Neuregulin-1 reduces ischemia-induced brain damage in rats

Nrg1 intracellular signaling regulates the development of interhemispheric callosal axons in mice

Schizophrenia is associated with altered cortical circuitry. Although the schizophrenia risk gene NRG1 is known to affect the wiring of inhibitory interneurons, its role in excitatory neurons and axonal development is unclear. Here, we investigated the role of Nrg1 in the development of the corpus callosum, the major interhemispheric connection formed by cortical excitatory neurons. We found that deletion of Nrg1 impaired callosal axon development in vivo. Experiments in vitro and in vivo demonstrated that Nrg1 is cell-autonomously required for axonal outgrowth and that intracellular signaling of Nrg1 is sufficient to promote axonal development in cortical neurons and specifically in callosal axons. Furthermore, our data suggest that Nrg1 signaling regulates the expression of Growth Associated Protein 43, a key regulator of axonal growth. In conclusion, our study demonstrates that NRG1 is involved in the formation of interhemispheric callosal connections and provides a novel perspective on the relevance of NRG1 in excitatory neurons and in the etiology of schizophrenia.

The case for neuregulin-1 as a clinical treatment for stroke

Ischemic stroke is the leading cause of serious long-term disability and the 5th leading cause of death in the United States. Revascularization of the occluded cerebral artery, either by thrombolysis or endovascular thrombectomy, is the only effective, clinically-approved stroke therapy. Several potentially neuroprotective agents, including glutamate antagonists, anti-inflammatory compounds and free radical scavenging agents were shown to be effective neuroprotectants in preclinical animal models of brain ischemia. However, these compounds did not demonstrate efficacy in clinical trials with human patients following stroke. Proposed reasons for the translational failure include an insufficient understanding on the cellular and molecular pathophysiology of ischemic stroke, lack of alignment between preclinical and clinical studies and inappropriate design of clinical trials based on the preclinical findings. Therefore, novel neuroprotective treatments must be developed based on a clearer understanding of the complex spatiotemporal mechanisms of ischemic stroke and with proper clinical trial design based on the preclinical findings from specific animal models of stroke. We and others have demonstrated the clinical potential for neuregulin-1 (NRG-1) in preclinical stroke studies. NRG-1 significantly reduced ischemia-induced neuronal death, neuroinflammation and oxidative stress in rodent stroke models with a therapeutic window of >13 h. Clinically, NRG-1 was shown to be safe in human patients and improved cardiac function in multisite phase II studies for heart failure. This review summarizes previous stroke clinical candidates and provides evidence that NRG-1 represents a novel, safe, neuroprotective strategy that has potential therapeutic value in treating individuals after acute ischemic stroke.

Astragaloside VI Ameliorates Post-Stroke Depression via Upregulating the NRG-1-Mediated MEK/ERK Pathway

BACKGROUND

Post-stroke depression (PSD) has been identified as one of the most commonly occurring complications attributed to stroke. Astragaloside VI (AsVI), which is an active Radix Astragali (AR)-derived compound, has been reported to be a potential drug for post-stroke therapy, but its effects on PSD and the underlying mechanisms remain uncovered.

METHODS

In this study, healthy male SD rats underwent a middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) stroke model. To create a PSD model, these rats were then kept in isolated houses and subjected to chronic unpredictable mild stress. The rats were examined every five days for a series of behavioral tests of depression. The antidepressant properties of AsVI were also investigated in vitro in a corticosterone (CORT)-induced major depression model using a CCK-8 assay. The release of neurotransmitters dopamine (DA)/5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) was measured using HPLC. The expression of the neurotrophic factor Neuregulin 1 (NRG-1) in rat brain tissues was detected by immunostaining. The protein expression of NRG-1, p-MEK1, and p-ERK1/2 was analyzed utilizing western blotting.

RESULTS

AsVI treatment significantly reduced depression-like behaviors in PSD rats and attenuated the CORT-induced apoptotic cell death in neuronal PC-12 cells. Besides, AsVI treatment remarkably prevented the decrease of the levels of DA and 5-HT in the PSD rat brains and in CORT-induced PC-12 cells. Furthermore, AsVI treatment upregulated the NRG-1-mediated MEK/ERK pathway, which is associated with the improvement of PSD.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that AsVI could improve PSD at least partially by upregulating NRG-1-mediated MEK/ERK pathway. AsVI could be a novel therapeutic option for treating PSD.

Availability of neuregulin-1beta1 protects neurons in spinal cord injury and against glutamate toxicity through caspase dependent and independent mechanisms

Spinal cord injury (SCI) causes sensorimotor and autonomic impairment that partly reflects extensive, permanent loss of neurons at the epicenter and penumbra of the injury. Strategies aimed at enhancing neuronal protection are critical to attenuate neurodegeneration and improve neurological recovery after SCI. In rat SCI, we previously uncovered that the tissue levels of neuregulin-1beta 1 (Nrg-1β1) are acutely and persistently downregulated in the injured spinal cord. Nrg-1β1 is well-known for its critical roles in the development, maintenance and physiology of neurons and glia in the developing and adult spinal cord. However, despite this pivotal role, Nrg-1β1 specific effects and mechanisms of action on neuronal injury remain largely unknown in SCI. In the present study, using a clinically-relevant model of compressive/contusive SCI in rats and an in vitro model of glutamate toxicity in primary neurons, we demonstrate Nrg-1β1 provides early neuroprotection through attenuation of reactive oxygen species, lipid peroxidation, necrosis and apoptosis in acute and subacute stages of SCI. Mechanistically, availability of Nrg-1β1 following glutamate challenge protects neurons from caspase-dependent and independent cell death that is mediated by modulation of mitochondria associated apoptotic cascades and MAP kinase and AKT signaling pathways. Altogether, our work provides novel insights into the role and mechanisms of Nrg-1β1 in neuronal injury after SCI and introduces its potential as a new neuroprotective target for this debilitating neurological condition.

The importance of circulating levels of salusin-α, salusin-β, and heregulin-β1 in atherosclerotic coronary arterial disease

OBJECTIVE

The relationship between the severity of atherosclerotic coronary artery disease (CAD) and circulating levels of salusin-α, salusin-β and heregulin-β1 has been investigated. In addition, the relationship with these peptides and high sensitive C-reactive protein (hsCRP) has been investigated.

METHODS

The study was conducted on 55 volunteers who had normal coronary angiography (CAG) as the control group, 35 volunteers with the degree of coronary artery stenosis below 50% in CA as the non-critical stenosis group, 37 volunteers with narrowing of one coronary artery above 50% as single vessel group and 41 volunteers with narrowing of more than one coronary artery above 50% as multi-vessel group. One hundred and thirteen volunteers have been included to CAD group.

RESULTS

There was no statistically significant difference in serum salusin-α levels between groups. Serum salusin-β ve hsCRP levels were significantly lower in control group compared to other groups and CAD group. There was no statistically significant difference in salusin-β and salusin-α levels in reciprocal comparison of other groups other than heregulin-β1 levels. Heregulin-β1 levels were significantly lower in 'non-critical occlusion' and 'multiple artery occlusion' groups compared to control group. Heregulin-β1 levels in 'single artery occlusion' group were significantly higher than control, 'non-critical occlusion' and 'multiple artery occlusion' groups.

CONCLUSION

Salusin-α levels does not indicate any significant differences between any groups in our study however the relationship of salusin-α with salusin- β and heregulin-β1 levels drives to cogitate that these peptides can be used as biomarkers and therapeutic approaches in CAD. We think that these peptides will be used in laboratories routinely in future in addition to hsCRP for CAD.

