The vesicular monoamine transporter 2: an underexplored pharmacological target

Biogenic Amine Metabolism and Its Genetic Variations in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Comprehensive Overview

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a genetically heterogeneous syndrome characterized by repetitive, restricted, and stereotyped behaviors, along with persistent difficulties with social interaction and communication. Despite its increasing prevalence globally, the underlying pathogenic mechanisms of this complex neurodevelopmental disorder remain poorly understood. Therefore, the identification of reliable biomarkers could play a crucial role in enabling early screening and more precise classification of ASD subtypes, offering valuable insights into its physiopathology and aiding the customization of treatment or early interventions. Biogenic amines, including serotonin, histamine, dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, and polyamines, are a class of organic compounds mainly produced by the decarboxylation of amino acids. A substantial portion of the genetic variation observed in ASD has been linked to genes that are either directly or indirectly involved in the metabolism of biogenic amines. Their potential involvement in ASD has become an area of growing interest due to their pleiotropic activities in the central nervous system, where they act as both neurotransmitters and neuromodulators or hormones. This review examines the role of biogenic amines in ASD, with a particular focus on genetic alterations in the enzymes responsible for their synthesis and degradation.

Epigenetic regulation-mediated disorders in dopamine transporter endocytosis: A novel mechanism for the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease

Mechanisms such as DNA methylation, histone modifications, and non-coding RNA regulation may impact the endocytosis of dopamine transporter (DAT) by influencing processes like neuronal survival, thereby contributing to the initiation and progression of Parkinson's Disease (PD). Some small molecule inhibitors or natural bioactive compounds have the potential to modulate epigenetic processes, thereby reversing induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) reprogramming and abnormal differentiation, offering potential therapeutic effects for PD. Although no specific DNA modification enzyme directly regulates DAT endocytosis, enzymes such as DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) may indirectly influence DAT endocytosis by regulating the expression of genes associated with this process. DNA modifications impact DAT endocytosis by modulating key signaling pathways, including the (protein kinase C) PKC and D2 receptor (D2R) pathways. Key enzymes involved in RNA modifications that influence DAT endocytosis include m6A methyltransferases and other related enzymes. This regulation impacts the synthesis and function of proteins involved in DAT endocytosis, thereby indirectly affecting the process itself. RNA modifications regulate DAT endocytosis through various indirect pathways, as well as histone modifications. Key enzymes influence the expression of genes associated with DAT endocytosis by modulating the chromatin's accessibility and compaction state. These enzymes control the expression of proteins involved in regulating endocytosis, promoting endosome formation, and facilitating recycling processes. Through the modulation exerted by these enzymes, the speed of DAT endocytosis and recycling patterns are indirectly regulated, establishing a crucial epigenetic control point for the regulation of neurotransmitter transport. Based on this understanding, we anticipate that targeting these processes could lead to favorable therapeutic effects for early PD pathogenesis.

L-Arginine and Intermittent Hypoxia Are Stress-Limiting Factors in Male Wistar Rat Models

The aim of this study was to evaluate the combined effects of L-arginine, intermittent hypoxia training (IHT), and acute stress on oxygen-dependent processes in rats, including mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, microsomal oxidation, and the intensity of lipoperoxidation processes. In addition, our study investigated how the modulatory effect of the NO synthase mechanism on the concentration of catecholamines (CA), such as adrenaline and noradrenaline, and their biosynthetic precursors (DOPA, dopamine) varies depending on the cholinergic (acetylcholine, Ach-acetylcholinesterase, AChE) status in rats. This study investigated the protective stress-limiting effects of L-arginine impact and IHT in the blood and liver of rats. The results showed that L-arginine promoted the maintenance of NAD-dependent oxidation in mitochondria, which was detrimental compared to succinate oxidation, and was accompanied by depletion of respiratory activity reserves under stress induced by high concentrations of CA. The interdependence of SC-dependent oxidation and the functional role of NAD-dependent substrate oxidation in the mitochondrial respiratory chain in stress conditions induced using inhibitors revealed the importance of the NO system. Administration of L-arginine during the IHT course prior to stress exposure increased the compensatory capacity of the organism. L-arginine increased the compensatory capacity of the sympathoadrenal system in stress-exposed rats. In the early stages of IHT, modulation of the CA concentration was observed with a concomitant increase in lipoperoxidation processes, and in the final stages of IHT, the CA concentrations increased, but there was also an inhibition of lipoperoxidation, which was particularly enhanced by the administration of L-arginine. The increase in blood concentrations of CA and ACh was accompanied by a decrease in AChE activity at different stages of adaptation to hypoxia induced by IHT (days 5, 10, and 14). Thus, the IHT method significantly mobilises the reserve capacity of oxygen-dependent processes through the system of CA, ACh-AChE mediated by nitric oxide.

Efficacy and Safety of Valbenazine in Elderly and Nonelderly Japanese Patients With Tardive Dyskinesia: A Post Hoc Analysis of the J-KINECT Study

PURPOSE

The efficacy and safety of valbenazine, a selective vesicular monoamine transporter 2 inhibitor, has been confirmed for treatment of tardive dyskinesia (TD) in patients aged ≥65 years in non-Asian clinical trials; however, data are lacking in elderly Asian patients. This post hoc analysis of J-KINECT aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of valbenazine in elderly Japanese patients with TD.

METHODS

J-KINECT was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study with a 6-week double-blind, placebo-controlled period; 42-week double-blind, valbenazine extension period; and 4-week posttreatment observation period. Outcomes were summarized by age (≥65 years [elderly] and <65 [nonelderly]) and treatment group.

RESULTS

The safety analysis set included 100 and 153 patients aged ≥65 and <65 years, respectively (intention-to-treat set: 98 and 151 patients, respectively). In the elderly group, the difference versus placebo in least-squares mean change from baseline in the Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale total score at week 6 was -3.1 (95% confidence interval: -4.5, -1.7) and -5.5 (-7.0, -3.9) with valbenazine 40 and 80 mg, respectively; in the nonelderly group, respective differences were -1.5 (-2.6, -0.4) and -2.5 (-3.6, -1.3). Both age groups showed improvement in Clinical Global Impression of Change-Tardive Dyskinesia scores with valbenazine. The incidence of treatment-emergent adverse events (TEAEs) leading to treatment discontinuation was higher in the elderly versus nonelderly group. There was no trend toward higher incidences of TEAEs or related TEAEs in the elderly group.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that valbenazine may be used effectively and safely as a treatment for TD, even in elderly patients.

Tricyclic and tetracyclic antidepressants upregulate VMAT2 activity and rescue disease-causing VMAT2 variants

Vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) is an essential transporter that regulates brain monoamine transmission and is important for mood, cognition, motor activity, and stress regulation. However, VMAT2 remains underexplored as a pharmacological target. In this study, we report that tricyclic and tetracyclic antidepressants acutely inhibit, but persistently upregulate VMAT2 activity by promoting VMAT2 protein maturation. Importantly, the VMAT2 upregulation effect was greater in BE(2)-M17 cells that endogenously express VMAT2 as compared to a heterologous expression system (HEK293). The net sustained effect of tricyclics and tetracyclics is an upregulation of VMAT2 activity, despite their acute inhibitory effect. Furthermore, imipramine and mianserin, two representative compounds, also demonstrated rescue of nine VMAT2 variants that cause Brain Monoamine Vesicular Transport Disease (BMVTD). VMAT2 upregulation could be beneficial for disorders associated with reduced monoamine transmission, including mood disorders and BMVTD, a rare but often fatal condition caused by a lack of functional VMAT2. Our findings provide the first evidence that small molecules can upregulate VMAT2 and have potential therapeutic benefit for various neuropsychiatric conditions.

