.

Principal Findings

Our efforts revealed a variant within the first intron of MPZ that resides within a previously described SOX10 binding site is associated with decreased enhancer activity, and alters binding of nuclear proteins. Additionally, the genomic segment harboring this variant directs tissue-relevant reporter gene expression in zebrafish.

Conclusions

This is the first reported MPZ variant within a cis-acting transcriptional regulatory element. While we were unable to implicate this variant in disease onset, our data suggests that similar non-coding sequences should be screened for mutations in patients with neurological disease. Furthermore, our multi-faceted approach for examining the functional significance of non-coding variants can be readily generalized to study other loci important for myelin structure and function.

Zebrafish models of Tauopathy

Tauopathies are a group of incurable neurodegenerative diseases, in which loss of neurons is accompanied by intracellular deposition of fibrillar material composed of hyperphosphorylated forms of the microtubule-associated protein Tau. A zebrafish model of Tauopathy could complement existing murine models by providing a platform for genetic and chemical screens, in order to identify novel therapeutic targets and compounds with disease-modifying potential. In addition, Tauopathy zebrafish would be useful for hypothesis-driven experiments, especially those exploiting the potential to deploy in vivo imaging modalities. Several considerations, including conservation of specialized neuronal and other cellular populations, and biochemical pathways implicated in disease pathogenesis, suggest that the zebrafish brain is an appropriate setting in which to model these complex disorders. Novel transgenic zebrafish lines expressing wild-type and mutant forms of human Tau in CNS neurons have recently been reported. These studies show evidence that human Tau undergoes disease-relevant changes in zebrafish neurons, including somato-dendritic relocalization, hyperphosphorylation and aggregation. In addition, preliminary evidence suggests that Tau transgene expression can precipitate neuronal dysfunction and death. These initial studies are encouraging that the zebrafish holds considerable promise as a model in which to study Tauopathies. Further studies are necessary to clarify the phenotypes of transgenic lines and to develop assays and models suitable for unbiased high-throughput screening approaches. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Zebrafish Models of Neurological Diseases.

Defective adult oligodendrocyte and Schwann cell development, pigment pattern, and craniofacial morphology in puma mutant zebrafish having an alpha tubulin mutation

The processes of myelination remain incompletely understood but are of profound biomedical importance owing to the several dysmyelinating and demyelinating disorders known in humans. Here, we analyze the zebrafish puma mutant, isolated originally for pigment pattern defects limited to the adult stage. We show that puma mutants also have late-arising defects in Schwann cells of the peripheral nervous system, locomotor abnormalities, and sex-biased defects in adult craniofacial morphology. Using methods of positional cloning, we identify a critical genetic interval harboring two alpha tubulin loci, and we identify a chemically induced missense mutation in one of these, tubulin alpha 8-like 3a (tuba8l3a). We demonstrate tuba8l3a expression in the central nervous system (CNS), leading us to search for defects in the development of oligodendrocytes, the myelinating cells of the CNS. We find gross reductions in CNS myelin and oligodendrocyte numbers in adult puma mutants, and these deficits are apparent already during the larval-to-adult transformation. By contrast, analyses of embryos and early larvae reveal a normal complement of oligodendrocytes that nevertheless fail to localize normal amounts of myelin basic protein (mbp) mRNA in cellular processes, and fail to organize these processes as in the wild-type. This study identifies the puma mutant as a valuable model for studying microtubule-dependent events of myelination, as well as strategies for remyelination in the adult.