Neuregulin 1/ErbB4 signaling attenuates neuronal cell damage under oxygen-glucose deprivation in primary hippocampal neurons

The hippocampus is one of the most important brain areas of cognition. This region is particularly sensitive to hypoxia and ischemia. Neuregulin-1 (NRG1) has been shown to be able to protect against focal cerebral ischemia. The aim of the present study was to investigate the neuroprotective effect of NRG1 in primary hippocampal neurons and its underlying mechanism. Our data showed oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD)-induced cytotoxicity and overexpression of ErbB4 in primary hippocampal neurons. Moreover, pretreatment with NRG1 could inhibit OGD-induced overexpression of ErbB4. In addition, NRG1 significantly attenuated neuronal death induced by OGD. The neuroprotective effect of NRG1 was blocked in ischemic neurons after pretreatment with AG1478, an inhibitor of ErbB4, but not after pretreatment with AG879, an inhibitor of ErbB2. These results indicate an important role of ErbB4 in NRG1-mediated neuroprotection, suggesting that endogenous ErbB4 might serve as a valuable therapeutic target for treating global cerebral ischemia.

Therapeutic efficacy of neuregulin 1-expressing human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells for ischemic stroke

Adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (AdMSCs) have been reported to ameliorate neurological deficits after acute ischemic stroke. As neuregulin 1 (NRG1, or heregulin 1), a growth factor with versatile functions in the central nervous system, has demonstrated protective effects against ischemic brain injuries, we have generated NRG1-overexpressing AdMSCs in order to investigate whether NRG1-AdMSCs could enhance therapeutic benefits of AdMSCs in ischemic stroke. After AdMSCs were infected with adenoviral NRG1, increased NRG1 secretion in NRG1-AdMSCs was confirmed with ELISA. At 1 d after ischemic stroke that was induced by the occlusion of middle cerebral artery (MCAo) for 60 min in Sprague Dawley (SD) rats, adenoviral NRG1, AdMSCs, NRG1-AdMSCs, or PBS were injected into the striatum and serial neurologic examinations were performed. Administration of NRG1-AdMSCs resulted in significant improvement of functional outcome following stroke compared to AdMSCs- or adenoviral NRG1-treated group, in addition to the reduction in the infarct size evaluated by hematoxylin and eosin staining. When NRG1 expression in the brain was examined by double immunofluorescence to human nuclei (HuNu)/NRG1 and ELISA, NRG1-AdMSCs demonstrated marked increase in NRG1 expression. Moreover, western blot analysis further showed that transplantation of NRG1-AdMSCs significantly increased both endogenous and adenoviral NRG1 expression compared to AdMSCs-treated group. To elucidate molecular mechanisms, NRG1-associated downstream molecules were evaluated by western blot analysis. Expression of ErbB4, a receptor for NRG1, was markedly increased by NRG1-AdMSCs administration, in addition to pMAPK and pAkt, crucial molecules of NRG1-ErbB4 signaling. Taken together, our data suggest that NRG1-AdMSCs can provide excellent therapeutic potential in ischemic stroke by activating NRG1-ErbB4 signaling network.

Nrg1 Intracellular Signaling Is Neuroprotective upon Stroke

The schizophrenia risk gene NRG1 controls the formation of excitatory and inhibitory synapses in cortical circuits. While the expression of different NRG1 isoforms occurs during development, adult neurons primarily express the CRD-NRG1 isoform characterized by a highly conserved intracellular domain (NRG1-ICD). We and others have demonstrated that Nrg1 intracellular signaling promotes dendrite elongation and excitatory connections during neuronal development. However, the role of Nrg1 intracellular signaling in adult neurons and pathological conditions remains largely unaddressed. Here, we investigated the role of Nrg1 intracellular signaling in neuroprotection and stroke. Our bioinformatic analysis revealed the evolutionary conservation of the NRG1-ICD and a decrease in NRG1 expression with age in the human frontal cortex. Hence, we first evaluated whether Nrg1 signaling may affect pathological hallmarks in an in vitro model of neuronal senescence; however, our data failed to reveal a role for Nrg1 in the activation of the stress-related pathway p38 MAPK and DNA damage. Previous studies demonstrated that the soluble EGF domain of Nrg1 alleviated brain ischemia, a pathological process involving the generation of free radicals, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and excitotoxicity. Hence, we tested the hypothesis that Nrg1 intracellular signaling could be neuroprotective in stroke. We discovered that Nrg1 expression significantly increased neuronal survival upon oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD), an established in vitro model for stroke. Notably, the specific activation of Nrg1 intracellular signaling by expression of the Nrg1-ICD protected neurons from OGD. Additionally, time-lapse experiments confirmed that Nrg1 intracellular signaling increased the survival of neurons exposed to OGD. Finally, we investigated the relevance of Nrg1 intracellular signaling in stroke in vivo. Using viral vectors, we expressed the Nrg1-ICD in cortical neurons and subsequently challenged them by a focal hemorrhagic stroke; our data indicated that Nrg1 intracellular signaling improved neuronal survival in the infarcted area. Altogether, these data highlight Nrg1 intracellular signaling as neuroprotective upon ischemic lesion both in vitro and in vivo. Given the complexity of the neurotoxic effects of stroke and the involvement of various mechanisms, such as the generation of ROS, excitotoxicity, and inflammation, further studies are required to determine the molecular bases of the neuroprotective effect of Nrg1 intracellular signaling. In conclusion, our research highlights the stimulation of Nrg1 intracellular signaling as a promising target for cortical stroke treatment.

Neuroprotection by Exogenous and Endogenous Neuregulin-1 in Mouse Models of Focal Ischemic Stroke

Identifying novel neuroprotectants that can halt or reverse the neurological effects of stroke is of interest to both clinicians and scientists. We and others previously showed the pre-clinical neuroprotective efficacy of neuregulin-1 (NRG-1) in rats following focal brain ischemia. In this study, we examined neuroprotection by exogenous and endogenous NRG-1 using a mouse model of ischemic stroke. C57BL6 mice were subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) followed by reperfusion. NRG-1 or vehicle was infused intra-arterially (i.a.) or intravenously (i.v.) after MCAO and before the onset of reperfusion. NRG-1 treatment (16 μg/kg; i.a.) reduced cerebral cortical infarct volume by 72% in mice when delivered post-ischemia. NRG-1 also inhibited neuronal injury as measured by Fluoro Jade B labeling and rescued NeuN immunoreactivity in neurons. Neuroprotection by NRG-1 was also observed in mice when administered i.v. (100 μg/kg) in both male and female mice. We investigated whether endogenous NRG-1 was neuroprotective using male and female heterozygous NRG-1 knockout mice (NRG-1+/-) compared with wild-type mice (WT) littermates. NRG-1+/- and WT mice were subjected to MCAO for 45 min, and infarct size was measured 24 h following MCAO. NRG-1+/- mice displayed a sixfold increase in cortical infarct size compared with WT mice. These results demonstrate that NRG-1 treatment mitigates neuronal damage following cerebral ischemia. We further showed that reduced endogenous NRG-1 results in exacerbated neuronal injury in vivo. These findings suggest that NRG-1 represents a promising therapy to treat stroke in human patients.

NMDA Receptors Regulate Neuregulin 2 Binding to ER-PM Junctions and Ectodomain Release by ADAM10 [corrected]

Unprocessed pro-neuregulin 2 (pro-NRG2) accumulates on neuronal cell bodies at junctions between the endoplasmic reticulum and plasma membrane (ER-PM junctions). NMDA receptors (NMDARs) trigger NRG2 ectodomain shedding from these sites followed by activation of ErbB4 receptor tyrosine kinases, and ErbB4 signaling cell-autonomously downregulates intrinsic excitability of GABAergic interneurons by reducing voltage-gated sodium channel currents. NMDARs also promote dispersal of Kv2.1 clusters from ER-PM junctions and cause a hyperpolarizing shift in its voltage-dependent channel activation, suggesting that NRG2/ErbB4 and Kv2.1 work together to regulate intrinsic interneuron excitability in an activity-dependent manner. Here we explored the cellular processes underlying NMDAR-dependent NRG2 shedding in cultured rat hippocampal neurons. We report that NMDARs control shedding by two separate but converging mechanisms. First, NMDA treatment disrupts binding of pro-NRG2 to ER-PM junctions by post-translationally modifying conserved Ser/Thr residues in its intracellular domain. Second, using a mutant NRG2 protein that cannot be modified at these residues and that fails to accumulate at ER-PM junctions, we demonstrate that NMDARs also directly promote NRG2 shedding by ADAM-type metalloproteinases. Using pharmacological and shRNA-mediated knockdown, and metalloproteinase overexpression, we unexpectedly find that ADAM10, but not ADAM17/TACE, is the major NRG2 sheddase acting downstream of NMDAR activation. Together, these findings reveal how NMDARs exert tight control over the NRG2/ErbB4 signaling pathway, and suggest that NRG2 and Kv2.1 are co-regulated components of a shared pathway that responds to elevated extracellular glutamate levels.