Profiling deutetrabenazine extended-release tablets for tardive dyskinesia and chorea associated with Huntington's disease

INTRODUCTION

Tardive dyskinesia (TD) and Huntington's disease (HD)-associated chorea are persistent and disabling hyperkinetic disorders that can be treated with vesicular monoamine transporter type 2 (VMAT2) inhibitors, including the recently approved once-daily (QD) formulation of deutetrabenazine (DTBZ ER). While its efficacy and safety profile have not been directly investigated, currently available data confirms bioequivalence and similar bioavailability to the twice-daily formulation (DTBZ BID).

AREAS COVERED

The authors briefly review the pivotal trials establishing efficacy of DTBZ for TD and HD-associated chorea, the pharmacokinetic data for bioequivalence between QD and BID dosing of DTBZ, as well as dose proportionality evidence, titration recommendations, and safety profile for DTBZ ER.

EXPERT OPINION

Long-term data show that DTBZ is efficacious and well tolerated for the treatment of TD and HD-associated chorea. DTBZ ER likely demonstrates therapeutic equivalence with no new safety signals. Due to the lack of comparative clinical trial data, no evidence-based recommendation about choice of VMAT2 inhibitor or switching between VMAT2 inhibitors can be made about best practice. Ultimately, QD dosing may offer the chance of improved medication adherence, an important consideration in patients with complex treatment regimens and/or patients with cognitive decline.

Chronic Cocaine Use and Parkinson's Disease: An Interpretative Model

Over the years, the growing "epidemic" spread of cocaine use represents a crucial public health and social problem worldwide. According to the 2023 World Drug Report, 0.4% of the world's population aged 15 to 64 report using cocaine; this number corresponds to approximately 24.6 million cocaine users worldwide and approximately 1 million subjects with cocaine use disorder (CUD). While we specifically know the short-term side effects induced by cocaine, unfortunately, we currently do not have exhaustive information about the medium/long-term side effects of the substance on the body. The scientific literature progressively highlights that the chronic use of cocaine is related to an increase in cardio- and cerebrovascular risk and probably to a greater incidence of psychomotor symptoms and neurodegenerative processes. Several studies have highlighted an increased risk of antipsychotic-induced extrapyramidal symptoms (EPSs) in patients with psychotic spectrum disorders comorbid with psychostimulant abuse. EPSs include movement dysfunction such as dystonia, akathisia, tardive dyskinesia, and characteristic symptoms of Parkinsonism such as rigidity, bradykinesia, and tremor. In the present paper, we propose a model of interpretation of the neurobiological mechanisms underlying the hypothesized increased vulnerability in chronic cocaine abusers to neurodegenerative disorders with psychomotor symptoms. Specifically, we supposed that the chronic administration of cocaine produces significant neurobiological changes, causing a complex dysregulation of various neurotransmitter systems, mainly affecting subcortical structures and the dopaminergic pathways. We believe that a better understanding of these cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in cocaine-induced neuropsychotoxicity may have helpful clinical implications and provide targets for therapeutic intervention.

Sink or swim: Does a worm paralysis phenotype hold clues to neurodegenerative disease?

Receiving a neurodegenerative disease (NDD) diagnosis, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, is devastating, particularly given the limited options for treatment. Advances in genetic technologies have allowed for efficient modeling of NDDs in animals and brought hope for new disease-modifying medications. The complexity of the mammalian brain and the costs and time needed to identify and develop therapeutic leads limits progress. Modeling NDDs in invertebrates, such as the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster and the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, offers orders of magnitude increases in speed of genetic analysis and manipulation, and can be pursued at substantially reduced cost, providing an important, platform complement and inform research with mammalian NDD models. In this review, we describe how our efforts to exploit C. elegans for the study of neural signaling and health led to the discovery of a paralytic phenotype (swimming-induced paralysis) associated with altered dopamine signaling and, surprisingly, to the discovery of a novel gene and pathway whose dysfunction in glial cells triggers neurodegeneration. Research to date on swip-10 and its putative mammalian ortholog MBLAC1, suggests that a tandem analysis will offer insights into NDD mechanisms and insights into novel, disease-modifying therapeutics.

Synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2C enhances vesicular storage of dopamine and counters dopaminergic toxicity

Dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra exist in a persistent state of vulnerability resulting from high baseline oxidative stress, high-energy demand, and broad unmyelinated axonal arborisations. Impairments in the storage of dopamine compound this stress because of cytosolic reactions that transform the vital neurotransmitter into an endogenous neurotoxicant, and this toxicity is thought to contribute to the dopamine neuron degeneration that occurs Parkinson's disease. We have previously identified synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2C (SV2C) as a modifier of vesicular dopamine function, demonstrating that genetic ablation of SV2C in mice results in decreased dopamine content and evoked dopamine release in the striatum. Here, we adapted a previously published in vitro assay utilising false fluorescent neurotransmitter 206 (FFN206) to visualise how SV2C regulates vesicular dopamine dynamics and determined that SV2C promotes the uptake and retention of FFN206 within vesicles. In addition, we present data indicating that SV2C enhances the retention of dopamine in the vesicular compartment with radiolabelled dopamine in vesicles isolated from immortalised cells and from mouse brain. Further, we demonstrate that SV2C enhances the ability of vesicles to store the neurotoxicant 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+) and that genetic ablation of SV2C results in enhanced 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced vulnerability in mice. Together, these findings suggest that SV2C functions to enhance vesicular storage of dopamine and neurotoxicants and helps maintain the integrity of dopaminergic neurons.

Transport and inhibition mechanisms of human VMAT2

Vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) accumulates monoamines in presynaptic vesicles for storage and exocytotic release, and has a vital role in monoaminergic neurotransmission1-3. Dysfunction of monoaminergic systems causes many neurological and psychiatric disorders, including Parkinson's disease, hyperkinetic movement disorders and depression4-6. Suppressing VMAT2 with reserpine and tetrabenazine alleviates symptoms of hypertension and Huntington's disease7,8, respectively. Here we describe cryo-electron microscopy structures of human VMAT2 complexed with serotonin and three clinical drugs at 3.5-2.8 Å, demonstrating the structural basis for transport and inhibition. Reserpine and ketanserin occupy the substrate-binding pocket and lock VMAT2 in cytoplasm-facing and lumen-facing states, respectively, whereas tetrabenazine binds in a VMAT2-specific pocket and traps VMAT2 in an occluded state. The structures in three distinct states also reveal the structural basis of the VMAT2 transport cycle. Our study establishes a structural foundation for the mechanistic understanding of substrate recognition, transport, drug inhibition and pharmacology of VMAT2 while shedding light on the rational design of potential therapeutic agents.

