1
|
Valkov A, Zinigrad M, Sobolev A, Nisnevitch M. Keratin Biomembranes as a Model for Studying Onychomycosis. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E3512. [PMID: 32429167 PMCID: PMC7278978 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21103512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Revised: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Difficulties in obtaining human nails that are large enough for examining the penetration of drug formulations led us to produce keratin films regenerated from human hair. We assume that these films can simulate human nail plates in drug penetration and permeation tests and can serve as a biological model for studying onychomycosis. The films were formed from keratin extracted from human hair using dithiothreitol, urea and thiourea. The obtained keratin extract was dispensed into Teflon rings and dried at 40 °C and then cured at 110 °C. The structure, surface morphology, chemical characterization and thermal stability of the films were characterized and were compared to those of human nail, hair and bovine hoof samples using SDS-electrophoresis, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The structure of the obtained films was found to be closer to human nails than to hair or bovine hooves. The keratin films were infected with Trichophyton rubrum and were proven to be appropriate for serving as a model for studying onychomycosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Marina Nisnevitch
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Ariel University, Kyriat-ha-Mada, Ariel 4070000, Israel; (A.V.); (M.Z.); (A.S.)
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Maciel Quatrin P, Flores Dalla Lana D, Andrzejewski Kaminski TF, Meneghello Fuentefria A. Fungal infection models: Current progress of
ex vivo
methods. Mycoses 2019; 62:860-873. [DOI: 10.1111/myc.12961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2019] [Revised: 05/06/2019] [Accepted: 06/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Priscilla Maciel Quatrin
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Microbiologia Agrícola e do Ambiente Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre Brazil
| | - Daiane Flores Dalla Lana
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre Brazil
| | | | - Alexandre Meneghello Fuentefria
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Microbiologia Agrícola e do Ambiente Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre Brazil
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Mercer DK, Stewart CS. Keratin hydrolysis by dermatophytes. Med Mycol 2019; 57:13-22. [PMID: 29361043 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myx160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Dermatophytes are the most common cause of superficial fungal infections (tinea infections) and are a specialized group of filamentous fungi capable of infecting and degrading keratinised tissues, including skin, hair, and nail. Essential to their pathogenicity and virulence is the production of a broad spectrum of proteolytic enzymes and other key proteins involved in keratin biodegradation and utilization of its breakdown products. The initial stage of biodegradation of native keratin is considered to be sulfitolysis, in which the extensive disulfide bridges present in keratin are hydrolyzed, although some secreted subtilisins can degrade dye-impregnated keratin azure without prior reduction (Sub3 and Sub4). Sulfitolysis facilitates the extracellular biodegradation of keratin by the dermatophytes' extensive array of endo- and exoproteases. The importance of dermatophyte proteases in infection is widely recognized, and these enzymes have also been identified as important virulence determinants and allergens. Finally, the short peptide and amino acid breakdown products are taken up by the dermatophytes, using as yet poorly characterised transporters, and utilized for metabolism. In this review, we describe the process of keratin biodegradation by dermatophytes, with an especial focus on recent developments in cutting edge molecular biology and '-omic' studies that are helping to dissect the complex process of keratin breakdown and utilization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Derry K Mercer
- NovaBiotics Ltd, Cruickshank Building, Craibstone, Aberdeen, AB21 9TR, United Kingdom
| | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
Gnat S, Nowakiewicz A, Łagowski D, Zięba P. Host- and pathogen-dependent susceptibility and predisposition to dermatophytosis. J Med Microbiol 2019; 68:823-836. [PMID: 31050630 DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.000982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Dermatophytes are a highly specialized group of keratinophilic and keratinolytic filamentous fungi causing a ringworm disease called dermatophytosis or superficial mycoses. Although dermatophyte infections do not threaten the host's life, they lower its quality in humans by causing discomfort related to cosmetic problems and through their epidemiological significance, whereas in farm animals they are responsible for economic losses and constitute a source of the spread of spores. Evidence from countless observational studies that have been conducted over the last 90 years indicates that dermatophytes infect humans of every age, race, gender and socioeconomic status with strikingly high rates, as well as both farmed and wild animals in various health conditions and with various epidemiological statuses. However, the prevalence of superficial fungal infections is highly variable, since it depends on several parameters associated with the infected individual and the dermatophyte, their mutual interactions, and epidemiological and geographical factors. The curious disparity in dermatophyte infection patterns has prompted many investigators to search for a link between the host, the host's predispositions and susceptibility to the disease, and the dermatophyte species and virulence. Thus, the question arises as to whether, in addition to the generally recognized factors predisposing hosts to diseases, there are some other predispositions to dermatophyte infections in a species-specific host. In this review, we describe recent findings about the mechanism of dermatophyte infections, focusing on the adaptation of the fungi to the host and conditions predisposing each side to the disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Gnat
