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De Santa F, Vitiello L, Torcinaro A, Ferraro E. The Role of Metabolic Remodeling in Macrophage Polarization and Its Effect on Skeletal Muscle Regeneration. Antioxid Redox Signal 2019; 30:1553-1598. [PMID: 30070144 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2017.7420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Significance: Macrophages are crucial for tissue homeostasis. Based on their activation, they might display classical/M1 or alternative/M2 phenotypes. M1 macrophages produce pro-inflammatory cytokines, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and nitric oxide (NO). M2 macrophages upregulate arginase-1 and reduce NO and ROS levels; they also release anti-inflammatory cytokines, growth factors, and polyamines, thus promoting angiogenesis and tissue healing. Moreover, M1 and M2 display key metabolic differences; M1 polarization is characterized by an enhancement in glycolysis and in the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) along with a decreased oxidative phosphorylation (OxPhos), whereas M2 are characterized by an efficient OxPhos and reduced PPP. Recent Advances: The glutamine-related metabolism has been discovered as crucial for M2 polarization. Vice versa, flux discontinuities in the Krebs cycle are considered additional M1 features; they lead to increased levels of immunoresponsive gene 1 and itaconic acid, to isocitrate dehydrogenase 1-downregulation and to succinate, citrate, and isocitrate over-expression. Critical Issues: A macrophage classification problem, particularly in vivo, originating from a gap in the knowledge of the several intermediate polarization statuses between the M1 and M2 extremes, characterizes this field. Moreover, the detailed features of metabolic reprogramming crucial for macrophage polarization are largely unknown; in particular, the role of β-oxidation is highly controversial. Future Directions: Manipulating the metabolism to redirect macrophage polarization might be useful in various pathologies, including an efficient skeletal muscle regeneration. Unraveling the complexity pertaining to metabolic signatures that are specific for the different macrophage subsets is crucial for identifying new compounds that are able to trigger macrophage polarization and that might be used for therapeutical purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca De Santa
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology (IBCN), National Research Council (CNR), Rome, Italy
| | - Laura Vitiello
- Laboratory of Pathophysiology of Cachexia and Metabolism of Skeletal Muscle, IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessio Torcinaro
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology (IBCN), National Research Council (CNR), Rome, Italy.,Department of Biology and Biotechnology "Charles Darwin," Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Ferraro
- Laboratory of Pathophysiology of Cachexia and Metabolism of Skeletal Muscle, IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana, Rome, Italy
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2
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Gaudet RG, Guo CX, Molinaro R, Kottwitz H, Rohde JR, Dangeard AS, Arrieumerlou C, Girardin SE, Gray-Owen SD. Innate Recognition of Intracellular Bacterial Growth Is Driven by the TIFA-Dependent Cytosolic Surveillance Pathway. Cell Rep 2018; 19:1418-1430. [PMID: 28514661 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2017.04.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Revised: 02/12/2017] [Accepted: 04/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) act as sentinels for incoming pathogens. Cytosol-invasive bacteria, such as Shigella flexneri, trigger a robust pro-inflammatory nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) response from IECs that is believed to depend entirely on the peptidoglycan sensor NOD1. We found that, during Shigella infection, the TRAF-interacting forkhead-associated protein A (TIFA)-dependent cytosolic surveillance pathway, which senses the bacterial metabolite heptose-1,7-bisphosphate (HBP), functions after NOD1 to detect bacteria replicating free in the host cytosol. Whereas NOD1 mediated a transient burst of NF-κB activation during bacterial entry, TIFA sensed HBP released during bacterial replication, assembling into large signaling complexes to drive a dynamic inflammatory response that reflected the rate of intracellular bacterial proliferation. Strikingly, IECs lacking TIFA were unable to discriminate between proliferating and stagnant intracellular bacteria, despite the NOD1/2 pathways being intact. Our results define TIFA as a rheostat for intracellular bacterial replication, escalating the immune response to invasive Gram-negative bacteria that exploit the host cytosol for growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan G Gaudet
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Cynthia X Guo
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Raphael Molinaro
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Haila Kottwitz
- Departments of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - John R Rohde
- Departments of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Anne-Sophie Dangeard
- INSERM, U1016, Institut Cochin, CNRS, UMR8104, Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris 75014, France
| | - Cécile Arrieumerlou
- INSERM, U1016, Institut Cochin, CNRS, UMR8104, Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris 75014, France
| | - Stephen E Girardin
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Scott D Gray-Owen
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada.