Tricyclic and tetracyclic antidepressants upregulate VMAT2 activity and rescue disease-causing VMAT2 variants

Vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) is an essential transporter that regulates brain monoamine transmission and is important for mood, cognition, motor activity, and stress regulation. However, VMAT2 remains underexplored as a pharmacological target. In this study, we report that tricyclic and tetracyclic antidepressants acutely inhibit, but persistently upregulate VMAT2 activity by promoting VMAT2 protein maturation. Importantly, the VMAT2 upregulation effect was greater in BE(2)-M17 cells that endogenously express VMAT2 as compared to a heterologous expression system (HEK293). The net sustained effect of tricyclics and tetracyclics is an upregulation of VMAT2 activity, despite their acute inhibitory effect. Furthermore, imipramine and mianserin, two representative compounds, also demonstrated rescue of nine VMAT2 variants that cause Brain Vesicular Monoamine Transport Disease (BVMTD). VMAT2 upregulation could be beneficial for disorders associated with reduced monoamine transmission, including mood disorders and BVMTD, a rare but often fatal condition caused by a lack of functional VMAT2. Our findings provide the first evidence that small molecules can upregulate VMAT2 and have potential therapeutic benefit for various neuropsychiatric conditions.

Animal models of Parkinson's disease: bridging the gap between disease hallmarks and research questions

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor and non-motor symptoms. More than 200 years after its first clinical description, PD remains a serious affliction that affects a growing proportion of the population. Prevailing treatments only alleviate symptoms; there is still neither a cure that targets the neurodegenerative processes nor therapies that modify the course of the disease. Over the past decades, several animal models have been developed to study PD. Although no model precisely recapitulates the pathology, they still provide valuable information that contributes to our understanding of the disease and the limitations of our treatment options. This review comprehensively summarizes the different animal models available for Parkinson's research, with a focus on those induced by drugs, neurotoxins, pesticides, genetic alterations, α-synuclein inoculation, and viral vector injections. We highlight their characteristics and ability to reproduce PD-like phenotypes. It is essential to realize that the strengths and weaknesses of each model and the induction technique at our disposal are determined by the research question being asked. Our review, therefore, seeks to better aid researchers by ensuring a concrete discernment of classical and novel animal models in PD research.

Synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2C enhances vesicular storage of dopamine and counters dopaminergic toxicity

Dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra exist in a persistent state of vulnerability resulting from high baseline oxidative stress, high energy demand, and broad unmyelinated axonal arborizations. Impairments in the storage of dopamine compound this stress due to cytosolic reactions that transform the vital neurotransmitter into an endogenous neurotoxicant, and this toxicity is thought to contribute to the dopamine neuron degeneration that occurs Parkinson's disease. We have previously identified synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2C (SV2C) as a modifier of vesicular dopamine function, demonstrating that genetic ablation of SV2C in mice results in decreased dopamine content and evoked dopamine release in the striatum. Here, we adapted a previously published in vitro assay utilizing false fluorescent neurotransmitter 206 (FFN206) to visualize how SV2C regulates vesicular dopamine dynamics and determined that SV2C promotes the uptake and retention of FFN206 within vesicles. In addition, we present data indicating that SV2C enhances the retention of dopamine in the vesicular compartment with radiolabeled dopamine in vesicles isolated from immortalized cells and from mouse brain. Further, we demonstrate that SV2C enhances the ability of vesicles to store the neurotoxicant 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+) and that genetic ablation of SV2C results in enhanced 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced vulnerability in mice. Together, these findings suggest that SV2C functions to enhance vesicular storage of dopamine and neurotoxicants, and helps maintain the integrity of dopaminergic neurons.

L-DOPA Improves Ventilation but Not the Ventilatory Response to Hypercapnia in a Reserpine Model of Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurological disorder characterized by progressive degeneration of the substantia nigra that affects mainly movement control. However, pathological changes associated with the development of PD may also alter respiration and can lead to chronic episodes of hypoxia and hypercapnia. The mechanism behind impaired ventilation in PD is unclear. Therefore, in this study, we explore the hypercapnic ventilatory response in a reproducible reserpine-induced (RES) model of PD and parkinsonism. We also investigated how dopamine supplementation with L-DOPA, a classic drug used to treat PD, would affect the breathing and respiratory response to hypercapnia. Reserpine treatment resulted in decreased normocapnic ventilation and behavioral changes manifested as low physical activity and exploratory behavior. The respiratory rate and the minute ventilation response to hypercapnia were significantly higher in sham rats compared to the RES group, while the tidal volume response was lower. All of this appears to be due to reduced baseline ventilation values produced by reserpine. L-DOPA reversed reduced ventilation, indicating a stimulatory effect of DA on breathing, and showed the potency of DA supplementation in restoring normal respiratory activity.

Pancreatic sympathetic innervation disturbance in type 1 diabetes

Pancreatic sympathetic innervation can directly affect the function of islet. The disorder of sympathetic innervation in islets during the occurrence of type 1 diabetes (T1D) has been reported to be controversial with the inducing factor unclarified. Several studies have uncovered the critical role that sympathetic signals play in controlling the local immune system. The survival and operation of endocrine cells can be regulated by immune cell infiltration in islets. In the current review, we focused on the impact of sympathetic signals working on islets cell regulation, and discussed the potential factors that can induce the sympathetic innervation disorder in the islets. We also summarized the effect of interference with the islet sympathetic signals on the T1D occurrence. Overall, complete understanding of the regulatory effect of sympathetic signals on islet cells and local immune system could facilitate to design better strategies to control inflammation and protect β cells in T1D therapy.

Discontinuation of methylphenidate after long-term exposure in nonhuman primates

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common human neurobehavioral disorder that usually begins in early childhood. Methylphenidate (MPH) has been used extensively as a first-line medicine for the treatment of ADHD. Since ADHD is often diagnosed in early childhood and can persist for the entire lifespan, individuals may take MPH for many years. Given that in the course of one's lifetime a person may stop taking MPH for periods of time, or may implement lifestyle changes that may reduce the need for MPH entirely, it is important to understand how cessation of MPH affects the adult brain following long-term use of MPH. The blockage of the dopamine transporter (DAT) and the norepinephrine transporter (NET) by MPH may help with ADHD symptoms by boosting monoamine levels in the synapse. In the present study, microPET/CT was used to investigate possible neurochemical alterations in the cerebral dopamine system after cessation of long-term MPH administration in nonhuman primates. MicroPET/CT images were collected from adult male rhesus monkeys 6 months after they stopped receiving vehicle or MPH following 12 years of chronic treatment. The neurochemical status of brain dopaminergic systems was evaluated using the vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) ligand [¹⁸F]-AV-133 and a tracer for imaging dopamine subtype 2 (D₂) and serotonin subfamily 2 (5HT₂) receptors, [¹⁸F]-FESP. Each tracer was injected intravenously and ten minutes later microPET/CT images were obtained over 120 min. The binding potential (BP) of each tracer in the striatum was obtained using the Logan reference tissue model with the cerebellar cortex time activity curve (TAC) as an input function. Brain metabolism was also evaluated using microPET/CT images of [¹⁸F]-FDG. [¹⁸F]-FDG was injected intravenously, and ten minutes later, microPET/CT images were obtained over 120 min. Radiolabeled tracer accumulation in regions of interest (ROIs) in the prefrontal cortex, temporal cortex, striatum, and cerebellum were converted into standard uptake values (SUVs). Compared to the vehicle control group, the BPs of [¹⁸F] AV-133 and [¹⁸F]-FESP in the striatum were not significantly altered in MPH treated groups. Additionally, no significant differences were detected in the SUVs of [¹⁸F]-FDG in the MPH treated group compared with control. This study demonstrates that 6 months after cessation of long-term, chronic MPH treatment, there are no significant neurochemical or neural metabolic changes in the central nervous system (CNS) of non-human primates (NHPs) and suggests that microPET imaging is helpful in assessing the status of biomarkers of neurochemical processes linked to chronic CNS drug exposure. (Supported by NCTR).