- 1 University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Biological Bases of Animal Diseases, Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Akademicka 12, 20-033 Lublin, Poland
| | - Aneta Nowakiewicz
- 1 University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Biological Bases of Animal Diseases, Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Akademicka 12, 20-033 Lublin, Poland
| | - Dominik Łagowski
- 1 University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Biological Bases of Animal Diseases, Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Akademicka 12, 20-033 Lublin, Poland
| | - Przemysław Zięba
- 2 State Veterinary Laboratory, Droga Męczenników Majdanka 50, 20-325 Lublin, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Martinez-Rossi NM, Peres NTA, Rossi A. Pathogenesis of Dermatophytosis: Sensing the Host Tissue. Mycopathologia 2016; 182:215-227. [DOI: 10.1007/s11046-016-0057-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2016] [Accepted: 08/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
|
6
|
Martinez-Rossi NM, Jacob TR, Sanches PR, Peres NTA, Lang EAS, Martins MP, Rossi A. Heat Shock Proteins in Dermatophytes: Current Advances and Perspectives. Curr Genomics 2016; 17:99-111. [PMID: 27226766 PMCID: PMC4864838 DOI: 10.2174/1389202917666151116212437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2015] [Revised: 07/02/2015] [Accepted: 07/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Heat shock proteins (HSPs) are proteins whose transcription responds rapidly to temperature shifts. They constitute a family of molecular chaperones, involved in the proper folding and stabilisation of proteins under physiological and adverse conditions. HSPs also assist in the protection and recovery of cells exposed to a variety of stressful conditions, including heat. The role of HSPs extends beyond chaperoning proteins, as they also participate in diverse cellular functions, such as the assembly of macromolecular complexes, protein transport and sorting, dissociation of denatured protein aggregates, cell cycle control, and programmed cell death. They are also important antigens from a variety of pathogens, are able to stimulate innate immune cells, and are implicated in acquired immunity. In fungi, HSPs have been implicated in virulence, dimorphic transition, and drug resistance. Some HSPs are potential targets for therapeutic strategies. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of HSPs in dermatophytes, which are a group of keratinophilic fungi responsible for superficial mycoses in humans and animals. Computational analyses were performed to characterise the group of proteins in these dermatophytes, as well as to assess their conservation and to identify DNA-binding domains (5′-nGAAn-3′) in the promoter regions of the hsp genes. In addition, the quantification of the transcript levels of few genes in a pacC background helped in the development of an extended model for the regulation of the expression of the hsp genes, which supports the participation of the pH-responsive transcriptional regulator PacC in this process.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nilce M Martinez-Rossi
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Tiago R Jacob
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Pablo R Sanches
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Nalu T A Peres
- Present address: Department of Morphology, Federal University of Sergipe, SE, Brazil
| | - Elza A S Lang
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Maíra P Martins
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Antonio Rossi
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Peres NTDA, Silva LGD, Santos RDS, Jacob TR, Persinoti GF, Rocha LB, Falcão JP, Rossi A, Martinez-Rossi NM. In vitro and ex vivo infection models help assess the molecular aspects of the interaction of Trichophyton rubrum with the host milieu. Med Mycol 2016; 54:420-7. [PMID: 26768373 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myv113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2015] [Accepted: 12/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Dermatophytes are fungal pathogens that cause cutaneous infections such as onychomycosis and athlete's foot in both healthy and immunocompromised patients.Trichophyton rubrum is the most prevalent dermatophyte causing human nail and skin infections worldwide, and because of its anthropophilic nature, animal infection models are limited. The purpose of this work was to compare the expression profile of T. rubrum genes encoding putative virulence factors during growth in ex vivo and in vitro infection models. The efficiency of the ex vivo skin infection model was confirmed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), which showed that the conidia had produced hyphae that penetrated into the epidermis. Quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis showed that the expression of some genes is modulated in response to the infection model used, as compared to that observed in cells grown in glucose-containing media. We concluded that ex vivo infection models help assess the molecular aspects of the interaction of T. rubrum with the host milieu, and thus provide insights into the modulation of genes during infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nalu Teixeira de Aguiar Peres