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3
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Wallet P, Benaoudia S, Mosnier A, Lagrange B, Martin A, Lindgren H, Golovliov I, Michal F, Basso P, Djebali S, Provost A, Allatif O, Meunier E, Broz P, Yamamoto M, Py BF, Faudry E, Sjöstedt A, Henry T. IFN-γ extends the immune functions of Guanylate Binding Proteins to inflammasome-independent antibacterial activities during Francisella novicida infection. PLoS Pathog 2017; 13:e1006630. [PMID: 28968459 PMCID: PMC5624647 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2017] [Accepted: 09/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Guanylate binding proteins (GBPs) are interferon-inducible proteins involved in the cell-intrinsic immunity against numerous intracellular pathogens. The molecular mechanisms underlying the potent antibacterial activity of GBPs are still unclear. GBPs have been functionally linked to the NLRP3, the AIM2 and the caspase-11 inflammasomes. Two opposing models are currently proposed to explain the GBPs-inflammasome link: i) GBPs would target intracellular bacteria or bacteria-containing vacuoles to increase cytosolic PAMPs release ii) GBPs would directly facilitate inflammasome complex assembly. Using Francisella novicida infection, we investigated the functional interactions between GBPs and the inflammasome. GBPs, induced in a type I IFN-dependent manner, are required for the F. novicida-mediated AIM2-inflammasome pathway. Here, we demonstrate that GBPs action is not restricted to the AIM2 inflammasome, but controls in a hierarchical manner the activation of different inflammasomes complexes and apoptotic caspases. IFN-γ induces a quantitative switch in GBPs levels and redirects pyroptotic and apoptotic pathways under the control of GBPs. Furthermore, upon IFN-γ priming, F. novicida-infected macrophages restrict cytosolic bacterial replication in a GBP-dependent and inflammasome-independent manner. Finally, in a mouse model of tularemia, we demonstrate that the inflammasome and the GBPs are two key immune pathways functioning largely independently to control F. novicida infection. Altogether, our results indicate that GBPs are the master effectors of IFN-γ-mediated responses against F. novicida to control antibacterial immune responses in inflammasome-dependent and independent manners. The cell-intrinsic immunity is defined as the mechanisms allowing a host cell infected by an intracellular pathogen to mount effective immune mechanisms to detect and eliminate pathogens without any help from other immune cells. In infected macrophages, the Guanylate Binding Proteins (GBPs) are immune proteins, induced at low levels in a cell autonomous manner by endogenous type I IFN or at high levels following IFN-γ production by innate and adaptive lymphocytes. The antibacterial activity of GBPs has been recently tightly linked to the inflammasomes. Inflammasomes are innate immune complexes leading to inflammatory caspases activation and death of the infected cell. Francisella novicida, a bacterium replicating in the macrophage cytosol, is closely related to F. tularensis, the agent of tularemia and is used as a model to study cytosolic immunity. GBPs contribute to F. novicida lysis within the host cytosol leading to DNA release and AIM2 inflammasome activation. In addition to their regulation of the AIM2 inflammasome, we identified that GBPs also control several other pyroptotic and apoptotic pathways activated in a hierarchical manner. Furthermore, we demonstrate that IFN-γ priming extends GBPs anti-microbial responses from the inflammasome-dependent control of cell death to an inflammasome-independent control of cytosolic bacterial replication. Our results, validated in a mouse model of tularemia, thus segregate the antimicrobial activities of inflammasomes and GBPs as well as highlight GBPs as the master effectors of IFN-γ-mediated cytosolic immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Wallet
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Inserm, U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Univ Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Sacha Benaoudia
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Inserm, U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Univ Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Amandine Mosnier
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Inserm, U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Univ Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Brice Lagrange
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Inserm, U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Univ Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Amandine Martin
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Inserm, U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Univ Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Helena Lindgren
- Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden and Department of Clinical Microbiology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Igor Golovliov
- Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden and Department of Clinical Microbiology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Fanny Michal
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Inserm, U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Univ Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Pauline Basso
- University of Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, ERL5261, CEA, BIG-BCI, Inserm, U1036, Grenoble, France
| | - Sophia Djebali
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Inserm, U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Univ Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Angelina Provost
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Inserm, U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Univ Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Omran Allatif