α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor upregulation by anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) mediate and modulate synaptic transmission throughout the brain, and contribute to learning, memory, and behavior. Dysregulation of α7-type nAChRs in neuropsychiatric as well as immunological and oncological diseases makes them attractive targets for pharmaceutical development. Recently, we identified NACHO as an essential chaperone for α7 nAChRs. Leveraging the robust recombinant expression of α7 nAChRs with NACHO, we utilized genome-wide cDNA library screening and discovered that several anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family proteins further upregulate receptor assembly and cell surface expression. These effects are mediated by an intracellular motif on α7 that resembles the BH3 binding domain of pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins, and can be blocked by BH3 mimetic Bcl-2 inhibitors. Overexpression of Bcl-2 member Mcl-1 in neurons enhanced surface expression of endogenous α7 nAChRs, while a combination of chemotherapeutic Bcl2-inhibitors suppressed neuronal α7 receptor assembly. These results demonstrate that Bcl-2 proteins link α7 nAChR assembly to cell survival pathways.

The α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) plays a major role in shaping the activity of neuronal circuits and contributes to the pathophysiology of several neurological disorders. Following cDNA library screening, the authors identify anti-apoptotic, Bcl-2 family proteins as enhancers of α7 nAChR assembly, acting through an intracellular BH3-like domain during receptor biogenesis in the endoplasmic reticulum.

Neuregulin-1/ErbB network: An emerging modulator of nervous system injury and repair

Neuregulin-1 (Nrg-1) is a member of the Neuregulin family of growth factors with essential roles in the developing and adult nervous system. Six different types of Nrg-1 (Nrg-1 type I-VI) and over 30 isoforms have been discovered; however, their specific roles are not fully determined. Nrg-1 signals through a complex network of protein-tyrosine kinase receptors, ErbB2, ErbB3, ErbB4 and multiple intracellular pathways. Genetic and pharmacological studies of Nrg-1 and ErbB receptors have identified a critical role for Nrg-1/ErbB network in neurodevelopment including neuronal migration, neural differentiation, myelination as well as formation of synapses and neuromuscular junctions. Nrg-1 signaling is best known for its characterized role in development and repair of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) due to its essential role in Schwann cell development, survival and myelination. However, our knowledge of the impact of Nrg-1/ErbB on the central nervous system (CNS) has emerged in recent years. Ongoing efforts have uncovered a multi-faceted role for Nrg-1 in regulating CNS injury and repair processes. In this review, we provide a timely overview of the most recent updates on Nrg-1 signaling and its role in nervous system injury and diseases. We will specifically highlight the emerging role of Nrg-1 in modulating the glial and immune responses and its capacity to foster neuroprotection and remyelination in CNS injury. Nrg-1/ErbB network is a key regulatory pathway in the developing nervous system; therefore, unraveling its role in neuropathology and repair can aid in development of new therapeutic approaches for nervous system injuries and associated disorders.

Neuregulin1 attenuates cognitive deficits and hippocampal CA1 neuronal apoptosis partly via ErbB4 receptor in a rat model of chronic cerebral hypoperfusion

Neuregulin1 (NRG1) is an effective neuroprotectant. Previously we demonstrated that the expression of hippocampal NRG1/ErbB4 gradually decreased and correlates with neuronal apoptosis during chronic cerebral hypoperfusion (CCH). Here we aimed to further investigate the protective role of NRG1 in CCH. AG1478, an ErbB4 inhibitor, was used to explore the involvement of ErbB4 receptors in NRG1's action. Permanent bilateral common carotid artery occlusion (2VO) or sham operation was performed in Sprague-Dawley rats. NRG1 (100 μM) and AG1478 (50 mM) was administered intraventricularly. Eight weeks post-surgery, cognitive impairment was analyzed using Morris water maze (MWM) and radial arm water maze (RAWM) tests, followed by histological assessment of the survival and apoptosis of hippocampal CA1 neurons using NeuN and TUNEL immunostaining respectively. Expression of apoptosis-related proteins and ErbB4 activation (pErbB4/ErbB4) was evaluated by Western blotting. The results showed that NRG1 significantly improved the performances in MWM (spatial learning and memory) and RAWM (spatial working and reference memory), attenuated hippocampal CA1 neuronal loss and apoptosis, upregulated the expression of pErbB4/ErbB4 and the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2, and downregulated the expression of pro-apoptotic proteins of Cleaved (Cl)-caspase3 and Bax. In addition, the protective effects of NRG1 could be partly abolished by AG1478. Taken together, our study suggested that NRG1 ameliorates cognitive impairment and neuronal apoptosis partly via ErbB4 receptors in rats with CCH.

Soluble epoxide hydrolase inhibition alleviated cognitive impairments via NRG1/ErbB4 signaling after chronic cerebral hypoperfusion induced by bilateral carotid artery stenosis in mice

Cerebral ischemic stroke is associated with a high rate of incidence, prevalence and mortality globally. Carotid artery stenosis, which is mainly caused by atherosclerosis plaque, results in chronic cerebral hypoperfusion and predominantly increases the risk of ischemic stroke. In the present study, we used bilateral common carotid artery stenosis (BCAS) model by placing microcoils of 0.18 mm diameter encompassing both common carotid arteries respectively, to mimic the pathogenesis of carotid artery atherosclerosis and intensively explore the pathology. We found that BCAS injury for 1 month impaired spatial cognitive functions significantly, and inhibited synaptic plasticity, including hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP) inhibition, dendritic spine density reduction and synaptic associative proteins disorder. BCAS-induced cerebral hypoperfused mice treated with 1-(1-propanoylpiperidin-4-yl)-3-[4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenyl]urea (TPPU), a potent soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH) inhibitor, exhibited amelioration of cognitive dysfunction and improved synaptic plasticity. The neural protective effects of TPPU on BCAS-induced cerebral hypoperfusion might due to activation of neuregulin-1 (NRG1)/ErbB4 signaling, and triggered PI3K-Akt pathways subsequently. Our results suggested that sEH inhibition could exert multi-target protective effects and alleviate spatial cognitive dysfunctions after chronic cerebral hypoperfusion in mice.

Transcriptomic analysis of neuregulin-1 regulated genes following ischemic stroke by computational identification of promoter binding sites: A role for the ETS-1 transcription factor

Ischemic stroke is a major cause of mortality in the United States. We previously showed that neuregulin-1 (NRG1) was neuroprotective in rat models of ischemic stroke. We used gene expression profiling to understand the early cellular and molecular mechanisms of NRG1's effects after the induction of ischemia. Ischemic stroke was induced by middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). Rats were allocated to 3 groups: (1) control, (2) MCAO and (3) MCAO + NRG1. Cortical brain tissues were collected three hours following MCAO and NRG1 treatment and subjected to microarray analysis. Data and statistical analyses were performed using R/Bioconductor platform alongside Genesis, Ingenuity Pathway Analysis and Enrichr software packages. There were 2693 genes differentially regulated following ischemia and NRG1 treatment. These genes were organized by expression patterns into clusters using a K-means clustering algorithm. We further analyzed genes in clusters where ischemia altered gene expression, which was reversed by NRG1 (clusters 4 and 10). NRG1, IRS1, OPA3, and POU6F1 were central linking (node) genes in cluster 4. Conserved Transcription Factor Binding Site Finder (CONFAC) identified ETS-1 as a potential transcriptional regulator of NRG1 suppressed genes following ischemia. A transcription factor activity array showed that ETS-1 activity was increased 2-fold, 3 hours following ischemia and this activity was attenuated by NRG1. These findings reveal key early transcriptional mechanisms associated with neuroprotection by NRG1 in the ischemic penumbra.