Myelin sheaths are formed with proteins that originated in vertebrate lineages

All vertebrate nervous systems, except those of agnathans, make extensive use of the myelinated fiber, a structure formed by coordinated interplay between neuronal axons and glial cells. Myelinated fibers, by enhancing the speed and efficiency of nerve cell communication allowed gnathostomes to evolve extensively, forming a broad range of diverse lifestyles in most habitable environments. The axon-covering myelin sheaths are structurally and biochemically novel as they contain high portions of lipid and a few prominent low molecular weight proteins often considered unique to myelin. Here we searched genome and EST databases to identify orthologs and paralogs of the following myelin-related proteins: (1) myelin basic protein (MBP), (2) myelin protein zero (MPZ, formerly P0), (3) proteolipid protein (PLP1, formerly PLP), (4) peripheral myelin protein-2 (PMP2, formerly P2), (5) peripheral myelin protein-22 (PMP22) and (6) stathmin-1 (STMN1). Although widely distributed in gnathostome/vertebrate genomes, neither MBP nor MPZ are present in any of nine invertebrate genomes examined. PLP1, which replaced MPZ in tetrapod CNS myelin sheaths, includes a novel 'tetrapod-specific' exon (see also Möbius et al., 2009). Like PLP1, PMP2 first appears in tetrapods and like PLP1 its origins can be traced to invertebrate paralogs. PMP22, with origins in agnathans, and STMN1 with origins in protostomes, existed well before the evolution of gnathostomes. The coordinated appearance of MBP and MPZ with myelin sheaths and of PLP1 with tetrapod CNS myelin suggests interdependence - new proteins giving rise to novel vertebrate structures.

Macroglial cells of the teleost central nervous system: a survey of the main types

Following our previous review of teleost microglia, we focus here on the morphological and histochemical features of the three principal macroglia types in the teleost central nervous system (ependymal cells, astrocyte-like cells/radial glia and oligodendrocytes). This review is concerned with recent literature and not only provides insights into the various individual aspects of the different types of macroglial cells plus a comparison with mammalian glia, but also indicates the several potentials that the neural tissue of teleosts exhibits in neurobiological research. Indeed, some areas of the teleost brain are particularly suitable in terms of the establishment of a "simple" but complete research model (i.e. the visual pathway complex and the supramedullary neuron cluster in puffer fish). The relationships between neurons and glial cells are considered in fish, with the aim of providing an integrated picture of the complex ways in which neurons and glia communicate and collaborate in normal and injured neural tissues. The recent setting up of successful protocols for fish glia and mixed neuron-glia cultures, together with the molecular facilities offered by the knowledge of some teleost genomes, should allow consistent input towards the achievement of this aim.

Mutation in the myelin proteolipid protein gene alters BK and SK channel function in the caudal medulla

Proteolipid protein (Plp) gene mutation in rodents causes severe CNS dysmyelination, early death, and lethal hypoxic ventilatory depression (Miller et al., 2004). To determine if Plp mutation alters neuronal function critical for control of breathing, the nucleus tractus solitarii (nTS) of four rodent strains were studied: myelin deficient rats (MD), myelin synthesis deficient (Plp(msd)), and Plp(null) mice, as well as shiverer (Mbp(shi)) mice, a myelin basic protein mutant. Current-voltage relationships were analyzed using whole-cell patch-clamp in 300 microm brainstem slices. Voltage steps were applied, and inward and outward currents quantified. MD, Plp(msd), and Plp(null), but not Mbp(shi) neurons exhibited reduced outward current in nTS at P21. Apamin blockade of SK calcium-dependent currents and iberiotoxin blockade of BK calcium-dependent currents in the P21 MD rat demonstrated reduced outward current due to dysfunction of these channels. These results provide evidence that Plp mutation specifically alters neuronal excitability through calcium-dependent potassium channels in nTS.

Genetic dissection of myelinated axons in zebrafish

In the vertebrate nervous system, the myelin sheath allows for rapid and efficient conduction of action potentials along axons. Despite the essential function of myelin, many questions remain unanswered about the mechanisms that govern the development of myelinated axons. The fundamental properties of myelin are widely shared among vertebrates, and the zebrafish has emerged as a powerful system to study myelination in vivo. This review will highlight recent advances from genetic screens in zebrafish, including the discovery of the role of kif1b in mRNA localization in myelinating oligodendrocytes.

