Chicken scavenger receptors and their ligand-induced cellular immune responses

Effect of synbiotic supplementation on production performance and severity of necrotic enteritis in broilers during an experimental necrotic enteritis challenge

To evaluate the efficacy of synbiotic during a necrotic enteritis (NE) infection, a total of 360 day-old chicks were randomly assigned into 4 experimental groups in a 2 × 2 factorial setup: control, challenge, synbiotic (1 g/kg), and challenge + synbiotic, with 6 replicates. NE was induced by gavaging 1 × 104Eimeria maxima oocysts and 1 × 108 CFU/mL of Clostridium perfringens on d 14 (D14) and D19, 20, and 21, respectively. At D35, the NE challenge decreased the BW gain (P < 0.001) and increased feed conversion ratio (P = 0.03), whereas synbiotic supplementation decreased the feed intake (P = 0.04). At D21, NE challenge increased gut permeability (P < 0.001), decreased regulatory T cells (Tregs) in the cecal tonsil (CT) (P = 0.02), increased Tregs in the spleen (P = 0.02), decreased nitric oxide (NO) production in the spleen (P = 0.04) and decreased IL-10 expression in CT (P = 0.02), whereas synbiotic supplementation increased CD4+:CD8+ T cells in the spleen (P < 0.001) and decreased interferon (IFN)-γ expression in the jejunum (P = 0.07), however, synbiotic supplementation during NE challenge decreased mid-gut lesion score (P < 0.001), increased CD4+:CD8+ T cells in CT and decreased IgA production in bile (P < 0.001), compared to the control group. At D28, synbiotic supplementation decreased CD4+:CD8+ T cells in CT (P < 0.001), whereas synbiotic supplementation during NE challenge decreased Tregs in CT (P < 0.001) and increased NO production in the spleen (P = 0.04), compared to the control group. At D35, the NE challenge decreased CD4+:CD8+ T cells in the spleen (P = 0.03), decreased IgA production in bile (P = 0.02), decreased IL-10 expression in CT (P = 0.04), and decreased IL-10 (P = 0.009), IFN-γ (P = 0.03) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (P = 0.02) expression in the jejunum, whereas synbiotic supplementation increased Tregs in the spleen (P = 0.04), compared to control group. Synbiotic supplementation during the NE challenge decreased both IL-1β (P = 0.02) and IFN-γ (P = 0.001) expression in CT, compared to the control group. It can be concluded that synbiotic supplementation increases production performance by decreasing mid-gut lesions and enhancing protective immunity against NE, and efficiency of synbiotic could be improved by blending additional probiotics and prebiotics.

Development of innate immunity in chicken embryos and newly hatched chicks: a disease control perspective

Newly hatched chickens are confronted by a wide array of pathogenic microbes because their adaptive immune defences have limited capabilities to control these pathogens. In such circumstances, and within this age group, innate responses provide a degree of protection. Moreover, as the adaptive immune system is relatively naïve to foreign antigens, synergy with innate defences is critical. This review presents knowledge on the ontogeny of innate immunity in chickens pre-hatch and early post-hatch and provides insights into possible interventions to modulate innate responses early in the life of the bird. As in other vertebrate species, the chicken innate immune system which include cellular mediators, cytokine and chemokine repertoires and molecules involved in antigen detection, develop early in life. Comparison of innate immune systems in newly hatched chickens and mature birds has revealed differences in magnitude and quality, but responses in younger chickens can be boosted using innate immune system modulators. Functional expression of pattern recognition receptors and several defence molecules by innate immune system cells of embryos and newly hatched chicks suggests that innate responses can be modulated at this stage of development to combat pathogens. Improved understanding of innate immune system ontogeny and functionality in chickens is critical for the implementation of sound and safe interventions to provide long-term protection against pathogens. Next-generation tools for studying genetic and epigenetic regulation of genes, functional metagenomics and gene knockouts can be used in the future to explore and dissect the contributions of signalling pathways of innate immunity and to devise more efficacious disease control strategies.