The Expression of Hippocampal NRG1/ErbB4 Correlates With Neuronal Apoptosis, but Not With Glial Activation During Chronic Cerebral Hypoperfusion

Permanent bilateral common carotid occlusion (2VO) is well-established to investigate the chronic cerebral hypoperfusion (CCH)-induced cognitive deficits. Besides, previous studies suggested that disturbance of Neuregulin1 (NRG1)/ErbB4 signaling is associated with cognitive impairments, as well as neuronal apoptosis and neuroinflammation in CNS. However, the expression pattern of hippocampal NRG1/ErbB4 has not been systematically investigated during CCH. Here, we aim to investigate the temporal changes of hippocampal NRG1/ErbB4 during CCH and their possible relationship with neuronal apoptosis and glial activation. Morris water maze (MWM) and Radial arm water maze (RAWM) tests were used to analyze cognitive impairment in 2VO rats at 28 days post-surgery, and Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), western blotting and immunostaining were performed at different time points (24 h, 7 days, 14 days, 28 days) to detect the expression pattern of NRG1/ErbB4 and the distribution of ErbB4. Neuronal nuclei (NeuN), NeuN/TUNEL, Iba1 and GFAP immunostaining and caspase activity in hippocampal CA1 subarea were assessed during CCH as well. We found that the expression of NRG1 and phosphorylated ErbB4 (pErbB4)/ErbB4 changed in a time-dependent manner (up-regulated in the acute phase and then decreased in the chronic phase of CCH). Besides, ErbB4-expressed neurons and selective types of GABAergic cells decreased after CCH, but the distribution pattern of ErbB4 remained unchanged. In addition, the expression of hippocampal NRG1/ErbB4 positively correlated with the level of neuronal apoptosis (both NeuN/TUNEL immunostaining and caspase-3 activity), but not with glial activation according to Pearson’s correlation. These findings indicated that hippocampal NRG1/ErbB4 may be involved in the pathogenesis of CCH, especially neuronal apoptosis during CCH.

Regulation of inflammatory responses by neuregulin-1 in brain ischemia and microglial cells in vitro involves the NF-kappa B pathway

Background

We previously demonstrated that neuregulin-1 (NRG-1) was neuroprotective in rats following ischemic stroke. Neuroprotection by NRG-1 was associated with the suppression of pro-inflammatory gene expression in brain tissues. Over-activation of brain microglia can induce pro-inflammatory gene expression by activation of transcriptional regulators following stroke. Here, we examined how NRG-1 transcriptionally regulates inflammatory gene expression by computational bioinformatics and in vitro using microglial cells.

Methods

To identify transcriptional regulators involved in ischemia-induced inflammatory gene expression, rats were sacrificed 24 h after middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) and NRG-1 treatment. Gene expression profiles of brain tissues following ischemia and NRG-1 treatment were examined by microarray technology. The Conserved Transcription Factor-Binding Site Finder (CONFAC) bioinformatics software package was used to predict transcription factors associated with inflammatory genes induced following stroke and suppressed by NRG-1 treatment. NF-kappa B (NF-kB) was identified as a potential transcriptional regulator of NRG-1-suppressed genes following ischemia. The involvement of specific NF-kB subunits in NRG-1-mediated inflammatory responses was examined using N9 microglial cells pre-treated with NRG-1 (100 ng/ml) followed by lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 10 μg/ml) stimulation. The effects of NRG-1 on cytokine production were investigated using Luminex technology. The levels of the p65, p52, and RelB subunits of NF-kB and IkB-α were determined by western blot analysis and ELISA. Phosphorylation of IkB-α was investigated by ELISA.

Results

CONFAC identified 12 statistically over-represented transcription factor-binding sites (TFBS) in our dataset, including NF-kBP65. Using N9 microglial cells, we observed that NRG-1 significantly inhibited LPS-induced TNFα and IL-6 release. LPS increased the phosphorylation and degradation of IkB-α which was blocked by NRG-1. NRG-1 also prevented the nuclear translocation of the NF-kB p65 subunit following LPS administration. However, NRG-1 increased production of the neuroprotective cytokine granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) and the nuclear translocation of the NF-kB p52 subunit, which is associated with the induction of anti-apoptotic and suppression of pro-inflammatory gene expression.

Conclusions

Neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects of NRG-1 are associated with the differential regulation of NF-kB signaling pathways in microglia. Taken together, these findings suggest that NRG-1 may be a potential therapeutic treatment for treating stroke and other neuroinflammatory disorders.

Differential changes in Neuregulin-1 signaling in major brain regions in a lipopolysaccharide-induced neuroinflammation mouse model

Neuregulin 1 (Nrg1) is involved in multiple biological processes in the nervous system. The present study investigated changes in Nrg1 signaling in the major brain regions of mice subjected to lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced neuroinflammation. At 24 h post‑intraperitoneal injection of LPS, mouse brain tissues, including tissues from the cortex, striatum, hippocampus and hypothalamus, were collected. Reverse transcription‑polymerase chain reaction was used to determine the expression of Nrg1 and its receptors, Neu and ErbB4, at the mRNA level. Western blotting was performed to determine the levels of these proteins and the protein levels of phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinases (Erk)1/2 and Akt1. Immunohistochemical staining was utilized to detect the levels of pNeu and pErbB4 in these regions. LPS successfully induced sites of neuroinflammation in these regions, in which changes in Nrg1, Neu and ErbB4 at the mRNA and protein levels were identified compared with controls. LPS induced a reduction in pNeu and pErbB4 in the striatum and hypothalamus, although marginally increased pErbB4 levels were found in the hippocampus. LPS increased the overall phosphorylation of Src but this effect was reduced in the hypothalamus. Moreover, increased phosphorylation of Akt1 was found in the striatum and hippocampus. These data suggest diverse roles for Nrg1 signaling in these regions during the process of neuroinflammation.

Blocking the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase pathway inhibits neuregulin-1-mediated rescue of neurotoxicity induced by Aβ1-42

OBJECTIVES

Neuregulin-1 (NRG1) has an important role in both the development and the plasticity of the brain as well as neuroprotective properties. In this study, we investigated the downstream pathways of NRG1 signalling and their role in the prevention of Aβ1-42 -induced neurotoxicity.

METHODS

Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and TUNEL staining were assayed to examine the neuroprotective properties in primary rat cortical neurons.

KEY FINDINGS

The inhibition of PI3K/Akt activation abolished the ability of NRG1 to prevent Aβ1-42 -induced LDH release and increased TUNEL-positive cell count and reactive oxygen species accumulation in primary cortical neurons.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that NRG1 signalling exerts a neuroprotective effect against Aβ1-42 -induced neurotoxicity via activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway. Furthermore, this suggests that NRG1 has neuroprotective potential for the treatment of AD.

Microenvironmental regulation of oligodendrocyte replacement and remyelination in spinal cord injury

Myelin is a proteolipid sheath enwrapping axons in the nervous system that facilitates signal transduction along the axons. In the central nervous system (CNS), oligodendrocytes are specialized glial cells responsible for myelin formation and maintenance. Following spinal cord injury (SCI), oligodendroglia cell death and myelin damage (demyelination) cause chronic axonal damage and irreparable loss of sensory and motor functions. Accumulating evidence shows that replacement of damaged oligodendrocytes and renewal of myelin (remyelination) are promising approaches to prevent axonal degeneration and restore function following SCI. Neural precursor cells (NPCs) and oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) are two main resident cell populations in the spinal cord with innate capacities to foster endogenous oligodendrocyte replacement and remyelination. However, due to the hostile microenvironment of SCI, the regenerative capacity of these endogenous precursor cells is conspicuously restricted. Activated resident glia, along with infiltrating immune cells, are among the key modulators of secondary injury mechanisms that create a milieu impermissible to oligodendrocyte differentiation and remyelination. Recent studies have uncovered inhibitory roles for astrocyte-associated molecules such as matrix chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs), and a plethora of pro-inflammatory cytokines and neurotoxic factors produced by activated microglia/macrophages. The quality of axonal remyelination is additionally challenged by dysregulation of the supportive growth factors required for maturation of new oligodendrocytes and axo-oligodendrocyte signalling. Careful understanding of factors that modulate the activity of endogenous precursor cells in the injury microenvironment is a key step in developing efficient repair strategies for remyelination and functional recovery following SCI.