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Inserm, U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Univ Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Etienne Meunier
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale (IPBS), CNRS, Université Paul Sabatier (UPS), Toulouse, France
| | - Petr Broz
- Focal Area Infection Biology, Biozentrum, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Masahiro Yamamoto
- Department of Immunoparasitology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Bénédicte F. Py
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Inserm, U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Univ Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Eric Faudry
- University of Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, ERL5261, CEA, BIG-BCI, Inserm, U1036, Grenoble, France
| | - Anders Sjöstedt
- Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden and Department of Clinical Microbiology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Thomas Henry
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Inserm, U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Univ Lyon, Lyon, France
- * E-mail:
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Bartel A, Göhler A, Hopf V, Breitbach K. Caspase-6 mediates resistance against Burkholderia pseudomallei infection and influences the expression of detrimental cytokines. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0180203. [PMID: 28686630 PMCID: PMC5501493 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0180203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2016] [Accepted: 02/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Caspase-6 is a member of the executioner caspases and known to play a role in innate and adaptive immune processes. However, its role in infectious diseases has rarely been addressed yet. We here examined the impact of caspase-6 in an in vivo infection model using the Gram-negative rod Burkholderia pseudomallei, causing the infectious disease melioidosis that is endemic in tropical and subtropical areas around the world. Caspase-6-/- and C57BL/6 wild type mice were challenged with B. pseudomallei for comparing mortality, bacterial burden and inflammatory cytokine expression. Bone-marrow derived macrophages were used to analyse the bactericidal activity in absence of caspase-6. Caspase-6 deficiency was associated with higher mortality and bacterial burden in vivo after B. pseudomallei infection. The bactericidal activity of caspase-6-/- macrophages was impaired compared to wild type cells. Caspase-6-/- mice showed higher expression of the IL-1β gene, known to be detrimental in murine melioidosis. Expression of the IL-10 gene was also increased in caspase-6-/- mice as early as 6 hours after infection. Treatment with exogenous IL-10 rendered mice more susceptible against B. pseudomallei challenge. Thus, caspase-6 seems to play a crucial role for determining resistance against the causative agent of melioidosis. To our knowledge this is the first report showing that caspase-6 is crucial for mediating resistance in an in vivo infection model. Caspase-6 influences the expression of detrimental cytokines and therefore seems to be important for achieving a well-balanced immune response that contributes for an efficient elimination of the pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Bartel
- Friedrich Loeffler Institute of Medical Microbiology, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - André Göhler
- Friedrich Loeffler Institute of Medical Microbiology, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Verena Hopf
- Friedrich Loeffler Institute of Medical Microbiology, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Katrin Breitbach
- Friedrich Loeffler Institute of Medical Microbiology, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
- * E-mail:
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5
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Malet JK, Cossart P, Ribet D. Alteration of epithelial cell lysosomal integrity induced by bacterial cholesterol-dependent cytolysins. Cell Microbiol 2016; 19. [PMID: 27739224 PMCID: PMC5347955 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2016] [Revised: 10/07/2016] [Accepted: 10/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial pathogens can interfere during infection with host cell organelles, such as mitochondria, the endoplasmic reticulum‐Golgi system or nuclei. As important cellular functions are often compartmentalized in these organelles, their targeting allows pathogens to manipulate key host functions during infection. Here, we identify lysosomes as a new class of organelles targeted by the pathogenic bacterium Listeria monocytogenes. We demonstrate that extracellular Listeria, via secretion of the pore‐forming toxin listeriolysin O, alters lysosomal integrity in epithelial cells but not in macrophages. Listeriolysin O induces lysosomal membrane permeabilization and release of lysosomal content, such as cathepsins proteases, which remain transiently active in the host cytosol. We furthermore show that other bacterial pore‐forming toxins, such as perfringolysin O and pneumolysin, also induce lysosomes alteration. Together, our data unveil a novel activity of bacterial cholesterol‐dependent cytolysins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Karim Malet
- Unité des Interactions Bactéries-Cellules, Institut Pasteur, F-75015, Paris, France.,Inserm, U604, F-75015, Paris, France.,INRA, USC2020, F-75015, Paris, France.,Univ. Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, F-75015, Paris, France
| | - Pascale Cossart
- Unité des Interactions Bactéries-Cellules, Institut Pasteur, F-75015, Paris, France.,Inserm, U604, F-75015, Paris, France.,INRA, USC2020, F-75015, Paris, France
| | - David Ribet
- Unité des Interactions Bactéries-Cellules, Institut Pasteur, F-75015, Paris, France.,Inserm, U604, F-75015, Paris, France.,INRA, USC2020, F-75015, Paris, France
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6
