Adolescent cognitive control, theta oscillations, and social observation

The impact of noise on auditory processing in children and adults: A time-frequency analysis perspective

OBJECTIVE

The current study investigated the impact of listening conditions on cortical oscillatory activities in adults and children.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Fifteen adults and 15 children participated in this study. Electrophysiological measures were recorded with 64 electrodes. Stimulation was presented binaurally with parameters modulation: stimuli, listening conditions, noise and SNR. Intertrial phase clustering (ITPC) and power values were computed using spatially filtered data and complex Morlet wavelets. Data were statistically analyzed with mixed factorial ANOVAs.

RESULTS

In quiet, children exhibited stronger theta-alpha (ta-) ITPC than adults, especially for verbal stimuli, in bilateral temporal regions, while adults showed no regional differences. Beta-gamma (bg-) ITPC responses revealed that tonal stimuli only elicited stronger right temporal responses in children. Theta-alpha power was greater for tonal stimuli in children, while adults showed stronger right temporal responses. In noise, ta-ITPC reductions were more pronounced in children, especially in babble noise. In white noise, unlike babble noise, there was a systematic reduction of the ta-ITPC values as a function of the SNR level. The bg-ITPC responses were also weaker at lower than higher SNRs. Ta-Power was lower for tonal than verbal stimuli at the right electrode, with greater reductions in babble than in white noise. Bg-Power differences were observed only at the central electrode, where adults showed smaller reductions than children.

DISCUSSION

Results indicated that phase and power measures are sensitive to parameter modulation and could be used to understand auditory processing in noise, as they revealed increased susceptibility to noise in children compared to adults.

The brain-body circuit mediates acute stress-induced antiinflammatory reflex in bacterial cystitis by suppressing ILC2 activation

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are one of the most commonly encountered infections in clinical practice, in which psychological stress is a critical pathological contributor to modulate immune function. However, mechanistic pathways linking stress networks in the brain to bladder infection remain poorly understood. In this study, we discovered that acute stress treatment suppressed bladder inflammation in mice with UTIs, and a substantial number of neurons showing overlap between inflammation-associated markers and retrograde labeling were observed in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) brain region of these mice. Activation of the PVN alleviated uropathogenic Escherichia coli-induced bladder inflammatory response. Moreover, a blocked hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis reversed the antiinflammatory reflex mediated by acute stress, suggesting that glucocorticoids may modulate UTIs through the brain-body circuit. Single-cell RNA-Seq of bladder immune cells revealed that type 2 innate lymphoid (ILC2) cells expressed abundant levels of glucocorticoid receptor. The activation of the PVN effectively inhibited the expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokine colony-stimulating factor 2 by ILC2 cells through direct regulation of cell-intrinsic glucocorticoid signaling. Ultimately, our study has implications for the positioning of the brain-body circuit for UTI treatment.

The competition between brain and body: Does performing simultaneous cognitive and physical tasks alter the cortical activity of athletes compared to performing these tasks in isolation?

The underlying mechanism of an acute trade-off between cognitive and physical performances in athletes is still unclear. This study examined the effect of simultaneous cognitive and physical tasks on cortical electrical activity in 13 well-trained individuals who completed the "isolated" cognitive task (Stroop task), "isolated" physical task (12-minute cycle ergometer task), and the simultaneous (Stroop task + cycle ergometer) conditions. The participants fulfilled the subjective workload scale (NASA-TLX) and the ratings of perceived effort scale. For the cortical activity analysis (EEG), data from seven participants were retained allowing the analysis of 434 observational units for each condition. Spectral power was calculated for delta δ (0.5 to ≤4 Hz), theta θ (>4 to ≤8 Hz), alpha α (>8 to ≤13 Hz), beta β (>13 to ≤30 Hz) and gamma γ (>30 Hz) frequencies, and the biomarker theta-beta ratio (TBR). Significantly lower activity in gamma, beta and alpha bands during the isolated physical task and simultaneous condition (vs. cognitive condition) was observed (p < 0.001). Moreover, the relative slow frequencies were higher during the isolated physical task and simultaneous conditions, with higher predominance during the simultaneous condition (p < 0.001). The TBR presented a higher value for simultaneous (vs. isolated physical and isolated cognitive), with a higher value for the physical compared to cognitive condition (p < 0.001). This shift suggests that when the brain is concurrently managing cognitive load and physical effort, there is a redistribution of oscillatory activity, possibly reflecting a more energy-conserving or integrative cortical state.