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Larissa Gomes da Silva
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo da Silva Santos
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Tiago Rinaldi Jacob
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Gabriela Felix Persinoti
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Lenaldo Branco Rocha
- Biological and Natural Sciences Institute, Triângulo Mineiro Federal University, Uberaba, 38025-180, MG, Brazil
| | - Juliana Pfrimer Falcão
- Department of Clinical Analysis, Toxicology and Food Sciences, Ribeirão Preto School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, 14049-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Antonio Rossi
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Nilce Maria Martinez-Rossi
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, SP, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Gene Expression Response of Trichophyton rubrum during Coculture on Keratinocytes Exposed to Antifungal Agents. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2015; 2015:180535. [PMID: 26257814 PMCID: PMC4516844 DOI: 10.1155/2015/180535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2015] [Accepted: 06/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Trichophyton rubrum is the most common causative agent of dermatomycoses worldwide, causing infection in the stratum corneum, nails, and hair. Despite the high prevalence of these infections, little is known about the molecular mechanisms involved in the fungal-host interaction, particularly during antifungal treatment. The aim of this work was to evaluate the gene expression of T. rubrum cocultured with keratinocytes and treated with the flavonoid trans-chalcone and the glycoalkaloid α-solanine. Both substances showed a marked antifungal activity against T. rubrum strain CBS (MIC = 1.15 and 17.8 µg/mL, resp.). Cytotoxicity assay against HaCaT cells produced IC50 values of 44.18 to trans-chalcone and 61.60 µM to α-solanine. The interaction of keratinocytes with T. rubrum conidia upregulated the expression of genes involved in the glyoxylate cycle, ergosterol synthesis, and genes encoding proteases but downregulated the ABC transporter TruMDR2 gene. However, both antifungals downregulated the ERG1 and ERG11, metalloprotease 4, serine proteinase, and TruMDR2 genes. Furthermore, the trans-chalcone downregulated the genes involved in the glyoxylate pathway, isocitrate lyase, and citrate synthase. Considering the urgent need for more efficient and safer antifungals, these results contribute to a better understanding of fungal-host interactions and to the discovery of new antifungal targets.
Collapse
|
9
|
|
10
|
Elsayed MMA. Development of topical therapeutics for management of onychomycosis and other nail disorders: a pharmaceutical perspective. J Control Release 2014; 199:132-44. [PMID: 25481439 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2014] [Revised: 11/14/2014] [Accepted: 11/17/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The human nail plate is a formidable barrier to drug permeation. Development of therapeutics for management of nail diseases thus remains a challenge. This article reviews the current knowledge and recent advances in the field of transungual drug delivery and provides guidance on development of topical/ungual therapeutics for management of nail diseases, with special emphasis on management of onychomycosis, the most common nail disease. Selection of drug candidates, drug delivery approaches, and evaluation of formulations are among the topics discussed. A comprehensive mathematical description for transungual permeation is also introduced.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mustafa M A Elsayed
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Alexandria University, El-Khartoum Square, El-Azarita, Alexandria 21521, Egypt.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Soares LA, de Cássia Orlandi Sardi J, Gullo FP, de Souza Pitangui N, Scorzoni L, Leite FS, Giannini MJSM, Almeida AMF. Anti dermatophytic therapy--prospects for the discovery of new drugs from natural products. Braz J Microbiol 2014; 44:1035-41. [PMID: 24688490 PMCID: PMC3958166 DOI: 10.1590/s1517-83822014005000011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2012] [Accepted: 04/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Millions of people and animals suffer from superficial infections caused by a group of highly specialized filamentous fungi, the dermatophytes, which only infect keratinized structures. With the appearance of AIDS, the incidence of dermatophytosis has increased. Current drug therapy used for these infections is often toxic, long-term, and expensive and has limited effectiveness; therefore, the discovery of new anti dermatophytic compounds is a necessity. Natural products have been the most productive source for new drug development. This paper provides a brief review of the current literature regarding the presence of dermatophytes in immunocompromised patients, drug resistance to conventional treatments and new anti dermatophytic treatments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luciana Arantes Soares
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Estadual Paulista "Júlio Mesquita Filho", Araraquara, SP, Brazil
| | - Janaína de Cássia Orlandi Sardi
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Estadual Paulista "Júlio Mesquita Filho", Araraquara, SP, Brazil
| | - Fernanda Patrícia Gullo
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Estadual Paulista "Júlio Mesquita Filho", Araraquara, SP, Brazil