A Bioprocessed Polysaccharide from Lentinus edodes Mycelia Cultures with Turmeric Protects Chicks from a Lethal Challenge of Salmonella Gallinarum

Our previous studies demonstrated that a bioprocessed polysaccharide (BPP) isolated from Lentinus edodes mushroom mycelia cultures supplemented with black rice bran can protect mice against Salmonella lipopolysaccharide-induced endotoxemia and reduce the mortality from Salmonella Typhimurium infection through upregulated T-helper 1 immunity. Here, we report that a BPP from L. edodes mushroom mycelia liquid cultures supplemented with turmeric (referred to as BPP-turmeric) alters chicken macrophage responses against avian-adapted Salmonella Gallinarum and protects chicks against a lethal challenge from Salmonella Gallinarum. In vitro analyses revealed that the water extract of BPP-turmeric (i) changed the protein expression or secretion profile of Salmonella Gallinarum, although it was not bactericidal, (ii) reduced the phagocytic activity of the chicken-derived macrophage cell line HD-11 when infected with Salmonella Gallinarum, and (iii) significantly activated the transcription expression of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-10, tumor necrosis factor α, and inducible nitric oxide synthase in response to various Salmonella infections, whereas it repressed that of IL-4, IL-6, interferon-β, and interferon-γ. We also found that BPP-turmeric (0.1 g/kg of feed) as a feed additive provided significant protection to 1-day-old chicks infected with a lethal dose of Salmonella Gallinarum. Collectively, these results imply that BPP-turmeric contains biologically active component(s) that protect chicks against Salmonella Gallinarum infection, possibly by regulating macrophage immune responses. Further studies are needed to evaluate the potential efficacy of BPP-turmeric as a livestock feed additive for the preharvest control of fowl typhoid or foodborne salmonellosis.

Hormetic response triggers multifaceted anti-oxidant strategies in immature king penguins (Aptenodytes patagonicus)

Repeated deep dives are highly pro-oxidative events for air-breathing aquatic foragers such as penguins. At fledging, the transition from a strictly terrestrial to a marine lifestyle may therefore trigger a complex set of anti-oxidant responses to prevent chronic oxidative stress in immature penguins but these processes are still undefined. By combining in vivo and in vitro approaches with transcriptome analysis, we investigated the adaptive responses of sea-acclimatized (SA) immature king penguins (Aptenodytes patagonicus) compared with pre-fledging never-immersed (NI) birds. In vivo, experimental immersion into cold water stimulated a higher thermogenic response in SA penguins than in NI birds, but both groups exhibited hypothermia, a condition favouring oxidative stress. In vitro, the pectoralis muscles of SA birds displayed increased oxidative capacity and mitochondrial protein abundance but unchanged reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation per g tissue because ROS production per mitochondria was reduced. The genes encoding oxidant-generating proteins were down-regulated in SA birds while mRNA abundance and activity of the main antioxidant enzymes were up-regulated. Genes encoding proteins involved in repair mechanisms of oxidized DNA or proteins and in degradation processes were also up-regulated in SA birds. Sea life also increased the degree of fatty acid unsaturation in muscle mitochondrial membranes resulting in higher intrinsic susceptibility to ROS. Oxidative damages to protein or DNA were reduced in SA birds. Repeated experimental immersions of NI penguins in cold-water partially mimicked the effects of acclimatization to marine life, modified the expression of fewer genes related to oxidative stress but in a similar way as in SA birds and increased oxidative damages to DNA. It is concluded that the multifaceted plasticity observed after marine life may be crucial to maintain redox homeostasis in active tissues subjected to high pro-oxidative pressure in diving birds. Initial immersions in cold-water may initiate an hormetic response triggering essential changes in the adaptive antioxidant response to marine life.

The avian heterophil

Heterophils play an indispensable role in the immune defense of the avian host. To accomplish this defense, heterophils use sophisticated mechanisms to both detect and destroy pathogenic microbes. Detection of pathogens through the toll-like receptors (TLR), FC and complement receptors, and other pathogen recognition receptors has been recently described for the avian heterophil. Upon detection of pathogens, the avian heterophil, through a network of intracellular signaling pathways and the release and response to cytokines and chemokines, responds using a repertoire of microbial killing mechanisms including production of an oxidative burst, cellular degranulation, and production of extracellular matrices of DNA and histones (HETs). In this review, the authors describe the recent advances in our understanding of the avian heterophil, its functions, receptors and signaling, identified antimicrobial products, cytokine and chemokine production, and some of the effects of genetic selection on heterophils and their functional characteristics.