Pharmacokinetics, safety and tolerability of valbenazine in Korean CYP2D6 normal and intermediate metabolizers

Valbenazine is a selective vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) inhibitor approved for tardive dyskinesia treatment by the US Food and Drug Administration; its major active metabolite (NBI-98782) is a 45-fold more potent inhibitor of VMAT2 than the parent drug. This study aimed to evaluate the pharmacokinetics (PKs), safety, and tolerability and the effect of cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) genotypes to the PKs after the administration of valbenazine in Korean participants. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, single- and multiple-dose study was conducted in healthy Korean male participants. The single-dose study was conducted for both 40 and 80 mg valbenazine and the multiple dose study was conducted for 40 mg. After a 1-week washout, the 40 mg dose group participants received valbenazine 40 mg or placebo once daily for 8 days. Serial blood samples were collected up to 96 h postdose for PK analysis. The CYP2D6 genotypes of the participants were retrospectively analyzed. A total of 50 participants were randomized, and 43 and 20 participants completed the single- and multiple-dose phases of the study, respectively. After single doses, the PK characteristics of valbenazine and its metabolites were similar between the 40 and 80 mg dose groups. After multiple doses, the mean accumulation ratios of valbenazine and NBI-98782 were ~1.6 and 2.4, respectively. Plasma concentrations of valbenazine and NBI-98782 were similar between CYP2D6 normal and intermediate metabolizers. Valbenazine was well-tolerated in healthy Koreans, and its PK characteristics were similar to results previously reported in Americans.

β-N-methylamino-l-alanine is a non-competitive inhibitor of vesicular monoamine transporter 2

The neurotoxic, non-proteinogenic amino acid β-N-methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA) has been implicated in the development of neurodegenerative diseases; however, the mechanism(s) and mode(s) of toxicity remain unclear. Similarities in the neuropathology and behavioural deficits of neonatal rats exposed to either BMAA or reserpine, a known vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) inhibitor, suggest a similar mode of action. The aims of this study were therefore to determine if BMAA could prevent the uptake of serotonin into dense granules via inhibition of VMAT2, and, if so, the type of inhibition caused by BMAA. Exposing platelet dense granules to BMAA resulted in a concentration-dependent reduction in serotonin uptake. The inhibition of VMAT2 was non-competitive. The findings from this study support previous reports that BMAA-associated neuropathologies in a neonatal rat model may be due to VMAT2 inhibition during critical periods of neurogenesis.

All the brain's a stage for serotonin: the forgotten story of serotonin diffusion across cell membranes

In the conventional model of serotonin neurotransmission, serotonin released by neurons in the midbrain raphe nuclei exerts its actions on forebrain neurons by interacting with a large family of post-synaptic receptors. The actions of serotonin are terminated by active transport of serotonin back into the releasing neuron, which is mediated by the serotonin reuptake transporter (SERT). Because SERT is expressed pre-synaptically and is widely thought to be the only serotonin transporter in the forebrain, the conventional model does not include serotonin transport into post-synaptic neurons. However, a large body of evidence accumulating since the 1970s has shown that serotonin, despite having a positive charge, can cross cell membranes through a diffusion-like process. Multiple low-affinity, high-capacity, sodium-independent transporters, widely expressed in the brain, allow the carrier-mediated diffusion of serotonin into forebrain neurons. The amount of serotonin crossing cell membranes through this mechanism under physiological conditions is considerable. Most prominent textbooks fail to include this alternative method of serotonin uptake in the brain, and even most neuroscientists are unaware of it. This failure has limited our understanding of a key regulator of serotonergic neurotransmission, impeded research on the potential intracellular actions of serotonin in post-synaptic neurons and glial cells, and may have impeded our understanding of the mechanism by which antidepressant medications reduce depressive symptoms.

Therapeutic Potential of Reserpine in Metabolic Syndrome: An Evidence Based Study

Reserpine is as old as the scientific diagnosis of hypertension. For many years' clinicians have used it for the treatment of high blood pressure, but with the passage of time and introduction of new anti-hypertensive drugs, the usage of reserpine has gone down drastically most probably due to poorly understood mechanism of action and multiple misleading adverse effects precisely due to high dosing of reserpine. With an aim to elucidate the specific mechanism of action, we screened reserpine against various targets associated with regulation of blood pressure. Surprisingly reserpine showed remarkable inhibitory potential for soluble epoxide hydrolase an enzyme responsible for pathophysiology of not only hypertension but also hyperlipidemia, diabetes and inflammation collectively known as metabolic syndrome. The in-silico, in-vitro and in-vivo results showed that reserpine has the ability to treat metabolic syndrome effectively by inhibiting soluble epoxide hydrolase.

Striatal Neurons Partially Expressing a Dopaminergic Phenotype: Functional Significance and Regulation

Since the discovery of striatal neurons expressing dopamine-synthesizing enzymes, researchers have attempted to identify their phenotype and functional significance. In this study, it was shown that in transgenic mice expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP) under the tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) gene promoter, (i) there are striatal neurons expressing only TH, only aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC), or both enzymes of dopamine synthesis; (ii) striatal neurons expressing dopamine-synthesizing enzymes are not dopaminergic since they lack a dopamine transporter; (iii) monoenzymatic neurons expressing individual complementary dopamine-synthesizing enzymes produce this neurotransmitter in cooperation; (iv) striatal nerve fibers containing only TH, only AADC, or both enzymes project into the lateral ventricles, providing delivery pathways for L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine and dopamine to the cerebrospinal fluid; and (v) striatal GFP neurons express receptor genes for various signaling molecules, i.e., classical neurotransmitters, neuropeptides, and steroids, indicating fine regulation of these neurons. Based on our data, it is assumed that the synthesis of dopamine by striatal neurons is a compensatory response to the death of nigral dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson’s disease, which opens broad prospects for the development of a fundamentally novel antiparkinsonian therapy.