The myelin proteolipid DMalpha in fishes

Vertebrate myelin membranes are compacted and held in close apposition by three structural proteins of myelin, myelin basic protein, myelin protein zero (MPZ) and myelin proteolipid protein (PLP1/DMalpha). PLP1/DMalpha is considered to function as a scaffolding protein and play a role in intracellular trafficking in oligodendrocytes. In humans, point mutations, duplications or deletions of PLP1 are associated with Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease and spastic paraplegia Type 2. PLP1 is highly conserved between mammals, but less so in lower vertebrates. This has led some researchers to question whether certain fish species express PLP1 orthologues at all, and to suggest that the function of PLP1/DMalpha in the central nervous system (CNS) may have been taken over by MPZ. Here, we review the evidence for the conservation of orthologues of PLP1/DMalpha in actinopterygian fishes and provide a comparison of currently available sequence data across 17 fish species. Our analysis demonstrates that orthologues of PLP1/DMalpha have been retained and are functionally expressed in many, if not all, extant species of bony fish. Many of the amino acids that, when mutated, are associated with severe CNS pathology are conserved in teleosts, demonstrating conservation of essential functions and justifying the development of novel disease models in species such as the zebrafish.

Phylogeny of proteolipid proteins: divergence, constraints, and the evolution of novel functions in myelination and neuroprotection

The protein composition of myelin in the central nervous system (CNS) has changed at the evolutionary transition from fish to tetrapods, when a lipid-associated transmembrane-tetraspan (proteolipid protein, PLP) replaced an adhesion protein of the immunoglobulin superfamily (P0) as the most abundant constituent. Here, we review major steps of proteolipid evolution. Three paralog proteolipids (PLP/DM20/DMalpha, M6B/DMgamma and the neuronal glycoprotein M6A/DMbeta) exist in vertebrates from cartilaginous fish to mammals, and one (M6/CG7540) can be traced in invertebrate bilaterians including the planktonic copepod Calanus finmarchicus that possess a functional myelin equivalent. In fish, DMalpha and DMgamma are coexpressed in oligodendrocytes but are not major myelin components. PLP emerged at the root of tetrapods by the acquisition of an enlarged cytoplasmic loop in the evolutionary older DMalpha/DM20. Transgenic experiments in mice suggest that this loop enhances the incorporation of PLP into myelin. The evolutionary recruitment of PLP as the major myelin protein provided oligodendrocytes with the competence to support long-term axonal integrity. We suggest that the molecular shift from P0 to PLP also correlates with the concentration of adhesive forces at the radial component, and that the new balance between membrane adhesion and dynamics was favorable for CNS myelination.

Myelin proteomics: molecular anatomy of an insulating sheath

Fast-transmitting vertebrate axons are electrically insulated with multiple layers of nonconductive plasma membrane of glial cell origin, termed myelin. The myelin membrane is dominated by lipids, and its protein composition has historically been viewed to be of very low complexity. In this review, we discuss an updated reference compendium of 342 proteins associated with central nervous system myelin that represents a valuable resource for analyzing myelin biogenesis and white matter homeostasis. Cataloging the myelin proteome has been made possible by technical advances in the separation and mass spectrometric detection of proteins, also referred to as proteomics. This led to the identification of a large number of novel myelin-associated proteins, many of which represent low abundant components involved in catalytic activities, the cytoskeleton, vesicular trafficking, or cell adhesion. By mass spectrometry-based quantification, proteolipid protein and myelin basic protein constitute 17% and 8% of total myelin protein, respectively, suggesting that their abundance was previously overestimated. As the biochemical profile of myelin-associated proteins is highly reproducible, differential proteome analyses can be applied to material isolated from patients or animal models of myelin-related diseases such as multiple sclerosis and leukodystrophies.

Zebrafish myelination: a transparent model for remyelination?

There is currently an unmet need for a therapy that promotes the regenerative process of remyelination in central nervous system diseases, notably multiple sclerosis (MS). A high-throughput model is, therefore, required to screen potential therapeutic drugs and to refine genomic and proteomic data from MS lesions. Here, we review the value of the zebrafish (Danio rerio) larva as a model of the developmental process of myelination, describing the powerful applications of zebrafish for genetic manipulation and genetic screens, as well as some of the exciting imaging capabilities of this model. Finally, we discuss how a model of zebrafish myelination can be used as a high-throughput screening model to predict the effect of compounds on remyelination. We conclude that zebrafish provide a highly versatile myelination model. As more complex transgenic zebrafish lines are developed, it might soon be possible to visualise myelination, or even remyelination, in real time. However, experimental outputs must be designed carefully for such visual and temporal techniques.