A comparative study on invasion, survival, modulation of oxidative burst, and nitric oxide responses of macrophages (HD11), and systemic infection in chickens by prevalent poultry Salmonella serovars

Poultry is a major reservoir for foodborne Salmonella serovars. Salmonella Typhimurium, Salmonella Enteritidis, Salmonella Heidelberg, Salmonella Kentucky, and Salmonella Senftenberg are the most prevalent serovars in U.S. poultry. Information concerning the interactions between different Salmonella species and host cells in poultry is lacking. In the present study, the above mentioned Salmonella serovars were examined for invasion, intracellular survival, and their ability to modulate oxidative burst and nitric oxide (NO) responses in chicken macrophage HD11 cells. All Salmonella serovars demonstrated similar capacity to invade HD11 cells. At 24 h post-infection, a 36-43% reduction of intracellular bacteria, in log(10)(CFU), was observed for Salmonella Typhimurium, Salmonella Heidelberg, Salmonella Kentucky, and Salmonella Senftenberg, whereas a significantly lower reduction (16%) was observed for Salmonella Enteritidis, indicating its higher resistance to the killing by HD11 cells. Production of NO was completely diminished in HD11 cells infected with Salmonella Typhimurium and Salmonella Enteritidis, but remained intact when infected with Salmonella Heidelberg, Salmonella Kentucky, and Salmonella Senftenberg. Phorbol myristate acetate-stimulated oxidative burst in HD11 cells was greatly impaired after infection by each of the five serovars. When newly hatched chickens were challenged orally, a high rate (86-98%) of systemic infection (Salmonella positive in liver/spleen) was observed in birds challenged with Salmonella Typhimurium, Salmonella Enteritidis, Salmonella Heidelberg, and Salmonella Kentucky, while only 14% of the birds were Salmonella Senftenberg positive. However, there was no direct correlation between systemic infection and in vitro differential intracellular survival and modulation of NO response among the tested serovars.

Immune dynamics following infection of avian macrophages and epithelial cells with typhoidal and non-typhoidal Salmonella enterica serovars; bacterial invasion and persistence, nitric oxide and oxygen production, differential host gene expression, NF-κB signalling and cell cytotoxicity

Poultry-derived food is a common source of infection of human with the non-host-adapted salmonellae while fowl typhoid and pullorum disease are serious diseases in poultry. Development of novel immune-based control strategies against Salmonella infection necessitates a better understanding of the host-pathogen interactions at the cellular level. Intestinal epithelial cells are the first line of defence against enteric infections and the role of macrophages is crucial in Salmonella infection and pathogenesis. While gene expression following Salmonella infection has been investigated, a comparison between different serovars has not been, as yet, extensively studied in poultry. In this study, chicken macrophage-like cells (HD11) and chick kidney epithelial cells (CKC) were used to study and compare the immune responses and mechanisms that develop after infection with different Salmonella serotypes. Salmonella serovars Typhimurium, Enteritidis, Hadar and Infantis showed a greater level of invasion and/or uptake characters when compared with S. Pullorum or S. Gallinarum. Nitrate and reactive oxygen species were greater in Salmonella-infected HD11 cells with the expression of iNOS and nuclear factor-κB by chicken macrophages infected with both systemic and broad host range serovars. HD11 cells revealed higher mRNA gene expression for CXCLi2, IL-6 and iNOS genes in response to S. Enteritidis infection when compared to S. Pullorum-infected cells. S. Typhimurium- and S. Hadar-infected HD11 showed higher gene expression for CXCLi2 versus S. Pullorum-infected cells. Higher mRNA gene expression levels of pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-6, chemokines CXCLi1 and CXCLi2 and iNOS genes were detected in S. Typhimurium- and S. Enteritidis-infected CKC followed by S. Hadar and S. Infantis while no significant changes were observed in S. Pullorum or S. Gallinarum-infected CKC.