Mechanisms of cell-cell interaction in oligodendrogenesis and remyelination after stroke

White matter damage is a clinically important aspect of several central nervous system diseases, including stroke. Cerebral white matter primarily consists of axonal bundles ensheathed with myelin secreted by mature oligodendrocytes, which play an important role in neurotransmission between different areas of gray matter. During the acute phase of stroke, damage to oligodendrocytes leads to white matter dysfunction through the loss of myelin. On the contrary, during the chronic phase, white matter components promote an environment, which is favorable for neural repair, vascular remodeling, and remyelination. For effective remyelination to take place, oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) play critical roles by proliferating and differentiating into mature oligodendrocytes, which help to decrease the burden of axonal injury. Notably, other types of cells contribute to these OPC responses under the ischemic conditions. This mini-review summarizes the non-cell autonomous mechanisms in oligodendrogenesis and remyelination after white matter damage, focusing on how OPCs receive support from their neighboring cells. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Cell Interactions In Stroke.

Neuregulin-1 inhibits neuroinflammatory responses in a rat model of organophosphate-nerve agent-induced delayed neuronal injury

Background

Neuregulin-1 (NRG-1) has been shown to act as a neuroprotectant in animal models of nerve agent intoxication and other acute brain injuries. We recently demonstrated that NRG-1 blocked delayed neuronal death in rats intoxicated with the organophosphate (OP) neurotoxin diisopropylflurophosphate (DFP). It has been proposed that inflammatory mediators are involved in the pathogenesis of OP neurotoxin-mediated brain damage.

Methods

We examined the influence of NRG-1 on inflammatory responses in the rat brain following DFP intoxication. Microglial activation was determined by immunohistchemistry using anti-CD11b and anti-ED1 antibodies. Gene expression profiling was performed with brain tissues using Affymetrix gene arrays and analyzed using the Ingenuity Pathway Analysis software. Cytokine mRNA levels following DFP and NRG-1 treatment was validated by real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR).

Results

DFP administration resulted in microglial activation in multiple brain regions, and this response was suppressed by treatment with NRG-1. Using microarray gene expression profiling, we observed that DFP increased mRNA levels of approximately 1,300 genes in the hippocampus 24 h after administration. NRG-1 treatment suppressed by 50% or more a small fraction of DFP-induced genes, which were primarily associated with inflammatory responses. Real-time RT-PCR confirmed that the mRNAs for pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were significantly increased following DFP exposure and that NRG-1 significantly attenuated this transcriptional response. In contrast, tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) transcript levels were unchanged in both DFP and DFP + NRG-1 treated brains relative to controls.

Conclusion

Neuroprotection by NRG-1 against OP neurotoxicity is associated with the suppression of pro-inflammatory responses in brain microglia. These findings provide new insight regarding the molecular mechanisms involved in the neuroprotective role of NRG-1 in acute brain injuries.

Treatment of acute cerebral ischemia using animal models: a meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

There are numerous potential treatments assessed for acute cerebral ischemia using animal models. This study aimed to assess the effect of these treatments in terms of infarct size and neurobehavioral change. This meta-analysis was conducted to determine if any of these treatments provide a superior benefit so that they might be used on humans.

METHODS

A systematic search was conducted using several electronic databases for controlled animal studies using only nonsurgical interventions for acute cerebral ischemia. A random-effects model was used.

RESULTS

After an extensive literature search, 145 studies were included in the analysis. These studies included 1408 treated animals and 1362 control animals. Treatments that had the most significant effect on neurobehavioral scales included insulin, various antagonists, including N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist ACEA1021, calmodulin antagonist DY-9760e, and α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptor antagonist YM872, and antiviral agents. Treatments providing the greatest effect on infarct size included statins, sphingosine-1-phosphate agonist (fingolimod), alcohol, angiotensin, and leukotrienes. Treatments offering the greatest reduction in brain water content included various agonists, including sphingosine-1-phosphate agonist fingolimod, statins, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ). Treatment groups with more than one study all had high heterogeneity (I2 > 80%), however, using meta-regression we determined several sources of heterogeneity including sample size of the treatment and control groups, the occlusion time, but not the year when the study was conducted.

CONCLUSIONS

Some treatments stand out when compared to others for acute cerebral ischemia in animals. Greater replication of treatment studies is required before any treatments are selected for future human trials.

Neuregulin as a heart failure therapy and mediator of reverse remodeling

The beta isoform of Neuregulin-1 (NRG-1β), along with its receptors (ErbB2-4), is required for cardiac development. NRG-1β, as well as the ErbB2 and ErbB4 receptors, is also essential for maintenance of adult heart function. These observations have led to its evaluation as a therapeutic for heart failure. Animal studies and ongoing clinical trials have demonstrated beneficial effects of two forms of recombinant NRG-1β on cardiac function. In addition to the possible role for recombinant NRG-1βs as heart failure therapies, endogenous NRG-1β/ErbB signaling appears to play a role in restoring cardiac function after injury. The potential mechanisms by which NRG-1β may act as both a therapy and a mediator of reverse remodeling remain incompletely understood. In addition to direct effects on cardiac myocytes NRG-1β acts on the vasculature, interstitium, cardiac fibroblasts, and hematopoietic and immune cells, which, collectively, may contribute to NRG-1β's role in maintaining cardiac structure and function, as well as mediating reverse remodeling.

Neuregulin-1 attenuates mortality associated with experimental cerebral malaria

Background

Cerebral Malaria (CM) is a diffuse encephalopathy caused by Plasmodium falciparum infection. Despite availability of antimalarial drugs, CM-associated mortality remains high at approximately 30% and a subset of survivors develop neurological and cognitive disabilities. While antimalarials are effective at clearing Plasmodium parasites they do little to protect against CM pathophysiology and parasite-induced brain inflammation that leads to seizures, coma and long-term neurological sequelae in CM patients. Thus, there is urgent need to explore therapeutics that can reduce or prevent CM pathogenesis and associated brain inflammation to improve survival. Neuregulin-1 (NRG-1) is a neurotrophic growth factor shown to protect against brain injury associated with acute ischemic stroke (AIS) and neurotoxin exposure. However, this drug has not been tested against CM-associated brain injury. Since CM-associated brain injuries and AIS share similar pathophysiological features, we hypothesized that NRG-1 will reduce or prevent neuroinflammation and brain damage as well as improve survival in mice with late-stage experimental cerebral malaria (ECM).

Methods

We tested the effects of NRG-1 on ECM-associated brain inflammation and mortality in P. berghei ANKA (PbA)-infected mice and compared to artemether (ARM) treatment; an antimalarial currently used in various combination therapies against malaria.

Results

Treatment with ARM (25 mg/kg/day) effectively cleared parasites and reduced mortality in PbA-infected mice by 82%. Remarkably, NRG-1 therapy (1.25 ng/kg/day) significantly improved survival against ECM by 73% despite increase in parasite burden within NRG-1-treated mice. Additionally, NRG-1 therapy reduced systemic and brain pro-inflammatory factors TNFalpha, IL-6, IL-1alpha and CXCL10 and enhanced anti-inflammatory factors, IL-5 and IL-13 while decreasing leukocyte accumulation in brain microvessels.

Conclusions

This study suggests that NRG-1 attenuates ECM-associated brain inflammation and injuries and may represent a novel supportive therapy for the management of CM.