Electrocortical Profiles in Relation to Childhood Adversity and Depression Severity: A Preliminary Report

Objective: Assessment of electroencephalographic (EEG) activity in depression has provided insights into neural profiles of the illness. However, there is limited understanding on how symptom severity and risk factors, such as childhood adversity, influence EEG features. Methods: Eyes-closed EEG was acquired in N = 28 depressed individuals being treated in a tertiary psychiatric setting. Absolute alpha, beta, theta, and delta power and inter-/intra-hemispheric coherence were examined. Relations between the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Scale (MADRS) and Adverse Childhood Experience (ACE) Questionnaire and EEG features were assessed. Results: Individuals in the high (MADRS≥30) versus lower (MADRS ≤ 29) symptom severity group exhibited greater overall beta power, and lower Fp1-Fp2 delta and theta coherence. Those with high (≥3) versus lower (≤2) ACE scores exhibited greater T7-T8 beta coherence. Lowest F3-F4 beta coherence was observed in those with high ACE/high depression severity. A negative correlation existed between F8-P8 alpha coherence and symptom severity. Conclusions: Those with higher depression severity exhibit increased beta power, possibly reflecting a hyper-vigilant state. Depression severity and ACE history may produce subtle alterations in frontal delta/theta and temporal/frontal beta coherence regions. Significance: This is the first study to examine the neural impact of depression severity and ACE-assessed childhood trauma in depressed individuals receiving treatment in a tertiary setting, accounting for the clinical reality of the prevalence of their co-occurrence.

EEG time-frequency dynamics of early cognitive control development

Cognitive control is crucial for goal-directed behavior, and essential for other aspects of cognitive and socioemotional development. This review examines when and how the neural dynamics of cognitive control emerge and develop, focusing on electroencephalography measures used to study cognitive control in infants and children. We argue that time-frequency analyses are uniquely able to capture two distinct components of cognitive control: 1) the detection that control is needed, and 2) the instantiation of control. Starting in infancy and increasing across childhood and adolescence, studies suggest the signal strength and consistency of midfrontal theta and delta oscillations are involved in processes that detect the need for control. For control instantiation, there is evidence that theta band connectivity between midfrontal and lateral-frontal cortices is present from early childhood. There is also evidence for the involvement of midfrontal theta power in the instantiation of control in infancy. We further review emerging evidence that indicates individual differences in midfrontal theta are not only proximally related to behavior, but also sensitive to variations in early experience and risk for psychopathology, providing a neural mechanism linking early adversity to future psychopathology. We discuss needed future steps, including novel paradigms, computational models, and aperiodic/periodic modeling of EEG.

Shared Patterns of Cognitive Control Behavior and Electrophysiological Markers in Adolescence

Behavioral parameters obtained from cognitive control tasks have been linked to electrophysiological markers. Yet, most previous research has investigated only a few specific behavioral parameters at a time. An integrated approach with simultaneous consideration of multiple aspects of behavior may better elucidate the development and function of cognitive control. Here, we aimed to identify shared patterns between cognitive control behavior and electrophysiological markers using stop-signal task data and EEG recordings from an adolescent sample (n = 193, aged 11-25 years). We extracted behavioral variables covering various aspects of RT, accuracy, inhibition, and decision-making processes, as well as amplitude and latency of the ERPs N1, N2, and P3. To identify shared patterns between the two sets of variables, we employed a principal component analysis and a canonical correlation analysis. First, we replicated previously reported associations between various cognitive control behavioral parameters. Next, results from the canonical correlation analysis showed that overall good task performance was associated with fast and strong neural processing. Furthermore, the canonical correlation was affected by age, indicating that the association varies depending on age. The present study suggests that although distributional and computational methods can be applied to extract specific behavioral parameters, they might not capture specific patterns of cognitive control or electrophysiological brain activity in adolescents.

Neural response to errors among mothers with a history of recurrent depression and their adolescent daughters

Depression is transmitted within families, but the mechanisms involved in such transmission are not clearly defined. A potential marker of familial risk is the neural response to errors, which may play a role in depression symptoms and is known to be partially heritable. Here, 97 mother-daughter dyads completed a Flanker task while electroencephalography markers of error monitoring were recorded: the error-related negativity (ERN) and response-locked delta and theta power. We assessed whether these measures of neural response to errors 1) were associated with history of recurrent major depressive disorder (MDD) and current depression symptoms among mothers, 2) were correlated among mother-daughter dyads, and 3) were associated with maternal history of recurrent MDD and maternal symptoms of depression among daughters. A history of recurrent MDD was associated with blunted delta and increased theta among mothers. Across mothers, delta and theta were negatively and positively associated, respectively, with current depression symptoms. Mothers’ and daughters’ ERN were positively correlated. Finally, current maternal depression symptoms were negatively associated with delta power in daughters. These results suggest that neural responses to errors may be implicated in the intergenerational transmission of depression. These results also support the relevance of delta oscillations to understanding pathways to depression.