Effects of avian triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells (TREM-A1) activation on heterophil functional activities

A class of innate receptors called the triggering receptors expressed on myeloid cells (TREM) has been discovered and shown to be involved in innate inflammatory responses. The TREM family has been found in the chicken genome and consists of one activating gene (TREM-A1) and two inhibitory genes (TREM-B1 and TREM-B2). However, to date, there have been no reports on the effects of activating the TREM molecules on the functional activity of the primary avian polymorphonuclear cell, the heterophil. To characterize the activation of avian heterophils, we evaluated the effect of receptor ligation on heterophil effector functions. A specific agonistic antibody (Ab) was generated against the peptide sequence of chicken TREM-A1 38-51aa (YNPRQQRWREKSWC). To study TREM-A1 mediated activation, purified peripheral blood heterophils were incubated with various concentrations of the anti-TREM-A1 Ab or control Ab against an irrelevant antigen. Activation via TREM-A1 induces a significant increase in phagocytosis of Salmonella enteritidis, a rapid degranulation, and a dramatic up-regulation in gene expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokine, IL-6, and the inflammatory chemokine, CXCLi2. However, we found no direct TREM-A1 stimulation of the heterophil oxidative burst. Like mammalian TREM, avian TREM-A1 ligation synergizes with the activation of Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4) ligand, LPS. In addition, the synergistic activity of LPS and TREM-A1 resulted in a significantly (p⩽0.05) increased production of an oxidative burst. Taken together, these results suggest, unlike in mammalian neutrophils, TREM-A1 engagement activates a differential functional activation of avian heterophils, but like mammalian neutrophils, acts in synergy with TLR agonists. These results provide evidence of the function of TREM-A1 in heterophil biology and avian innate immunity.

Modulation of chicken macrophage effector function by T(H)1/T(H)2 cytokines

Regulation of macrophage activity by T(H)1/2 cytokines is important to maintain the balance of immunity to provide adequate protective immunity while avoiding excessive inflammation. IFN-γ and IL-4 are the hallmark T(H)1 and T(H)2 cytokines, respectively. In avian species, information concerning regulation of macrophage activity by T(H)1/2 cytokines is limited. Here, we investigated the regulatory function of chicken T(H)1 cytokines IFN-γ, IL-18 and T(H)2 cytokines IL-4, IL-10 on the HD11 macrophage cell line. Chicken IFN-γ stimulated nitric oxide (NO) synthesis in HD11 cells and primed the cells to produce significantly greater amounts of NO when exposed to microbial agonists, lipopolysaccharide, lipoteichoic acid, peptidoglycan, CpG-ODN, and poly I:C. In contrast, chicken IL-4 exhibited bi-directional immune regulatory activity: it activated macrophage NO synthesis in the absence of inflammatory agonists, but inhibited NO production by macrophages in response to microbial agonists. Both IFN-γ and IL-4, however, enhanced oxidative burst activity of the HD11 cells when exposed to Salmonella enteritidis. IL-18 and IL-10 did not affect NO production nor oxidative burst in HD11 cells. Phagocytosis and bacterial killing by the HD11 cells were not affected by the treatments of these cytokines. Infection of HD11 cells with S.enteritidis was shown to completely abolish NO production regardless of IFN-γ treatment. This study has demonstrated that IFN-γ and IL-4 are important T(H)1 and T(H)2 cytokines that regulate macrophage function in chickens.

Immunopathology and cytokine responses in commercial broiler chickens with gangrenous dermatitis

Gangrenous dermatitis (GD) is an emerging disease of increasing economic importance in poultry resulting from infection by Clostridium septicum and Clostridium perfringens type A. Lack of a reproducible disease model has been a major obstacle in understanding the immunopathology of GD. To gain better understanding of host-pathogen interactions in GD infection, we evaluated various immune parameters in two groups of birds from a recent commercial outbreak of GD, the first showing typical disease signs and pathological lesions (GD-like birds) and the second lacking clinical signs (GD-free birds). Our results revealed that GD-like birds showed: reduced T-cell and B-cell mitogen-stimulated lymphoproliferation; higher levels of serum nitric oxide and alpha-1-acid glycoprotein; greater numbers of K55(+), K1(+), CD8(+), and MHC class II(+) intradermal lymphocytes, and increased K55(+), K1(+), CD8(+), TCR1(+), TCR2(+), Bu1(+), and MHC class II(+) intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes; and increased levels of mRNAs encoding proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines in skin compared with GD-free chickens. These results provide the first evidence of altered systemic and local (skin and intestine) immune responses in GD pathogenesis in chickens.