Psychomotor Symptoms in Chronic Cocaine Users: An Interpretative Model

According to the latest estimates, there are around 24.6 million cocaine users worldwide, and it is estimated that around a quarter of the population worldwide has used cocaine at some point in their lifetime. It follows that such widespread consumption represents a major risk for public health. Long-term use of cocaine, in addition to being related to many cerebral and cardiovascular diseases, is increasingly associated with a higher incidence of psychomotor symptoms and neurodegenerative disorders. In recent years, numerous studies have shown an increased risk of antipsychotic-induced extrapyramidal symptoms (EPSs) in patients with psychotic spectrum disorders comorbid with psychostimulant misuse, particularly of cocaine. In the present paper, we describe the case of a young patient on his first entry into a psychiatric setting with previous cocaine misuse who rapidly presented psychomotor symptoms and was poorly responsive to symptomatic therapy consisting of benzodiazepines and anticholinergics, in relation to the introduction of various antipsychotics (first, second, and third generation). Furthermore, we propose neurobiological mechanisms underlying the hypothesized increased vulnerability to psychomotor symptoms in chronic cocaine abusers. Specifically, we supposed that the chronic administration of cocaine produces important neurobiological changes, causing a complex dysregulation of various neurotransmitter systems, mainly affecting subcortical structures and the dopaminergic and glutamatergic pathways. We believe that a better understanding of these neurochemical and neurobiological processes could have useful clinical and therapeutic implications by providing important indications to increase the risk–benefit ratio in pharmacological choice in patients with psychotic spectrum disorders comorbid with a substance use disorder.

MicroPET/CT assessment of neurochemical effects in the brain after long-term methylphenidate treatment in nonhuman primates

Methylphenidate (MPH) is a psychostimulant approved by the FDA to treatment Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). MPH is believed to exert its pharmacological effects via preferential blockade of the dopamine transporter (DAT) and the norepinephrine transporter (NET), resulting in increased monoamine levels in the synapse. We used a quantitative non-invasive PET imaging technique to study the effects of long-term methylphenidate use on the central nervous system (CNS). We conducted microPET/CT scans on young adult male rhesus monkeys to monitor changes in the dopaminergic system. We used [¹⁸F] AV-133, a ligand for the vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2), and [¹⁸F]FESP a ligand for the D₂ and 5HT₂ receptors. In this study we evaluated the effects if chronic MPH treatment in the nonhuman primates (NHP). Two-year-old, male rhesus monkeys were orally administered MPH diluted in the electrolyte replenisher, Prang, twice a day, five days per week (M-F) over an 8-year period. The dose of MPH was gradually escalated from 0.15 mg/kg initially to 2.5 mg/kg/dose for the low dose group, and 1.5 mg/kg to 12.5 mg/kg/dose for the high dose group (Rodriguez et al., 2010). Scans were performed on Mondays, about 60 h after their last treatment, to avoid the acute effects of MPH. Tracers were injected intravenously ten minutes before microPET/CT scanning. Sessions lasted about 120 min. The Logan reference tissue model was used to determine the Binding Potential (BP) of each tracer in the striatum with the cerebellar cortex time activity curve as an input function. Both MP treatment groups had a lower [¹⁸F] AV-133 BP, although this failed to reach statistical significance. MPH treatment did not have a significant effect on The BP of [¹⁸F] FESP in the striatum. Long-term administration of MPH did not significant change any of the marker of monoamine function used here. These data suggest that, despite lingering concerns, long-term use of methylphenidate does not negatively impact monoamine function. This study also demonstrates that microPET imaging can distinguish differences in binding potentials of a variety of radiotracers in the CNS of NHPs. This approach may provide minimally-invasive biomarkers of neurochemical processes associated with chronic exposure to CNS medications. (Supported by NCTR).

ApoE4 inhibition of VMAT2 in the locus coeruleus exacerbates Tau pathology in Alzheimer's disease

ApoE4 enhances Tau neurotoxicity and promotes the early onset of AD. Pretangle Tau in the noradrenergic locus coeruleus (LC) is the earliest detectable AD-like pathology in the human brain. However, a direct relationship between ApoE4 and Tau in the LC has not been identified. Here we show that ApoE4 selectively binds to the vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) and inhibits neurotransmitter uptake. The exclusion of norepinephrine (NE) from synaptic vesicles leads to its oxidation into the toxic metabolite 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl glycolaldehyde (DOPEGAL), which subsequently activates cleavage of Tau at N368 by asparagine endopeptidase (AEP) and triggers LC neurodegeneration. Our data reveal that ApoE4 boosts Tau neurotoxicity via VMAT2 inhibition, reduces hippocampal volume, and induces cognitive dysfunction in an AEP- and Tau N368-dependent manner, while conversely ApoE3 binds Tau and protects it from cleavage. Thus, ApoE4 exacerbates Tau neurotoxicity by increasing VMAT2 vesicle leakage and facilitating AEP-mediated Tau proteolytic cleavage in the LC via DOPEGAL.

Physiology and Pharmacology of Neurotransmitter Transporters

Regulation of the ability of a neurotransmitter [our focus: serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine, acetylcholine, glycine, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)] to reach its receptor targets is regulated in part by controlling the access the neurotransmitter has to receptors. Transporters, located at both the cellular plasma membrane and in subcellular vesicles, carry a myriad of responsibilities that include enabling neurotransmitter release and controlling uptake of neurotransmitter back into a cell or vesicle. Driven largely by electrochemical gradients, these transporters move neurotransmitters. The regulation of the transporters themselves through changes in expression and/or posttranslational modification allows for fine-tuning of this system. Transporters have been best recognized as targets for psychoactive stimulants and remain a mainstay target of primarily central nervous system (CNS) acting drugs for treatment of debilitating diseases such as depression and anxiety. Studies reveal, however, that transporters are found and functional in tissues outside the CNS (gastrointestinal and cardiovascular tissues, for example). The importance of neurotransmitter transporters is underscored with discoveries that dysfunction of transporters can cause life-changing disease. This article provides a high-level review of major classes of both plasma membrane transporters and vesicular transporters. © 2021 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 11:2279-2295, 2021.

Enhanced tyrosine hydroxylase activity induces oxidative stress, causes accumulation of autotoxic catecholamine metabolites, and augments amphetamine effects in vivo

In Parkinson's disease, dopamine‐containing nigrostriatal neurons undergo profound degeneration. Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) is the rate‐limiting enzyme in dopamine biosynthesis. TH increases in vitro formation of reactive oxygen species, and previous animal studies have reported links between cytosolic dopamine build‐up and oxidative stress. To examine effects of increased TH activity in catecholaminergic neurons in vivo, we generated TH‐over‐expressing mice (TH‐HI) using a BAC‐transgenic approach that results in over‐expression of TH with endogenous patterns of expression. The transgenic mice were characterized by western blot, qPCR, and immunohistochemistry. Tissue contents of dopamine, its metabolites, and markers of oxidative stress were evaluated. TH‐HI mice had a 3‐fold increase in total and phosphorylated TH levels and an increased rate of dopamine synthesis. Coincident with elevated dopamine turnover, TH‐HI mice showed increased striatal production of H₂O₂ and reduced glutathione levels. In addition, TH‐HI mice had elevated striatal levels of the neurotoxic dopamine metabolites 3,4‐dihydroxyphenylacetaldehyde and 5‐S‐cysteinyl‐dopamine and were more susceptible than wild‐type mice to the effects of amphetamine and methamphetamine. These results demonstrate that increased TH alone is sufficient to produce oxidative stress in vivo, build up autotoxic dopamine metabolites, and augment toxicity.