No association between error-related ERPs and trait anxiety in a nonclinical sample: Convergence across analytical methods including mass-univariate statistics

Enhanced error monitoring, as indexed by increased amplitude of the error-related negativity (ERN) event-related potential (ERP) component, has been suggested to reflect a vulnerability neuro-marker of anxiety disorders. Another error-related ERP component is the error positivity (Pe), which reflects late-stage error processing. The associations between heightened ERN and Pe amplitudes and anxiety levels in the nonclinical population have been inconsistent. In this preregistered study, we examined the association between anxiety, ERN, and Pe, using different analytical methods (mass-univariate analyses, MUAs and conventional analyses), self-reported anxiety scales (STAI and STICSA), and trial numbers (all correct trials and equal numbers of correct and error trials). In a sample of 82 healthy adults, both conventional and MUAs demonstrated a robust enhancement of the ERN and Pe to errors relative to the correct-response ERPs. However, the mass-univariate approach additionally unveiled a wider array of electrodes and a longer effect duration for this error enhancement. Across the analytic methods, the results showed a lack of consistent correlation between trait anxiety and error-related ERPs. Findings were not modulated by trial numbers, analyses, or anxiety scales. The present results suggest a lack of enhancement of error monitoring by anxious traits in individuals with subclinical anxiety and those with clinical anxiety but without a clinical diagnosis. Importantly, the absence of such correlation questions the validity of the ERN as a neural marker for anxiety disorders. Future studies that investigate neuro-markers of anxiety may explore alternative task designs and employ robust statistics to provide a more comprehensive understanding of anxiety vulnerability.

Socioeconomic status moderates the relationship between self-esteem and attitudes towards conspicuous consumption: An electrophysiological study

Research on the impact of self-esteem on conspicuous consumption has shown inconsistent results. This study addresses this variability by examining how socioeconomic status (SES) moderates the relationship between self-esteem and conspicuous consumption. We hypothesized that the relationship varies with SES, predicting a positive relationship at high SES levels and a negative relationship at low SES levels. Our findings confirm this hypothesis. Using a Go/NoGo association task (GNAT) combined with event-related potentials (ERP), we investigated the cognitive processing speeds for congruent and incongruent pairings. This method provided insights into the implicit attitudes towards conspicuous products and revealed the complex dynamics between self-esteem and SES in influencing consumer behavior tendencies. This research advances our understanding of the interactions between self-esteem and SES in conspicuous consumption from an implicit cognitive perspective. It also offers significant practical implications, guiding the development of consumer marketing strategies that can be tailored to different socioeconomic contexts.

Toward a mechanistic understanding of the role of error monitoring and memory in social anxiety

Cognitive models state that social anxiety (SA) involves biased cognitive processing that impacts what is learned and remembered within social situations, leading to the maintenance of SA. Neuroscience work links SA to enhanced error monitoring, reflected in error-related neural responses arising from mediofrontal cortex (MFC). Yet, the role of error monitoring in SA remains unclear, as it is unknown whether error monitoring can drive changes in memory, biasing what is learned or remembered about social situations. Motivated by the longer-term goal of identifying mechanisms implicated in SA, in the current study we developed and validated a novel paradigm for probing the role of error-related MFC theta oscillations (associated with error monitoring) and incidental memory biases in SA. Electroencephalography (EEG) data were collected while participants completed a novel Face-Flanker task, involving presentation of task-unrelated, trial-unique faces behind target/flanker arrows on each trial. A subsequent incidental memory assessment evaluated memory biases for error events. Severity of SA symptoms were associated with greater error-related theta synchrony over MFC, as well as between MFC and sensory cortex. Social anxiety also was positively associated with incidental memory biases for error events. Moreover, greater error-related MFC-sensory theta synchrony during the Face-Flanker predicted subsequent incidental memory biases for error events. Collectively, the results demonstrate the potential of a novel paradigm to elucidate mechanisms underlying relations between error monitoring and SA.

Flanker task parameters are related to the strength of association between the ERN and anxiety: a meta-analysis

The error-related negativity (ERN)-an index of error monitoring-is associated with anxiety symptomatology. Although recent work suggests associations between the ERN and anxiety are relatively modest, little attention has been paid to how variation in task parameters may influence the strength of ERN-anxiety associations. To close this gap, the current meta-analysis assesses the possible influence of task parameter variation in the Flanker task-the most commonly used task to elicit the ERN-on observed ERN-anxiety associations. Here, we leveraged an existing open database of published/unpublished ERN-anxiety effect sizes, supplementing this database by further coding for variation in stimulus type (letter vs. arrow), response type (one-handed vs. two-handed), and block-level feedback (with vs. without). We then performed meta-regression analyses to assess whether variation in these Flanker task parameters moderated the effect size of ERN-anxiety associations. No evidence for an effect of stimulus type was identified. However, both response type and block-level feedback significantly moderated the magnitude of ERN-anxiety associations. Specifically, studies employing either a two-handed (vs. one-handed) task, or those with (vs. without) block-level feedback exhibited more than a two-fold increase in the estimated ERN-anxiety effect size. Thus, accounting for common variation in task parameters may at least partially explain apparent inconsistencies in the literature regarding the magnitude of ERN-anxiety associations. At a practical level, these data can inform the design of studies seeking to maximize ERN-anxiety associations. At a theoretical level, the results also inform testable hypotheses regarding the exact nature of the association between the ERN and anxiety.