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Intracellular Shigella remodels its LPS to dampen the innate immune recognition and evade inflammasome activation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:E4345-54. [PMID: 24167293 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1303641110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
LPS is a potent bacterial effector triggering the activation of the innate immune system following binding with the complex CD14, myeloid differentiation protein 2, and Toll-like receptor 4. The LPS of the enteropathogen Shigella flexneri is a hexa-acylated isoform possessing an optimal inflammatory activity. Symptoms of shigellosis are produced by severe inflammation caused by the invasion process of Shigella in colonic and rectal mucosa. Here we addressed the question of the role played by the Shigella LPS in eliciting a dysregulated inflammatory response of the host. We unveil that (i) Shigella is able to modify the LPS composition, e.g., the lipid A and core domains, during proliferation within epithelial cells; (ii) the LPS of intracellular bacteria (iLPS) and that of bacteria grown in laboratory medium differ in the number of acyl chains in lipid A, with iLPS being the hypoacylated; (iii) the immunopotential of iLPS is dramatically lower than that of bacteria grown in laboratory medium; (iv) both LPS forms mainly signal through the Toll-like receptor 4/myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 pathway; (v) iLPS down-regulates the inflammasome-mediated release of IL-1β in Shigella-infected macrophages; and (vi) iLPS exhibits a reduced capacity to prime polymorfonuclear cells for an oxidative burst. We propose a working model whereby the two forms of LPS might govern different steps of the invasive process of Shigella. In the first phases, the bacteria, decorated with hypoacylated LPS, are able to lower the immune system surveillance, whereas, in the late phases, shigellae harboring immunopotent LPS are fully recognized by the immune system, which can then successfully resolve the infection.
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Gadd45α activity is the principal effector of Shigella mitochondria-dependent epithelial cell death in vitro and ex vivo. Cell Death Dis 2011; 2:e122. [PMID: 21368893 PMCID: PMC3101704 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2011.4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Modulation of death is a pathogen strategy to establish residence and promote survival in host cells and tissues. Shigella spp. are human pathogens that invade colonic mucosa, where they provoke lesions caused by their ability to manipulate the host cell responses. Shigella spp. induce various types of cell death in different cell populations. However, they are equally able to protect host cells from death. Here, we have investigated on the molecular mechanisms and cell effectors governing the balance between survival and death in epithelial cells infected with Shigella. To explore these aspects, we have exploited both, the HeLa cell invasion assay and a novel ex vivo human colon organ culture model of infection that mimics natural conditions of shigellosis. Our results definitely show that Shigella induces a rapid intrinsic apoptosis of infected cells, via mitochondrial depolarization and the ensuing caspase-9 activation. Moreover, for the first time we identify the eukaryotic stress-response factor growth arrest and DNA damage 45α as a key player in the induction of the apoptotic process elicited by Shigella in epithelial cells, revealing an unexplored role of this molecule in the course of infections sustained by invasive pathogens.
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Sauer JD, Witte CE, Zemansky J, Hanson B, Lauer P, Portnoy DA. Listeria monocytogenes triggers AIM2-mediated pyroptosis upon infrequent bacteriolysis in the macrophage cytosol. Cell Host Microbe 2010; 7:412-9. [PMID: 20417169 PMCID: PMC2947455 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2010.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 263] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2009] [Revised: 03/03/2010] [Accepted: 03/27/2010] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
A host defense strategy against pathogens is the induction of cell death, thereby eliminating the pathogen's intracellular niche. Pyroptosis, one such form of cell death, is dependent on inflammasome activation. In a genetic screen to identify Listeria monocytogenes mutants that induced altered levels of host cell death, we identified a mutation in lmo2473 that caused hyperstimulation of IL-1beta secretion and pyroptosis following bacteriolysis in the macrophage cytosol. In addition, strains engineered to lyse in the cytosol by expression of both bacteriophage holin and lysin or induced to lyse by treatment with ampicillin stimulated pyroptosis. Pyroptosis was independent of the Nlrp3 and Nlrc4 inflammasome receptors but dependent on the inflammasome adaptor ASC and the cytosolic DNA sensor AIM2. Importantly, wild-type L. monocytogenes were also found to lyse, albeit at low levels, and trigger AIM2-dependent pyroptosis. These data suggested that pyroptosis is triggered by bacterial DNA released during cytosolic lysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- John-Demian Sauer
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720-3202
| | - Chelsea E. Witte
- Graduate Group in Microbiology, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720-3202
| | - Jason Zemansky
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720-3202
| | - Bill Hanson
- Aduro Biotech, Berkeley, California, 94710 United States of America
| | - Peter Lauer
- Aduro Biotech, Berkeley, California, 94710 United States of America
| | - Daniel A. Portnoy
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720-3202
- Graduate Group in Microbiology, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720-3202
- School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720-3202
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