Kinetic isotope effects and synthetic strategies for deuterated carbon-11 and fluorine-18 labelled PET radiopharmaceuticals

The deuterium labelling of pharmaceuticals is a useful strategy for altering pharmacokinetic properties, particularly for improving metabolic resistance. The pharmacological effects of such metabolites are often assumed to be negligible during standard drug discovery and are factored in later at the clinical phases of development, where the risks and benefits of the treatment and side-effects can be wholly assessed. This paradigm does not translate to the discovery of radiopharmaceuticals, however, as the confounding effects of radiometabolites can inevitably show in preliminary positron emission tomography (PET) scans and thus complicate interpretation. Consequently, the formation of radiometabolites is crucial to take into consideration, compared to non-radioactive metabolites, and the application of deuterium labelling is a particularly attractive approach to minimise radiometabolite formation. Herein, we provide a comprehensive overview of the deuterated carbon-11 and fluorine-18 radiopharmaceuticals employed in PET imaging experiments. Specifically, we explore six categories of deuterated radiopharmaceuticals used to investigate the activities of monoamine oxygenase (MAO), choline, translocator protein (TSPO), vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2), neurotransmission and the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease; from which we derive four prominent deuteration strategies giving rise to a kinetic isotope effect (KIE) for reducing the rate of metabolism. Synthetic approaches for over thirty of these deuterated radiopharmaceuticals are discussed from the perspective of deuterium and radioisotope incorporation, alongside an evaluation of the deuterium labelling and radiolabelling efficacies across these independent studies. Clinical and manufacturing implications are also discussed to provide a more comprehensive overview of how deuterated radiopharmaceuticals may be introduced to routine practice.

Treatment of tardive dyskinesia: a review and update for dermatologists managing delusions of parasitosis

INTRODUCTION

This article introduces to the dermatology provider two medications for the treatment of tardive dyskinesia (TD), which were the first medications approved by the US FDA specifically for the treatment of TD. In addition to describing these two new medications, this article will also provide a focused review of the pathogenesis of TD, as well as non-FDA-approved treatments, which have been tried prior to the advent of these medications.

METHODS

A PubMed search was conducted and articles were reviewed by the senior authors and included if they were relevant for dermatologists regarding etiology, symptoms, risk, and treatment of TD.

RESULTS

One of the most widely accepted explanations of TD involves the concept of 'dopamine receptor hypersensitivity state.' There are several other less well substantiated proposed pathogenic pathways of TD. The clinical manifestation is characterized by involuntary movements. Prevention includes switching to a 2nd generation agent or using the lowest dose possible for the shortest amount of time. Two new FDA-approved medications for TD are also discussed and reviewed.

CONCLUSION

TD now has FDA-approved medications for treatment. Now, there is even more reason for the dermatologist to have increased confidence when treating delusions of parasitosis (DOP) with antipsychotic agents.

Sex and strain differences in dynamic and static properties of the mesolimbic dopamine system

Sex is a biological variable that contributes to the incidence, clinical course, and treatment outcome of brain disorders. Chief among these are disorders associated with the dopamine system. These include Parkinson's disease, ADHD, schizophrenia, and mood disorders, which show stark differences in prevalence and outcome between men and women. In order to reveal the influence of biological sex as a risk factor in these disorders, there is a critical need to collect fundamental information about basic properties of the dopamine system in males and females. In Long Evans rats, we measured dynamic and static properties related to the mesolimbic dopamine system. Static measures included assessing ventral tegmental area (VTA) dopamine cell number and volume and expression of tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine transporter. Dynamic measures in behaving animals included assessing (1) VTA neuronal encoding during learning of a cue-action-reward instrumental task and (2) dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens in response to electrical stimulation of the VTA, vesicular depletion of dopamine, and amphetamine. We found little or no sex difference in these measures, suggesting sexual congruency in fundamental static and dynamic properties of dopamine neurons. Thus, dopamine related sex-differences are likely mediated by secondary mechanisms that flexibly influence the function of the dopamine cells and circuits. Finally, we noted that most behavioral sex differences had been reported in Sprague-Dawley rats and repeated some of the above measures in that strain. We found some sex differences in those animals highlighting the importance of considering strain differences in experimental design and result interpretation.

VMAT2 inhibitors for the treatment of hyperkinetic movement disorders

Hyperkinetic movement disorders comprise a variety of conditions characterized by involuntary movements, which include but are not limited to tardive dyskinesia, chorea associated with Huntington's Disease, and tic disorders. The class of medications that have been used to treat these conditions includes Vesicular Monoamine Transporter-2 (VMAT2) inhibitors. In 2008, the FDA approved tetrabenazine as a treatment for chorea associated with Huntington's Disease. Optimization of the pharmacology of tetrabenazine has since led to the approval of two new VMAT2 inhibitors, deutetrabenazine and valbenazine. The objective of this review is to provide background on the role of VMAT in monoamine neurotransmission, the mechanism of VMAT2 inhibition on the treatment of hyperkinetic disorders (specifically tardive dyskinesia and chorea associated with Huntington's Disease), the pharmacology and pharmacokinetics of the commercially available VMAT2 inhibitors, and a summary of the clinical data to support application of these medications.

Alterations of the Motor and Olfactory Functions Related to Parkinson's Disease in Transgenic Mice With a VMAT2-Deficiency in Dopaminergic Neurons

Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases, with approximately six million people affected worldwide. Vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) dysfunction has recently become a hot topic in the pathophysiology of PD, and the advent of transgenic mice has also accelerated the development of behavioral studies in animal models. However, there are only a few systematic behavioral tests that embrace abundant motor and non-motor performance in a unique mutant mouse model which correspond to the varied symptoms observed in human PD. The aim of this study is to evaluate the responsibility of the unique reduction of dopamine in the varied motor and non-motor symptoms of PD via a transgenic mice model. We analyzed neurotransmitter concentrations in the brain tissue of 18-month-old mutant mice, with selective inactivation of one allele of Vmat2 in dopaminergic neurons (VMAT2DATcre-HET) to confirm the selective reduction of dopamine, and then examined behavioral functions. Neurochemical tests showed lower dopamine concentrations in specific brain regions of VMAT2DATcre-HET mice, especially the ventral tegmental area/substantia nigra and striatum, together with relatively unchanging concentrations of norepinephrine and serotonin, demonstrating the dopaminergic specificity of this mouse model. Behavioral tasks showed impairments in several motor functions and major defects in olfactory abilities in the VMAT2DATcre-HET mice. However, no significant changes were found in the majority of non-motor tests, such as emotional performance and sleep patterns. We concluded from this study that the selective inactivation of one allele of the Vmat2 gene in dopaminergic neurons was related to dopamine reduction, resulting in phenotypes resembling some of the major deficits in PD, especially those of motor symptoms and olfactory functions.