Behavioral and neural measures of semantic conflict monitoring: Findings from a novel picture-word interference task

Conflict monitoring has been studied extensively using experimental paradigms that manipulate perceptual dimensions of stimuli and responses. The picture-word interference (PWI) task has historically been used to examine semantic conflict, but primarily for the purpose of examining lexical retrieval. In this study, we utilized two novel PWI tasks to assess conflict monitoring in the context of semantic conflict. Participants included nineteen young adults (14F, age = 20.79 ± 3.14) who completed two tasks: Animals and Objects. Task and conflict effects were assessed by examining behavioral (reaction time and accuracy) and neurophysiological (oscillations in theta, alpha, and beta band) measures. Results revealed conflict effects within both tasks, but the pattern of findings differed across the two semantic categories. Participants were slower to respond to unmatched versus matched trials on the Objects task only and were less accurate responding to matched versus unmatched trials in the Animals task only. We also observed task differences, with participants responding more accurately on conflict trials for Animals compared to Objects. Differences in neural oscillations were observed, including between-task differences in low beta oscillations and within-task differences in theta, alpha, and low beta. We also observed significant correlations between task performance and standard measures of cognitive control. This work provides new insights into conflict monitoring, highlighting the importance of examining conflict across different semantic categories, especially in the context of animacy. The findings serve as a benchmark to assess conflict monitoring using PWI tasks across populations of varying cognitive ability.

Transcranial alternating current stimulation in affecting cognitive impairment in psychiatric disorders: a review

Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) is a non-invasive brain stimulation method that, through its manipulation of endogenous oscillations, can affect cognition in healthy adults. Given the fact that both endogenous oscillations and cognition are impaired in various psychiatric diagnoses, tACS might represent a suitable intervention. We conducted a search of Pubmed and Web of Science databases and reviewed 27 studies where tACS is used in psychiatric diagnoses and cognition change is evaluated. TACS is a safe and well-tolerated intervention method, suitable for multiple-sessions protocols. It can be administered at home, individualized according to the patient''s anatomical and functional characteristics, or used as a marker of disease progression. The results are varying across diagnoses and applied protocols, with some protocols showing a long-term effect. However, the overall number of studies is small with a great variety of diagnoses and tACS parameters, such as electrode montage or used frequency. Precise mechanisms of tACS interaction with pathophysiological processes are only partially described and need further research. Currently, tACS seems to be a feasible method to alleviate cognitive impairment in psychiatric patients; however, a more robust confirmation of efficacy of potential protocols is needed to introduce it into clinical practise.

Theta activity and cognitive functioning: Integrating evidence from resting-state and task-related developmental electroencephalography (EEG) research

The theta band is one of the most prominent frequency bands in the electroencephalography (EEG) power spectrum and presents an interesting paradox: while elevated theta power during resting state is linked to lower cognitive abilities in children and adolescents, increased theta power during cognitive tasks is associated with higher cognitive performance. Why does theta power, measured during resting state versus cognitive tasks, show differential correlations with cognitive functioning? This review provides an integrated account of the functional correlates of theta across different contexts. We first present evidence that higher theta power during resting state is correlated with lower executive functioning, attentional abilities, language skills, and IQ. Next, we review research showing that theta power increases during memory, attention, and cognitive control, and that higher theta power during these processes is correlated with better performance. Finally, we discuss potential explanations for the differential correlations between resting/task-related theta and cognitive functioning, and offer suggestions for future research in this area.

Getting closer to social interactions using electroencephalography in developmental cognitive neuroscience

The field of developmental cognitive neuroscience is advancing rapidly, with large-scale, population-wide, longitudinal studies emerging as a key means of unraveling the complexity of the developing brain and cognitive processes in children. While numerous neuroscientific techniques like functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), magnetoencephalography (MEG), and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) have proved advantageous in such investigations, this perspective proposes a renewed focus on electroencephalography (EEG), leveraging underexplored possibilities of EEG. In addition to its temporal precision, low costs, and ease of application, EEG distinguishes itself with its ability to capture neural activity linked to social interactions in increasingly ecologically valid settings. Specifically, EEG can be measured during social interactions in the lab, hyperscanning can be used to study brain activity in two (or more) people simultaneously, and mobile EEG can be used to measure brain activity in real-life settings. This perspective paper summarizes research in these three areas, making a persuasive argument for the renewed inclusion of EEG into the toolkit of developmental cognitive and social neuroscientists.