Neuregulin1 signaling promotes dendritic spine growth through kalirin

The biological functions of the neuregulin 1 (NRG1) and ERBB4 genes have received much recent attention due to several studies showing associations between these genes and schizophrenia. Moreover, reduced forebrain dendritic spine density is a consistent feature of schizophrenia. It is thus important to understand the mechanisms whereby NRG1 and erbB4 modulate spine morphogenesis. Here, we show that long-term incubation with NRG1 increases both spine size and density in cortical pyramidal neurons. NRG1 also enhances the content of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionate receptors in spines. Knockdown of ERBB4 expression prevented the effects of NRG1 on spine size, but not on spine density. The effects of NRG1 and erbB4 on spines were mediated by the RacGEF kalirin, a well-characterized regulator of dendritic spines. Finally, we show that environmental enrichment, known to promote spine growth, robustly enhances the levels of erbB4 protein in the forebrain. These findings provide a mechanistic link between NRG1 signaling and spine morphogenesis

Neuregulin-1/ErbB4 signaling regulates Kv4.2-mediated transient outward K+ current through the Akt/mTOR pathway

Neuregulin-1 (NRG-1) is a member of a family of neurotrophic factors that is required for the differentiation, migration, and development of neurons. NRG-1 signaling is thought to contribute to both neuronal development and the neuropathology of schizophrenia, which is believed to be a neurodevelopmental disorder. However, few studies have investigated the role of NRG-1 on voltage-gated ion channels. In this study, we report that NRG-1 specifically increases the density of transient outward K(+) currents (IA) in rat cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) in a time-dependent manner without modifying the activation or inactivation properties of IA channels. The increase in IA density is mediated by increased protein expression of Kv4.2, the main α-subunit of the IA channel, most likely by upregulation of translation. The effect of NRG-1 on IA density and Kv4.2 expression was only significant in immature neurons. Mechanistically, both Akt and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathways are required for the increased NRG-1-induced IA density and expression of Kv4.2. Moreover, pharmacological blockade of the ErbB4 receptor reduced the effect of NRG-1 on IA density and Kv4.2 induction. Our data reveal, for the first time, that stimulation of ErbB4 signaling by NRG-1 upregulates the expression of K(+) channel proteins via activation of the Akt/mTOR signaling pathway and plays an important role in neuronal development and maturation. NRG1 does not acutely change IA and delayed-rectifier outward (IK) of rat CGNs, suggesting that it may not alter excitability of immature neurons by altering potassium channel property.

Association study of neuregulin-1 gene polymorphisms in a North Indian schizophrenia sample

BACKGROUND

Neuregulin-1 (NRG1) gene polymorphisms have been proposed as risk factors for several common disorders. Associations with cognitive variation have also been tested. With regard to schizophrenia (SZ) risk, studies of Caucasian ancestry samples indicate associations more consistently than East Asian samples, suggesting heterogeneity. To exploit the differences in linkage disequilibrium (LD) structure across ethnic groups, we conducted a SZ case-control study (that included cognitive evaluations) in a sample from the north Indian population.

METHODS

NRG1 variants (n=35 SNPs, three microsatellite markers) were initially analyzed among cases (DSM IV criteria, n=1007) and controls (n=1019, drawn from two groups) who were drawn from the same geographical region in North India. Nominally significant associations with SZ were next analyzed in relation to neurocognitive measures estimated with a computerized neurocognitive battery in a subset of the sample (n=116 cases, n=170 controls).

RESULTS

Three variants and one microsatellite showed allelic association with SZ (rs35753505, rs4733263, rs6994992, and microsatellite 420M9-1395, p≤0.05 uncorrected for multiple comparisons). A six marker haplotype 221121 (rs35753505-rs6994992-rs1354336-rs10093107-rs3924999-rs11780123) showed (p=0.0004) association after Bonferroni corrections. Regression analyses with the neurocognitive measures showed nominal (uncorrected) associations with emotion processing and attention at rs35753505 and rs6994992, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Suggestive associations with SZ and SZ-related neurocognitive measures were detected with two SNPs from the NRG1 promoter region in a north Indian cohort. The functional role of the alleles merits further investigation.

Neuregulin-1 exerts protective effects against neurotoxicities induced by C-terminal fragments of APP via ErbB4 receptor

Neuregulin-1 (NRG1) plays important roles in the development and plasticity of the brain, and it is also reported to have potent neuroprotective properties. We previously reported that NRG1 has neuroprotective actions against Swedish amyloid precursor protein-induced neurotoxicity. In addition to the amyloid beta peptide, other metabolites of amyloid precursor protein (APP) such as the C-terminal fragments of APP (APP-CTs) have been reported to possess cytotoxic effects in neuronal cells. In this study, we investigated whether NRG1 exerts neuroprotective effects against APP-CTs and attempted to determine its neuroprotective mechanisms. NRG1 attenuated the neurotoxicities induced by the expression of APP-CTs in neuronal cells. NRG1 also reduced the accumulation of reactive oxygen species and attenuated mitochondrial membrane potential loss induced by APP-CTs. In addition, NRG1 upregulated the expression of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2. This effect was blocked by the inhibition of ErbB4, a key NRG1 receptor. Taken together, these results demonstrate the neuroprotective potential of NRG1 in Alzheimer's disease.

Neuregulin1β1 protects oligodendrocyte progenitor cells from oxygen glucose deprivation injury induced apoptosis via ErbB4-dependent activation of PI3-kinase/Akt

Mounting evidence suggests that the injury of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) caused by hypoxia plays a pivotal role in periventricular white matter injury (PWMI) causation. We investigated the potential role of active extracellular domain of Neuregulin1 isotypeβ1 (NRG1β1)/ErbB signaling in protecting OPCs from oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD) induced apoptosis. At different time points, endogenous NRG1β1 protein was analyzed after OGD. Escalating dosages of NRG1β1 were used to treat OPCs with OGD, and the apoptosis was measured, as well as the expression of ErbB receptors, Akt and Erk phosphorylation and caspase3 activation. OGD damage resulted in decreased expression of endogenous NRG1β1. In parallel, NRG1β1 treatment promoted the expression of p-ErbB4 receptor, phosphorylated Akt and inhibited caspase3 activation. Furthermore, the activation of PI3-kinase/Akt by NRG1β1 was ErbB4 dependent. Our data demonstrated that NRG1β1 protected OPCs from OGD induced apoptosis and the possible protective mechanism is linking with ErbB4-dependent activation of PI3-kinase/Akt pathway.

Neuregulin-1 is neuroprotective in a rat model of organophosphate-induced delayed neuronal injury

Current medical countermeasures against organophosphate (OP) nerve agents are effective in reducing mortality, but do not sufficiently protect the CNS from delayed brain damage and persistent neurological symptoms. In this study, we examined the efficacy of neuregulin-1 (NRG-1) in protecting against delayed neuronal cell death following acute intoxication with the OP diisopropylflurophosphate (DFP). Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were pretreated with pyridostigmine (0.1 mg/kg BW, i.m.) and atropine methylnitrate (20 mg/kg BW, i.m.) prior to DFP (9 mg/kg BW, i.p.) intoxication to increase survival and reduce peripheral signs of cholinergic toxicity but not prevent DFP-induced seizures or delayed neuronal injury. Pretreatment with NRG-1 did not protect against seizures in rats exposed to DFP. However, neuronal injury was significantly reduced in most brain regions by pretreatment with NRG-1 isoforms NRG-EGF (3.2 μg/kg BW, i.a) or NRG-GGF2 (48 μg/kg BW, i.a.) as determined by FluroJade-B labeling in multiple brain regions at 24 h post-DFP injection. NRG-1 also blocked apoptosis and oxidative stress-mediated protein damage in the brains of DFP-intoxicated rats. Administration of NRG-1 at 1h after DFP injection similarly provided significant neuroprotection against delayed neuronal injury. These findings identify NRG-1 as a promising adjuvant therapy to current medical countermeasures for enhancing neuroprotection against acute OP intoxication.