| | - Nayla de Souza Pitangui
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Estadual Paulista "Júlio Mesquita Filho", Araraquara, SP, Brazil
| | - Liliana Scorzoni
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Estadual Paulista "Júlio Mesquita Filho", Araraquara, SP, Brazil
| | - Fernanda Sangalli Leite
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Estadual Paulista "Júlio Mesquita Filho", Araraquara, SP, Brazil
| | - Maria José Soares Mendes Giannini
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Estadual Paulista "Júlio Mesquita Filho", Araraquara, SP, Brazil
| | - Ana Marisa Fusco Almeida
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Estadual Paulista "Júlio Mesquita Filho", Araraquara, SP, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Lusiana, Reichl S, Müller-Goymann CC. Infected nail plate model made of human hair keratin for evaluating the efficacy of different topical antifungal formulations against Trichophyton rubrum in vitro. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2013; 84:599-605. [PMID: 23419812 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2013.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2012] [Revised: 12/21/2012] [Accepted: 01/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
A novel model of infected nail plate for testing the efficacy of topical antifungal formulations has been developed. This model utilized keratin film made of human hair keratin as a nail plate model. Subsequent to infection by Trichophyton rubrum, the common causative agent of onychomycosis, keratin films as infected nail plate models were treated with selected topical formulations, that is cream, gel, and nail lacquer. Bovine hoof was compared to keratin film. In contrast to the common antifungal susceptibility test, the antifungal drugs tested were applied as ready-to-use formulations because the vehicle may modify and control the drug action both in vitro and in vivo. Extrapolating the potency of an antifungal drug from an in vitro susceptibility test only would not be representative of the in vivo situation since these drugs are applied as ready-to-use formulations, for example as a nail lacquer. Although terbinafine has been acknowledged to be the most effective antifungal agent against T. rubrum, its antifungal efficacy was improved by its incorporation into an optimal formulation. Different gels proved superior to cream. Therefore, this study is able to discriminate between efficacies of different topical antifungal formulations based on their activities against T. rubrum.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lusiana
- Institut für Pharmazeutische Technologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Dermatophyte virulence factors: identifying and analyzing genes that may contribute to chronic or acute skin infections. Int J Microbiol 2011; 2012:358305. [PMID: 21977036 PMCID: PMC3185252 DOI: 10.1155/2012/358305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2011] [Accepted: 08/09/2011] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Dermatophytes are prevalent causes of cutaneous mycoses and, unlike many other fungal pathogens, are able to cause disease in immunocompetent individuals. They infect keratinized tissue such as skin, hair, and nails, resulting in tinea infections, including ringworm. Little is known about the molecular mechanisms that underlie the ability of these organisms to establish and maintain infection. The recent availability of genome sequence information and improved genetic manipulation have enabled researchers to begin to identify and study the role of virulence factors of dermatophytes. This paper will summarize our current understanding of dermatophyte virulence factors and discuss future directions for identifying and testing virulence factors.
Collapse
|
14
|
Antimicrobial activity of Paenibacillus kribbensis POC 115 against the dermatophyte Trichophyton rubrum. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2011; 28:953-62. [DOI: 10.1007/s11274-011-0893-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2011] [Accepted: 09/15/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
|
15
|
|
16
|
Goulart L, Rosa e Silva LK, Chiapello L, Silveira C, Crestani J, Masih D, Vainstein MH. Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii genes preferentially expressed during rat macrophage infection. Med Mycol 2011; 48:932-41. [PMID: 20302549 DOI: 10.3109/13693781003677494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii are encapsulated yeast agents of cryptococcosis and facultative intracellular pathogens. The interaction of these yeasts with macrophages is essential for containing the infection. However, Cryptococcus spp. overcome this initial host defense barrier using a unique pathogenic strategy involving intracellular replication and cytoplasmic accumulation of polysaccharide-containing vesicles. Here, we employed representational difference analysis (RDA) to identify C. neoformans and C. gattii genes differentially expressed during intracellular growth in rat peritoneal macrophages. The upregulated transcripts of C. neoformans during macrophage interaction were related to ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, intra-golgi transport, chaperone activity, ribosomal maintenance, NAD metabolism, histone methylation, stress response, and monosaccharide metabolism. In contrast, with C. gattii, upregulated genes were associated with cell growth, aerobic respiration, protein binding, microtubule nucleation, monosaccharides and nitrogen metabolism, inositol or phosphatidylinositol phosphatase activity, cellular signaling, and stress response. Our findings reveal new genes that may be necessary for the intracellular parasitism of C. neoformans and C. gattii.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Letícia Goulart
- Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Leng W, Liu T, Wang J, Li R, Jin Q. Expression dynamics of secreted protease genes in Trichophyton rubrum induced by key host's proteinaceous components. Med Mycol 2010; 47:759-65. [PMID: 19888809 DOI: 10.3109/13693780802524522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Trichophyton rubrum is the most common agent of dermatophytosis, a disease that affects millions of individuals worldwide. Its molecular pathogenicity mechanisms are still not completely elucidated. It has been widely recognized that proteases secreted by T. rubrum are the key virulence factors during host infection. However, our knowledge about the expression of its secreted proteases in host infection is still obscure. This investigation provides the expression patterns and dynamics of secreted protease genes belonging to the subtilisins (SUB) and metalloproteases (MEP) gene families in T. rubrum. The data was obtained under simulated host infection conditions through relative quantification of real time PCR. Keratin, collagen, and elastin induced the expression of similar protease genes, and the expression patterns and dynamics of these protease genes in media containing human skin sections were different from those in media containing individual protein substrates. According to the expression dynamics of these protease genes, we conclude that Sub3, Sub4, and Mep4 may be the dominant proteases secreted by T. rubrum during host infection, and that these proteases could be good targets for new antifungal chemotherapy and molecular diagnostic markers. This work presents useful molecular details to further our understanding of the pathogenesis of dermatophytosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wenchuan Leng
- State Key Laboratory for Molecular Virology and Genetic Engineering, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, PR China
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Chen J, Yi J, Liu L, Yin S, Chen R, Li M, Ye C, Zhang YQ, Lai W. Substrate adaptation of Trichophyton rubrum secreted endoproteases. Microb Pathog 2009; 48:57-61. [PMID: 20005286 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2009.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2009] [Revised: 11/26/2009] [Accepted: 12/03/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Trichophyton rubrum is the most common pathogen caused the dermatophytosis of nail and skin in human. The secreted proteases were considered to be the most important virulence factors. However, the substrates adaptation of T. rubrum secreted proteases is largely unknown. For the first time, we use the keratins from human nail and skin stratum corneum as the growth medium to investigate the different expression patterns of T. rubrum secreted endoproteases genes. During grow in both keratin-containing media SUB7 and MEP2 were the highest expressed gene in each family. These results indicated that SUB7 and MEP2 may be the dominant endoproteases secreted by T. rubrum during host infection and the other proteases may play a supplementary role. The direct comparison of T. rubrum grown on skin and nail medium showed different substrate favorite of secreted endoproteases. The genes MEP2, SUB5, SUB2 and SUB3 were more active during growth in skin medium, possibly these proteases have a higher affinity for skin original keratins. While the structures of SUB1, SUB4, and MEP4 maybe more suitable for the degradation of nail original keratins. This work presents useful molecular details for further understanding the pathogenesis of secreted proteases and the wide adaptation of T. rubrum.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jian Chen
- Department of Dermatology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, No. 600 TianHe Road, TianHe District, Guangzhou 510630, P.R. China.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
|
20
|
Yamada T. [Molecular approach to pathology of and immunity against dermatophytes]. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 49:293-7. [PMID: 19001756 DOI: 10.3314/jjmm.49.293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Molecular biological studies of the host invasion mechanisms and possible virulence-related factors of dermatophytes have just begun. The identification of individual genes and large-scale investigations of transcripts expressed under different experimental culture conditions have provided useful information on the structure, expression, and regulation of the genes of major dermatophyte species such as Trichophyton rubrum. The next goal of dermatophytosis research will be to elucidate the functions and roles of the identified fungal genes during the infection process. It will also be necessary to investigate the host immune responses to fungal gene expression and regulation during infection. For such research, genetic manipulation techniques for dermatophytes, such as exogenous gene transfer into fungal cells and targeted gene disruption, are indispensable. However, such methods are not yet well established. We have developed an efficient dermatophyte genetic manipulation system using T. mentagrophytes. Here, we present our current research findings, mainly with regard to the system for exogenous gene transfer into T. mentagrophytes cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tsuyoshi Yamada
- Teikyo University Institute of Medical Mycology, Tokyo, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Generating and testing molecular hypotheses in the dermatophytes. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2008; 7:1238-45. [PMID: 18539886 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00100-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
|