Induced error-related theta activity, not error-related negativity, predicts task performance as well as anxiety and worry during real-life stress in a youth sample

OBJECTIVE

The study examined differences between induced error-related theta activity (4-7 Hz) and error-related negativity (ERN) in youth and their unique associations with task performance as well as anxiety and worry during real-life stress a year later. We hypothesized that induced theta, but not the ERN, would predict task performance. We also hypothesized that induced theta would predict less anxiety and worries during situational stress a year later, while ERN would predict more anxiety and worries.

METHOD

Participants included 76 children aged 8-13 years who completed a flanker task while electroencephalogram (EEG) and behavioral data (t0 ) were collected. Approximately 1 year later (t1 ), during the first COVID-19 lockdown, 40 families from the original sample completed a battery of online questionnaires to assess the children's stress-related symptoms (anxiety, negative emotions and worries). We employed an analytical method that allowed us to differentiate between induced error-related theta and the evoked ERN.

RESULTS

Induced error-related theta, but not ERN, was associated with behavioral changes during the task, such as post-error speeding. Furthermore, induced error-related theta, but not ERN, was prospectively associated with less anxiety, worries, and fewer negative emotions a year later during COVID-19 lockdown.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest ERN and error-related theta are dissociable processes reflecting error monitoring in youth. Specifically, induced error-related theta is more robustly associated with changes in behavior in the laboratory and with less anxiety and worries in real-world settings.

Neural correlates involved in perspective-taking in early childhood

Learning to consider another person's perspective is pivotal in early social development. Still, little is known about the neural underpinnings involved in perspective-taking in early childhood. In this EEG study, we examined 4-year-old children's brain activity during a live, social interaction that involved perspective-taking. Children were asked to pass one of two toys to another person. To decide which toy to pass, they had to consider either their partner's perspective (perspective-taking) or visual features unrelated to their partner's perspective (control). We analyzed power changes in midfrontal and temporal-parietal EEG channels. The results indicated that children showed higher power around 7 Hz at right temporal-parietal channels for perspective-taking compared to control trials. This power difference was positively correlated with children's perspective-taking performance, specifically for trials in which they needed to pass the toy their partner could not see. A similar power difference at right temporal-parietal channels was seen when comparing perspective-taking trials where children's visual access mismatched rather than matched that of their partner. No differences were detected for midfrontal channels. In sum, we identified distinct neural activity as 4-year-olds considered another person's perspective in a live interaction; this activity converges with neural findings of adults' social processing network.

Abnormal theta and alpha oscillations in children and adolescents with first-episode psychosis and clinical high-risk psychosis

BACKGROUND

Cognitive control deficits are one of the main symptoms of psychosis. The basic neural oscillation patterns associated with cognitive control are already present in early adolescence. However, as previous studies have focused on adults with psychosis, it is unclear whether neurobiological impairments in cognitive control are present in children and adolescents with first-episode psychosis (FEP) or clinical high-risk (CHR) state for psychosis.

AIMS

To explore the deficits of electroencephalogram related to cognitive control tasks in children and adolescents with FEP and CHR.

METHOD

Electroencephalogram was recorded in untreated 48 patients with FEP, 24 patients with CHR and 42 healthy controls aged 10-17 years, while performing the visual oddball task. The N2 amplitude, theta and alpha oscillations were then analysed and compared between groups.

RESULTS

There was no significant group difference in N2 amplitude (P = 0.099). All groups showed increased theta and alpha oscillations relative to baseline before the stimulus in the frontal, central, left fronto-central and right fronto-central areas. These changes differed significantly between groups, with the FEP group showing significantly smaller theta (P < 0.001) and alpha (P < 0.01) oscillation than healthy controls. Theta and alpha oscillations in the CHR group did not differ significantly from the FEP group and healthy controls.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that neural damage has already occurred in the early stage of psychosis, and that abnormal rhythmic activity of neurons may constitute the pathophysiological mechanism of cognitive dysfunction related to early-onset psychosis.

Effects of institutional rearing and foster care intervention on error monitoring and externalizing behaviors in adolescence

Children raised in institutions display deficits in error monitoring and increased psychopathology. Deficits in error monitoring might be a pathway for the emergence of psychopathology in previously institutionalized adolescents. Here we investigate the impact of early psychosocial deprivation and a foster care intervention on error monitoring and its association with internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems in adolescence A modified Flanker task assessed error monitoring in 16-year-old adolescents from the BEIP. The ERN and mid-frontal theta power were computed as indices of neural responses of error monitoring. Adolescents who experienced early institutional rearing and were subsequently placed into foster care showed comparable behavioral (RT, accuracy) and neural (ERN, theta power) measures of error monitoring to their never institutionalized peers; whereas adolescents who received care as usual showed both perturbed behavioral performance and neural responses. Longer duration of institutional care was associated with a reduction in mid-frontal theta power. The results further demonstrated a link between error monitoring as measured by ERN and mid-frontal theta and externalizing-ADHD behavioral problems in adolescents who continued receiving care as usual. The results highlight the long-term positive impact of early foster care placement and perturbations due to prolonged institutional care in neural responses of error monitoring.