Current treatment of tardive dyskinesia

Tardive dyskinesia (TD) is a common, iatrogenic movement disorder affecting many individuals treated with dopamine-receptor blocking agents (DRBAs). Studying treatment of TD can be complex, as the symptoms can be affected by changes in either dosage or type of DRBA, as well as by the variable natural course of the disease. Historically many pharmacological therapies have been studied in TD, finding varying degrees of treatment success. Most recently, the VMAT2 inhibitors valbenazine and deutetrabenazine were rigorously studied in TD in large, phase III clinical trials, and were shown to be beneficial in this population. In this article, we will review various treatments of TD, including manipulation of the offending agent, VMAT2 inhibitors, other non-VMAT2-inhibiting medications, and non-pharmacological approaches.

Presynaptic regulation of dopamine release: Role of the DAT and VMAT2 transporters

The signaling dynamics of the neurotransmitter dopamine has been established to have an important role in a variety of behavioural processes including motor control, cognition, and emotional processing. Key regulators of transmitter release and the signaling dynamics of dopamine are the plasma membrane reuptake transporter (DAT) and the vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT2). These proteins serve to remove dopamine molecules from the extracellular and cytosolic space, respectively and both determine the amount of transmitter released from synaptic vesicles. This review provides an overview of how these transporter proteins are involved in molecular regulation and function together to govern the dynamics of vesicular release with opposing effects on the quantal size and extracellular concentration of dopamine. These transporter proteins are both focal points of convergence for a variety of regulatory molecular cascades as well as targets for many pharmacological agents. The ratio between these transporters is argued to be useful as a molecular marker for delineating dopamine functional subsystems that may differ in transmitter release patterns.

Synthesis and Discovery of Arylpiperidinylquinazolines: New Inhibitors of the Vesicular Monoamine Transporter

Methamphetamine, a human vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) substrate, releases dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine from vesicles into the cytosol of presynaptic neurons and induces reverse transport by the monoamine transporters to increase extracellular neurotransmitters. Currently available radioligands for VMAT2 have considerable liabilities: The binding of [³H]dihydrotetrabenazine ([³H]DHTB) to a site on VMAT2 is not dependent on ATP, and [³H]reserpine binds almost irreversibly to VMAT2. Herein we demonstrate that several arylpiperidinylquinazolines (APQs) are potent inhibitors of [³H]reserpine binding at recombinant human VMAT2 expressed in HEK-293 cells. These compounds are biodiastereoselective and bioenantioselective. The lead radiolabeled APQ is unique because it binds reversibly to VMAT2 but does not bind the [³H]DHTB binding site. Furthermore, experimentation shows that several novel APQ ligands have high potency for inhibition of uptake by both HEK-VMAT2 cells and mouse striatal vesicles and may be useful tools for characterizing drug-induced effects on human VMAT2 expression and function.

High-throughput screening system for dynamic monitoring of exocytotic vesicle trafficking in mast cells

Mast cells, in addition to endocrine cells and neurons, are typical secretory cells. Their function in allergic inflammation is to secrete inflammatory mediators from secretory vesicles. Intracellular synthesized inflammatory mediators are transported by vesicular monoamine transporters (VMATs) to vesicles where they are stored. After stimulation, the contents of the secretory vesicles are released via exocytosis. This study established a high throughput imaging screening system to monitor the functions of secretory vesicles in mast cells, including molecular uptake via VMAT2 and the exocytotic process, by using a novel fluorescent probe, FFN206, which was developed as a VMAT2 substrate. After loading with FFN206, the rapid uptake of FFN206 was observed and secretory vesicles in mouse bone marrow derived mast cells and a cultured mast cell line were clearly visualized. FFN206 uptake by secretory vesicles was time-dependent and was blocked by reserpine. Furthermore, exocytotic trafficking was monitored dynamically by real-time high-throughput fluorescence quantitation. In the present study, we verified the application of FFN206 for the monitoring of functional vesicles. This high-throughput screening system may benefit instinctive drug evaluation.

Treatment of tardive dyskinesia with VMAT-2 inhibitors: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

Aim

The aim of this study was to summarize the characteristics, efficacy, and safety of vesicular monoamine transporter-2 (VMAT-2) inhibitors for treating tardive dyskinesia (TD).

Materials and methods

We conducted a literature search in PubMed, Cochrane Database, and ClinicalTrials.gov, screening for systematic reviews, meta-analyses or double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trials (DBRPCTs) reporting efficacy or safety data of VMAT-2 inhibitors (tetrabenazine, deutetrabenazine, and valbenazine) in patients with TD. A random effects meta-analysis of efficacy and safety data from DBRPCTs was performed.

Results

Two acute, 12-week DBRPCTs with deutetrabenazine 12–48 mg/day (n=413) and 4 acute, 4–6-week double-blind trials with valbenazine 12.5–100 mg/day (n=488) were meta-analyzable, without meta-analyzable, high-quality data for tetrabenazine. Regarding reduction in total Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale (AIMS) scores (primary outcome), both deutetrabenazine (k=2, n=413, standardized mean difference [SMD] =−0.40, 95% confidence interval [CI] =−0.19, −0.62, p<0.001; weighted mean difference (WMD) =−1.44, 95% CI =−0.67, −2.19, p<0.001) and valbenazine (k=4, n=421, SMD =−0.58, 95% CI =−0.26, −0.91, p<0.001; WMD =−2.07, 95% CI =−1.08, −3.05, p<0.001) significantly outperformed placebo. Results were confirmed regarding responder rates (≥50% AIMS total score reduction; deutetrabenazine: risk ratio [RR] =2.13, 95% CI =1.10, 4.12, p=0.024, number-needed-to-treat [NNT] =7, 95% CI =3, 333, p=0.046; valbenazine: RR =3.05, 95% CI =1.81, 5.11, p<0.001, NNT =4, 95% CI =3, 6, p<0.001). Less consistent results emerged from patient-rated global impression-based response (p=0.15) and clinical global impression for deutetrabenazine (p=0.088), and for clinical global impression change for valbenazine (p=0.67). In an open-label extension (OLE) study of deutetrabenazine (≤54 weeks) and a dose-blinded valbenazine study (≤48 weeks), responder rates increased over time. With valbenazine, discontinuation effects were studied, showing TD symptom recurrence towards baseline severity levels within 4 weeks after valbenazine withdrawal. No increased cumulative or specific adverse (AEs) events versus placebo (acute trials) in extension versus acute trial data were observed.

Conclusion

The 2 VMAT-2 inhibitors, valbenazine and deutetrabenazine, are effective in treating TD, both acutely and long-term, without concerns about increased risk of depression or suicide in the TD population. No head-to-head comparison among VMAT-2 inhibitors and no high-quality, meta-analyzable data are available for tetrabenazine in patients with TD.