Circulating neuregulin-1β levels vary according to the angiographic severity of coronary artery disease and ischemia

BACKGROUND

Coronary artery disease (CAD) is the leading killer in the United States. Patients with severe CAD and ischemia have worse prognosis. Therefore expansion of biomarker research, to identify at-risk individuals and explain the complex biology between cardiovascular growth factors and atherosclerosis is needed. Neuregulin-1β (NRG-1β) is a myocardial stress activated growth and survival factor released from endocardial and endothelial cells. NRG-1β is essential for cardiovascular development and a regulator of angiogenesis. We postulated that plasma and serum levels of NRG-1β would vary in relation to CAD severity and the presence of stress-induced ischemia.

METHODS

We measured serum and plasma levels of NRG-1β and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in 60 patients undergoing cardiac catheterization. CAD severity was calculated from angiographic results using a modified Duke jeopardy score.

RESULTS

Serum NRG-1β (sNRG-1β), plasma NRG-1β (pNRG-1β), serum VEGF, and plasma VEGF were detectable in the majority of patients. The pNRG-1β levels were approximately two-fold higher than sNRG-1β. Both sNRG-1β and pNRG-1β correlated inversely with CAD severity. pNRG-1β levels were statistically higher in patients with stress-induced ischemia denoted by a positive myocardial perfusion imaging study that correlated with angiographic findings (P=0.02).

CONCLUSION

Both sNRG-1β and pNRG-1β correlated inversely with angiographic severity of CAD. pNRG-1β levels were two-fold higher than serum and were higher in patients with stress-induced ischemia. Therefore we conclude that plasma is the optimal source for the further exploration of the biological significance of NRG-1β as a biomarker of CAD severity and ischemia.

Aspirin upregulates the expression of neuregulin 1 and survivin after focal cerebral ischemia/reperfusion in rats

Neuregulin 1 (NGR1) and survivin have been shown to be neuroprotective. However, the link between their expression and aspirin in the treatment of cerebral ischemia remains unclear. Here, we investigated the effect of aspirin on NGR1 and survivin expression after focal cerebral ischemia/reperfusion in rats. Sprague Dawley rats were randomly divided into an aspirin treatment group (n=40) and a control group (n=40). Each group was further divided into five subgroups according to the time after reperfusion. A middle cerebral artery model was established by an occlusion suture. At 24 h, 3, 5 and 7 days after reperfusion, the Bederson neurological deficit scores were 1.47±0.11, 1.22±0.08, 0.85±0.15 and 0.59±0.12 in the treatment group, and 1.87±0.18, 1.45±0.14, 1.05±0.08 and 0.75±0.15 in the control group, respectively, indicating a significant difference at each time point (P<0.05). In the infarct center, the number of NGR1- and survivin-positive cells reached the maximum at 6 h and decreased gradually to a minimum at 7 days, while in the peri-infarct area, the number was few at 6 h, peaked at 3 days and then was reduced gradually with significant differences between the two time points (P<0.05). There were more NGR1- and survivin-positive cells in the treatment group compared to the control group (P<0.05). In conclusion, the neuroprotective effect of aspirin is at least partly mediated by the upregulation of NGR1 and survivin expression after ischemia.

Neuregulin-1 protects against neurotoxicities induced by Swedish amyloid precursor protein via the ErbB4 receptor

Neuregulin-1 (NRG1) plays an important role in the development and plasticity of the brain and exhibits potent neuroprotective properties. However, little information on its role in Alzheimer's disease (AD) is known. The neuroprotective effect and mechanisms of NRG1 in SH-SY5Y cells overexpressing the Swedish mutant form of amyloid precursor protein (Swe-APP) and primary cortical neuronal cells treated with amyloid beta peptide(1-42) (Aβ(1-42)) were investigated in this study. NRG1 attenuated Swe-APP- or Aβ(1-42)-induced lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release in a concentration-dependent manner. The mitigating effects of NRG1 on neuronal cell death were blocked by ErbB4 inhibition, a key NRG1 receptor, which suggests a role of ErbB4 in the neuroprotective function of NRG1. Moreover, NRG1 reduced the number of Swe-APP- and Aβ(1-42)-induced TUNEL-positive SH-SY5Y cells and primary cortical neurons, respectively. NRG1 reduced the accumulation of reactive oxygen species and attenuated Swe-APP-induced mitochondrial membrane potential loss. NRG1 also induced the upregulation of the expression of the anti-apoptotic protein, Bcl-2, and decreased caspase-3 activation. Collectively, our results demonstrate that NRG1 exerts neuroprotective effects via the ErbB4 receptor, which suggests the neuroprotective potential of NRG1 in AD.

Specific regulation of NRG1 isoform expression by neuronal activity

Neuregulin 1 (NRG1) is a trophic factor that has been implicated in neural development, neurotransmission, and synaptic plasticity. NRG1 has multiple isoforms that are generated by usage of different promoters and alternative splicing of a single gene. However, little is known about NRG1 isoform composition profile, whether it changes during development, or the underlying mechanisms. We found that each of the six types of NRG1 has a distinct expression pattern in the brain at different ages, resulting in a change in NRG1 isoform composition. In both human and rat, the most dominant are types III and II, followed by either type I or type V, while types IV and VI are the least abundant. The expression of NRG1 isoforms is higher in rat brains at ages of E13 and P5 (in particular type V), suggesting roles in early neural development and in the neonatal critical period. At the cellular level, the majority of NRG1 isoforms (types I, II, and III) are expressed in excitatory neurons, although they are also present in GABAergic neurons and astrocytes. Finally, the expression of each NRG1 isoform is distinctly regulated by neuronal activity, which causes significant increase in type I and IV NRG1 levels. Neuronal activity regulation of type IV expression requires a CRE cis-element in the 5' untranslated region (UTR) that binds to CREB. These results indicate that expression of NRG1 isoforms is regulated by distinct mechanisms, which may contribute to versatile functions of NRG1 and pathologic mechanisms of brain disorders such as schizophrenia.

Expression of ErbB4 in the neurons of Alzheimer's disease brain and APP/PS1 mice, a model of Alzheimer's disease

Neuregulin-1 (NRG1) plays important roles in the development and plasticity of the brain, and has also been reported to exhibit potent neuroprotective properties. Although ErbB4, a key NRG1 receptor, is expressed in multiple regions in the adult animal brain, little is known about its role in Alzheimer's disease (AD). AD is characterized by progressive impairment of cognition and behavioral disturbance that strongly correlate with degeneration and death of neurons in the cerebral cortex and limbic brain areas, such as the hippocampus and the amygdala. Here, we show that the ErbB4 and phospho-ErbB4 immunoreactivities were higher intensity in the neurons of the CA1-2 transitional field of AD brains as compared to age-matched controls. Also, ErbB4 expression was increased in the neurons of the cortico medial nucleus amygdala, human basal forebrain and superior frontal gyrus of AD brains. In cerebral cortex and hippocampus of amyloid precursor protein/presenilin 1 double transgenic mice, ErbB4 immunoreactivity significantly increased in comparison to age-matched wild type control. These results suggest that up-regulating of ErbB4 immunoreactivity may involve in the progression of pathology of AD.