Towards a mechanistic understanding of the role of error monitoring and memory in social anxiety

Cognitive models state social anxiety (SA) involves biased cognitive processing that impacts what is learned and remembered within social situations, leading to the maintenance of SA. Neuroscience work links SA to enhanced error monitoring, reflected in error-related neural responses arising from mediofrontal cortex (MFC). Yet, the role of error monitoring in SA remains unclear, as it is unknown whether error monitoring can drive changes in memory, biasing what is learned or remembered about social situations. Thus, we developed a novel paradigm to investigate the role of error-related MFC theta oscillations (associated with error monitoring) and memory biases in SA. EEG was collected while participants completed a novel Face-Flanker task, involving presentation of task-unrelated, trial-unique faces behind target/flanker arrows on each trial. A subsequent incidental memory assessment evaluated memory biases for error events. Severity of SA symptoms were associated with greater error-related theta synchrony over MFC, as well as between MFC and sensory cortex. SA was positively associated with memory biases for error events. Consistent with a mechanistic role in biased cognitive processing, greater error-related MFC-sensory theta synchrony during the Face-Flanker predicted subsequent memory biases for error events. Our findings suggest high SA individuals exhibit memory biases for error events, and that this behavioral phenomenon may be driven by error-related MFC-sensory theta synchrony associated with error monitoring. Moreover, results demonstrate the potential of a novel paradigm to elucidate mechanisms underlying relations between error monitoring and SA.

Deconstructing the Functional Significance of the Error-related Negativity (ERN) and Midline Frontal Theta Oscillations Using Stepwise Time-locking and Single-trial Response Dynamics

Error-related electroencephalographic potentials have been used for decades to develop theoretical models of response monitoring processes, study altered cognitive functioning in clinical populations, and more recently, to improve the performance of brain-computer interfaces. However, the vast majority of this research relies on discrete behavioral responses that confound error detection, response cancellation, error correction, and post-error cognitive and affective processes. By contrast, the present study demonstrates a novel, complementary method for isolating the functional correlates of error-related electroencephalographic responses using single-trial kinematic analyses of cursor trajectories and a stepwise time-locking analysis. The results reveal that the latency of the ERN, Pe, and medial-frontal theta oscillations are all strongly positively correlated with the latency at which an initiated error response is canceled, as indicated by the peak deceleration of the initiated movement prior to a corrective response. Results are discussed with respect to current theoretical models of error-related brain potentials and potential relevance to clinical applications.

Updating the relationship of the Ne/ERN to task-related behavior: A brief review and suggestions for future research

The error negativity/error-related negativity (Ne/ERN) is one of the most well-studied event-related potential (ERP) components in the electroencephalography (EEG) literature. Peaking about 50 ms after the commission of an error, the Ne/ERN is a negative deflection in the ERP waveform that is thought to reflect error processing in the brain. While its relationships to trait constructs such as anxiety are well-documented, there is still little known about how the Ne/ERN may subsequently influence task-related behavior. In other words, does the occurrence of the Ne/ERN trigger any sort of error corrective process, or any other behavioral adaptation to avoid errors? Several theories have emerged to explain how the Ne/ERN may implement or affect behavior on a task, but evidence supporting each has been mixed. In the following manuscript, we review these theories, and then systematically discuss the reasons that there may be discrepancies in the literature. We review both the inherent biological factors of the neural regions that underlie error-processing in the brain, and some of the researcher-induced factors in analytic and experimental choices that may be exacerbating these discrepancies. We end with a table of recommendations for future researchers who aim to understand the relationship between the Ne/ERN and behavior.

Annual Research Review: Developmental pathways linking early behavioral inhibition to later anxiety

Behavioral Inhibition is a temperament identified in the first years of life that enhances the risk for development of anxiety during late childhood and adolescence. Amongst children characterized with this temperament, only around 40 percent go on to develop anxiety disorders, meaning that more than half of these children do not. Over the past 20 years, research has documented within-child and socio-contextual factors that support differing developmental pathways. This review provides a historical perspective on the research documenting the origins of this temperament, its biological correlates, and the factors that enhance or mitigate risk for development of anxiety. We review as well, research findings from two longitudinal cohorts that have identified moderators of behavioral inhibition in understanding pathways to anxiety. Research on these moderators has led us to develop the Detection and Dual Control (DDC) framework to understand differing developmental trajectories among behaviorally inhibited children. In this review, we use this framework to explain why and how specific cognitive and socio-contextual factors influence differential pathways to anxiety versus resilience.