Zinc in the Monoaminergic Theory of Depression: Its Relationship to Neural Plasticity

Preclinical and clinical studies have demonstrated that zinc possesses antidepressant properties and that it may augment the therapy with conventional, that is, monoamine-based, antidepressants. In this review we aim to discuss the role of zinc in the pathophysiology and treatment of depression with regard to the monoamine hypothesis of the disease. Particular attention will be paid to the recently described zinc-sensing GPR39 receptor as well as aspects of zinc deficiency. Furthermore, an attempt will be made to give a possible explanation of the mechanisms by which zinc interacts with the monoamine system in the context of depression and neural plasticity.

A Functional Vesicular Monoamine Transporter 1 (VMAT1) Gene Variant Is Associated with Affect and the Prevalence of Anxiety, Affective, and Alcohol Use Disorders in a Longitudinal Population-Representative Birth Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Inter-individual differences in the monoaminergic systems have been shown to moderate the risk for a lifetime history of anxiety, affective, and alcohol use disorders. A common single nucleotide polymorphism in the vesicular monoamine transporter 1 gene (VMAT1 rs1390938 G/A; Thr136Ile) has been reported as functional in vitro and associated with bipolar disorder and anxiety. We aimed at assessing the association between the VMAT1 genotype, affect, and affect-related psychiatric disorders in a longitudinal population-representative study.

METHODS

We used the database of the Estonian Children Personality Behaviour and Health Study (beginning in 1998). Cohorts of initially 9- (recalled at ages 15 and 18 years, n=579) and 15- (recalled at ages 18 and 25 years; n=654) year-old children provided self-reports on impulsivity, anxiety, depressiveness, neuroticism, and alcohol use. In addition, psychiatric assessment based on DSM-IV was carried out in the older cohort at age 25 years.

RESULTS

Subjects homozygous for the less prevalent A (136Ile) allele reported lower maladaptive impulsivity, state and trait anxiety, depressiveness, and neuroticism and were less likely to have been diagnosed with an affective, anxiety, and/or alcohol use disorder by young adulthood. While in the younger cohort alcohol use started at younger age, this birth cohort effect was dependent on genotype: only G allele carriers and in particular the GG homozygotes started alcohol use earlier.

CONCLUSIONS

VMAT1 rs1390938/Thr136Ile is associated with mood, personality, and alcohol use in the general population. Subjects homozygous for the "hyperfunction" allele (AA; Ile/Ile) appear to be more resilient to these disorders.

Comparison of In Vivo Gene Expression Profiling of RPE/Choroid following Intravitreal Injection of Dexamethasone and Triamcinolone Acetonide

Purpose. To identify retinal pigment epithelium (RPE)/choroid genes and their relevant expression pathways affected by intravitreal injections of dexamethasone and triamcinolone acetonide in mice at clinically relevant time points for patient care. Methods. Differential gene expression of over 34,000 well-characterized mouse genes in the RPE/choroid of 6-week-old C57BL/6J mice was analyzed after intravitreal steroid injections at 1 week and 1 month postinjection, using Affymetrix Mouse Genome 430 2.0 microarrays. The data were analyzed using GeneSpring GX 12.5 and Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) microarray analysis software for biologically relevant changes. Results. Both triamcinolone and dexamethasone caused differential activation of genes involved in “Circadian Rhythm Signaling” pathway at both time points tested. Triamcinolone (TAA) uniquely induced significant changes in gene expression in “Calcium Signaling” (1 week) and “Glutamate Receptor Signaling” pathways (1 month). In contrast, dexamethasone (Dex) affected the “GABA Receptor Signaling” (1 week) and “Serotonin Receptor Signaling” (1 month) pathways. Understanding how intraocular steroids affect the gene expression of RPE/choroid is clinically relevant. Conclusions. This in vivo study has elucidated several genes and pathways that are potentially altering the circadian rhythms and several other neurotransmitter pathways in RPE/choroid during intravitreal steroid injections, which likely has consequences in the dysregulation of RPE function and neurodegeneration of the retina.

Efficient and biologically relevant consensus strategy for Parkinson's disease gene prioritization

BACKGROUND

The systemic information enclosed in microarray data encodes relevant clues to overcome the poorly understood combination of genetic and environmental factors in Parkinson's disease (PD), which represents the major obstacle to understand its pathogenesis and to develop disease-modifying therapeutics. While several gene prioritization approaches have been proposed, none dominate over the rest. Instead, hybrid approaches seem to outperform individual approaches.

METHODS

A consensus strategy is proposed for PD related gene prioritization from mRNA microarray data based on the combination of three independent prioritization approaches: Limma, machine learning, and weighted gene co-expression networks.

RESULTS

The consensus strategy outperformed the individual approaches in terms of statistical significance, overall enrichment and early recognition ability. In addition to a significant biological relevance, the set of 50 genes prioritized exhibited an excellent early recognition ability (6 of the top 10 genes are directly associated with PD). 40 % of the prioritized genes were previously associated with PD including well-known PD related genes such as SLC18A2, TH or DRD2. Eight genes (CCNH, DLK1, PCDH8, SLIT1, DLD, PBX1, INSM1, and BMI1) were found to be significantly associated to biological process affected in PD, representing potentially novel PD biomarkers or therapeutic targets. Additionally, several metrics of standard use in chemoinformatics are proposed to evaluate the early recognition ability of gene prioritization tools.

CONCLUSIONS

The proposed consensus strategy represents an efficient and biologically relevant approach for gene prioritization tasks providing a valuable decision-making tool for the study of PD pathogenesis and the development of disease-modifying PD therapeutics.

Synthesis of (±)-Tetrabenazine by Visible Light Photoredox Catalysis

(±)-Tetrabenazine was synthesized in six steps from commercially available compounds. The key cyclization substrate was assembled rapidly via Baylis-Hillman and aza-Michael reactions. Annulation of the final ring was achieved through visible light photocatalysis, wherein carbon-carbon bond formation was driven by the oxidation of a tertiary amine. Solvent played a critical role in the photoredox cyclization outcome, whereas methanol led to a mixed ketal, acetonitrile/water (10:1) gave direct cyclization to (±)-tetrabenazine and occurred more rapidly.

Regulation of the Dopamine and Vesicular Monoamine Transporters: Pharmacological Targets and Implications for Disease

Dopamine (DA) plays a well recognized role in a variety of physiologic functions such as movement, cognition, mood, and reward. Consequently, many human disorders are due, in part, to dysfunctional dopaminergic systems, including Parkinson's disease, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and substance abuse. Drugs that modify the DA system are clinically effective in treating symptoms of these diseases or are involved in their manifestation, implicating DA in their etiology. DA signaling and distribution are primarily modulated by the DA transporter (DAT) and by vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT)-2, which transport DA into presynaptic terminals and synaptic vesicles, respectively. These transporters are regulated by complex processes such as phosphorylation, protein-protein interactions, and changes in intracellular localization. This review provides an overview of 1) the current understanding of DAT and VMAT2 neurobiology, including discussion of studies ranging from those conducted in vitro to those involving human subjects; 2) the role of these transporters in disease and how these transporters are affected by disease; and 3) and how selected drugs alter the function and expression of these transporters. Understanding the regulatory processes and the pathologic consequences of DAT and VMAT2 dysfunction underlies the evolution of therapeutic development for the treatment of DA-related disorders.