Functional and histological improvement of the injured spinal cord following transplantation of Schwann cells transfected with NRG1 gene

In this study, we implanted Schwann cells (SCs) transfected with Neuregulin 1 (NRG1) gene into rats with hemisection spinal cord injury, determined its effects on the repair of spinal cord injury and investigated the underlying mechanisms. Primary SCs were cultured, purified, and transfected with NRG1 gene. SCs and SCs transfected with NRG1 gene were implanted, respectively, into rats with hemisection spinal cord injury. Behavior, imaging, electrophysiology, and immuno-histological analyses were performed to evaluate the effect of NRG1 gene-transfected SCs on the repair of spinal cord injury. In vitro studies showed that NRG1 protein was highly expressed in SCs transfected with NRG1 gene. In addition, the receptors for NRG1, ErbB2, and ErbB4, were upregulated in a time-dependent manner. NRG1-transfected SCs secreted large amount of NRG1 proteins in vivo, which efficiently promoted the expression of ErbB2 and ErbB4 in the neurons and neuroglia cells. Moreover, the number of NSE- and GFAP-positive cells was increased. After cell transplantation, many transplanted cells survived and migrated to the areas with spinal cord injuries. The injuries were recovered in all the experimental groups, but the most significant recovery was observed in the group of rats implanted with SCs transfected with NRG1 gene. We conclude that NRG1-transfected SCs can significantly increase the effect on the repair of spinal cord injury. This repair effect is achieved via the upregulation of ErbB receptor in the target cells, increased proliferation of glial cells, and protection of neurons from apoptosis.

Expression of ErbB4 in the apoptotic neurons of Alzheimer's disease brain

Neuregulin-1 (NRG1) signaling participates in the synaptic plasticity, maintenance or regulation of adult brain. Although ErbB4, a key NRG1 receptor, is expressed in multiple regions in the adult animal brain, little is known about its localization in Alzheimer's disease (AD) brains. We previously reported that ErbB4 immunoreactivity showed regional difference in the hippocampus of age-matched control. In the present paper, immunohistochemical characterization of the distribution of ErbB4 receptor in the hippocampus relative to pathology staging were performed in age-matched control (Braak stage 0, n=6) and AD (Braak stage I/V, n=10). Here, we found that ErbB4 immunoreactivity was significantly increased in apoptotic hippocampal pyramidal neurons in the brains of AD patients, compared to those of age-matched control subjects. In AD brains, ErbB4 immunoreactivity was demonstrated to colocalize with the apoptotic signal Bax in apoptotic hippocampal pyramidal neurons. These results suggest that up-regulation of ErbB4 immunoreactivity in apoptotic neuron may involve in the progression of pathology of AD.

Preventive effects of heregulin-beta1 on macrophage foam cell formation and atherosclerosis

RATIONALE

Human heregulins, neuregulin-1 type I polypeptides that activate proliferation, differentiation, and survival of glial cells, neurons, and myocytes, are expressed in macrophage foam cells within human coronary atherosclerotic lesions. Macrophage foam cell formation, characterized by cholesterol ester accumulation, is modulated by scavenger receptor class A (SR-A), acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT)1, and ATP-binding cassette transporter (ABC)A1.

OBJECTIVE

The present study clarified the roles of heregulins in macrophage foam cell formation and atherosclerosis.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Plasma heregulin-beta(1) levels were significantly decreased in 31 patients with acute coronary syndrome and 33 patients with effort angina pectoris compared with 34 patients with mild hypertension and 40 healthy volunteers (1.3+/-0.3, 2.0+/-0.4 versus 7.6+/-1.4, 8.2+/-1.2 ng/mL; P<0.01). Among all patients with acute coronary syndrome and effort angina pectoris, plasma heregulin-beta(1) levels were further decreased in accordance with the severity of coronary artery lesions. Expression of heregulin-beta(1) was observed at trace levels in intracoronary atherothrombosis obtained by aspiration thrombectomy from acute coronary syndrome patients. Heregulin-beta(1), but not heregulin-alpha, significantly reduced acetylated low-density lipoprotein-induced cholesterol ester accumulation in primary cultured human monocyte-derived macrophages by reducing SR-A and ACAT1 expression and by increasing ABCA1 expression at both mRNA and protein levels. Heregulin-beta(1) significantly decreased endocytic uptake of [(125)I]acetylated low-density lipoprotein and ACAT activity, and increased cholesterol efflux to apolipoprotein (Apo)A-I from human macrophages. Chronic infusion of heregulin-beta(1) into ApoE(-/-) mice significantly suppressed the development of atherosclerotic lesions.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provided the first evidence that heregulin-beta(1) inhibits atherogenesis and suppresses macrophage foam cell formation via SR-A and ACAT1 downregulation and ABCA1 upregulation.

Neuregulin 1 in neural development, synaptic plasticity and schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a highly debilitating mental disorder that affects approximately 1% of the general population, yet it continues to be poorly understood. Recent studies have identified variations in several genes that are associated with this disorder in diverse populations, including those that encode neuregulin 1 (NRG1) and its receptor ErbB4. The past few years have witnessed exciting progress in our knowledge of NRG1 and ErbB4 functions and the biological basis of the increased risk for schizophrenia that is potentially conferred by polymorphisms in the two genes. An improved understanding of the mechanisms by which altered function of NRG1 and ErbB4 contributes to schizophrenia might eventually lead to the development of more effective therapeutics.

Neuroprotective effects of neuregulin-1 on B35 neuronal cells following ischemia

We previously showed that neuregulin-1 (NRG-1) protected neurons from death in vivo following focal ischemia. The goal of this study was to develop an in vitro rat ischemia model to examine the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in the neuroprotective effects of NRG-1 on ischemia-induced neuronal death. Rat B-35 neuroblastoma cells differentiated by serum withdrawal, developed enhanced neuronal characteristics including, neurite extension and upregulation of neuronal markers of differentiation. When B35 neurons were subjected to oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD)/reoxygenation or glutamate, widespread neuronal death was seen after both treatments. Treatment with NRG-1 immediately after OGD significantly increased neuronal survival. NRG-1 administration also resulted in a significant decrease in annexin V, an early marker of apoptosis. However, the neurotoxic actions of glutamate were unaffected by NRG-1. The neuroprotective effects of NRG-1 were prevented by an inhibitor of the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase/Akt pathway. These results provide a new model to gain insight into the mechanisms employed by NRG-1 to protect neurons from ischemic brain injury.

Effect of neuregulin-1 on histopathological and functional outcome after controlled cortical impact in mice

Neuregulin-1 is a pleiotropic endogenous growth factor that is neuroprotective in experimental models of cerebral ischemia. We tested the hypothesis that pretreatment with neuregulin-1 would be similarly protective after traumatic brain injury in mice. Mice were administered neuregulin-1 or equal amounts of vehicle intravenously immediately before controlled cortical impact. Injured mice were subjected to motor and cognitive testing, and brain tissue loss was quantitated at 4 weeks. Compared to vehicle, pretreatment with neuregulin-1 had no effect on brain tissue loss, motor function, or acquisition of a spatial learning task. However, neuregulin-1 treated mice showed improved retention of spatial memory versus vehicle-treated mice in subsequent probe trials (p<0.05). These proof-of-principle data suggest that neuregulin-1 may improve some functional outcomes after brain trauma. Further studies are therefore warranted to more carefully explore molecular mechanisms, dose-responses, and relationships between morphological outcome and long-term recovery.

Neuroprotection by neuregulin-1 in a rat model of permanent focal cerebral ischemia

Neuregulin-1 (NRG-1) is a growth factor with potent neuroprotective capacity in ischemic stroke. We recently showed that NRG-1 reduced neuronal death following transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) by up to 90% with an extended therapeutic window. Here, we examined the neuroprotective potential of NRG-1 using a permanent MCAO ischemia (pMCAO) rat model. NRG-1 reduced infarction in pMCAO by 50% when administered prior to ischemia. We previously demonstrated using gene expression profiling that pMCAO was associated with an exaggerated excitotoxicity response compared to tMCAO. Therefore, we examined whether co-treatment with an inhibitor of excitotoxicity would augment the effect of NRG-1 following pMCAO. Both NRG-1 and the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) antagonist MK-801 similarly reduced infarct size following pMCAO. However, combination treatment with both NRG-1 and MK-801 resulted in greater neuroprotection than either compound alone, including a 75% reduction in cortical infarction compared to control. Consistent with these findings, NRG-1 reduced neuronal death using an in vitro ischemia model and this effect was augmented by MK-801. These results demonstrate the efficacy of NRG-1 in pMCAO rat focal ischemia model. Our findings further indicate the potential clinically relevance of NRG-1 alone or as a combination strategy for treating ischemic stroke.