Development of auditory change-detection and attentional capture, and their relation to inhibitory control

EEG methods offer a promising approach to study the development of attention or attention-related processes such as change-detection and attentional capture. However, the development of these attention processes from early to middle childhood is not well understood. In the current study, we utilized a passive three-stimulus oddball paradigm to examine age-related changes in auditory change-detection and attentional capture in a large sample of children across childhood (N = 475; 249 female, 226 male; Mage  = 6.71; SDage  = 2.22; Rangeage  = 4.01-11.5 years). Conventional ERP analyses revealed no age-related changes in change detection (mismatch negativity) and attentional capture (P3a) components, but we observed age-related reductions in late automatic processing of auditory change (late discriminative negativity). However, when utilizing time-frequency analyses, we observed developmental increases in frontocentral signal strength (power) and consistency (inter-trial phase synchrony) in delta and theta bands in response to novel sounds. Such frontocentral delta/theta responses have been linked in prior work to cognitive control. To further examine this possibility, we examined relations with inhibitory control. Results revealed that increased consistency in theta in response to novel sounds was related to improved inhibitory control. Together, our results advance our understanding of the development of attention in childhood. Moreover, they demonstrate the contributions of time-frequency approaches to studying neurocognitive development. Finally, our results highlight the utility of neuroimaging paradigms that have low cognitive and motor demands to study the development of psychological processes.

Age-related trends in aperiodic EEG activity and alpha oscillations during early- to middle-childhood

Age-related structural and functional changes that occur during brain development are critical for cortical development and functioning. Previous electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) studies have highlighted the utility of power spectra analyses and have uncovered age-related trends that reflect perceptual, cognitive, and behavioural states as well as their underlying neurophysiology. The aim of the current study was to investigate age-related change in aperiodic and periodic alpha activity across a large sample of pre- and school-aged children (N = 502, age range 4 -11-years-of-age). Power spectra were extracted from baseline EEG recordings (eyes closed, eyes open) for each participant and parameterized into aperiodic activity to derive the offset and exponent parameters and periodic alpha oscillatory activity to derive the alpha peak frequency and the associated power estimates. Multilevel models were run to investigate age-related trends and condition-dependent changes for each of these measures. We found quadratic age-related effects for both the aperiodic offset and exponent. In addition, we observed increases in periodic alpha peak frequency as a function of age. Aperiodic measures and periodic alpha power were larger in magnitude during eyes closed compared to the eyes open baseline condition. Taken together, these results advance our understanding of the maturational patterns/trajectories of brain development during early- to middle-childhood.

Development of network oscillations through adolescence in male and female rats

The primary aim of this research was to study the developmental trajectory of oscillatory synchronization in neural networks of normal healthy rats during adolescence, corresponding to the vulnerable age of schizophrenia prodrome in human. To monitor the development of oscillatory networks through adolescence we used a "pseudo-longitudinal" design. Recordings were performed in terminal experiments under urethane anesthesia, every day from PN32 to PN52 using rats-siblings from the same mother, to reduce individual innate differences between subjects. We found that hippocampal theta power decreased and delta power in prefrontal cortex increased through adolescence, indicating that the oscillations in the two different frequency bands follow distinct developmental trajectories to reach the characteristic oscillatory activity found in adults. Perhaps even more importantly, theta rhythm showed age-dependent stabilization toward late adolescence. Furthermore, sex differences was found in both networks, more prominent in the prefrontal cortex compared with hippocampus. Delta increase was stronger in females and theta stabilization was completed earlier in females, in postnatal days PN41-47, while in males it was only completed in late adolescence. Our finding of a protracted maturation of theta-generating networks in late adolescence is overall consistent with the findings of longitudinal studies in human adolescents, in which oscillatory networks demonstrated a similar pattern of maturation.

Family-based care buffers the stress sensitizing effect of early deprivation on executive functioning difficulties in adolescence

We examined whether family care following early-life deprivation buffered the association between stressful life events (SLEs) and executive functioning (EF) in adolescence. In early childhood, 136 institutionally reared children were randomly assigned to foster care or care-as-usual; 72 never-institutionalized children served as a comparison group. At age 16 years, adolescents (n = 143; 54% female; 67.1% Romanian) self-reported recent SLEs, completed a battery of memory and EF tasks, and completed a go/nogo task in which mediofrontal theta power (MFTP) was measured using electroencephalogram. More independent SLEs predicted lower EF and more dependent SLEs predicted lower MFTP, but only among adolescents with prolonged early deprivation. Findings provide preliminary evidence that family care following early deprivation may facilitate resilience against stress during adolescence on EF.

Beyond Infant's Looking: The Neural Basis for Infant Prediction Errors

Contemporary conceptualizations on infant cognitive development focus on predictive processes; the basic idea is that the brain continuously creates predictions about what is expected and that the divergence between predicted and actual perceived data yields a prediction error. This prediction error updates the model from which the predictions are generated and therefore is a basic mechanism for learning and adaptation to the dynamics of the ever-changing environment. In this article, we review the types of available empirical evidence supporting the idea that predictive processes can be found in infancy, especially emphasizing the contribution of electrophysiology as a potential method for testing the similarity of the brain mechanisms for processing prediction errors in infants to those of adults. In infants, as with older children, adolescents, and adults, predictions involve synchronization bursts of middle-central theta reflecting brain activity in the anterior cingulate cortex. We discuss how early in development such brain mechanisms develop and open questions that still remain to be empirically investigated.

Challenges and new perspectives of developmental cognitive EEG studies

Despite shared procedures with adults, electroencephalography (EEG) in early development presents many specificities that need to be considered for good quality data collection. In this paper, we provide an overview of the most representative early cognitive developmental EEG studies focusing on the specificities of this neuroimaging technique in young participants, such as attrition and artifacts. We also summarize the most representative results in developmental EEG research obtained in the time and time-frequency domains and use more advanced signal processing methods. Finally, we briefly introduce three recent standardized pipelines that will help promote replicability and comparability across experiments and ages. While this paper does not claim to be exhaustive, it aims to give a sufficiently large overview of the challenges and solutions available to conduct robust cognitive developmental EEG studies.

Atypical Mediofrontal Theta Oscillations Underlying Cognitive Control in Kindergarteners With Autism Spectrum Disorder

BACKGROUND

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often exhibit deficits in cognitive control. Neuroimaging approaches have implicated disruptions to mediofrontal cortex structure and function. However, previous work is limited in testing whether young children with ASD exhibit disruptions to task-related theta oscillations thought to arise from the mediofrontal cortex.

METHODS

Children with ASD (n = 43) and age- and sex-matched typically developing peers (n = 24) at kindergarten entry performed a child-friendly Go/NoGo task while 64-channel electroencephalography was recorded. Time-frequency approaches were employed to assess the magnitude of mediofrontal theta oscillations immediately after error (vs. correct) responses (early theta) as well as later emerging theta oscillations (late theta). We tested whether error-related mediofrontal theta oscillations differed as a function of diagnosis (ASD/typical) and timing (early/late theta). In addition, links to social and academic outcomes were tested.

RESULTS

Overall, children showed increased theta power after error versus correct responses. Compared with typically developing children, children with ASD exhibited a selective reduction in error-related mediofrontal theta power during the late time window. There were no significant group differences for early theta power. Moreover, reduced error-related theta power during the late, but not early, time window significantly predicted poorer academic and social skills.

CONCLUSIONS

Kindergarteners with ASD demonstrated a selective reduction in error-related mediofrontal theta power during a relatively late time window, which is consistent with impairments in specific cognitive processes that recruit top-down control. Targeting these particular cognitive control processes via intervention prior to school entry may promote more successful functional outcomes for children with ASD.

A practical introduction to EEG Time-Frequency Principal Components Analysis (TF-PCA)

This EEG methods tutorial provides both a conceptual and practical introduction to a promising data reduction approach for time-frequency representations of EEG data: Time-Frequency Principal Components Analysis (TF-PCA). Briefly, the unique value of TF-PCA is that it provides a data-reduction approach that does not rely on strong a priori constraints regarding the specific timing or frequency boundaries for an effect of interest. Given that the time-frequency characteristics of various neurocognitive process are known to change across development, the TF-PCA approach is thus particularly well suited for the analysis of developmental TF data. This tutorial provides the background knowledge, theory, and practical information needed to allow individuals with basic EEG experience to begin applying the TF-PCA approach to their own data. Crucially, this tutorial article is accompanied by a companion GitHub repository that contains example code, data, and a step-by-step guide of how to perform TF-PCA: https://github.com/NDCLab/tfpca-tutorial. Although this tutorial is framed in terms of the utility of TF-PCA for developmental data, the theory, protocols and code covered in this tutorial article and companion GitHub repository can be applied more broadly across populations of interest.

Time-frequency analysis methods and their application in developmental EEG data

EEG provides a rich measure of brain activity that can be characterized as neuronal oscillations. However, most developmental EEG work to date has focused on analyzing EEG data as Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) or power based on the Fourier transform. While these measures have been productive, they do not leverage all the information contained within the EEG signal. Namely, ERP analyses ignore non-phase-locked signals and Fourier-based power analyses ignore temporal information. Time-frequency analyses can better characterize the oscillations contained in the EEG data. By separating power and phase information across different frequencies, time-frequency measures provide a closer interpretation of the neurophysiological mechanisms, facilitate translation across neurophysiology disciplines, and capture processes not observed by ERP or Fourier-based analyses (e.g., connectivity). Despite their unique contributions, a literature review of this journal reveals that time-frequency analyses of EEG are yet to be embraced by the developmental cognitive neuroscience field. This manuscript presents a conceptual introduction to time-frequency analyses for developmental researchers. To facilitate the use of time-frequency analyses, we include a tutorial of accessible scripts, based on Cohen (2014), to calculate time-frequency power (signal strength), inter-trial phase synchrony (signal consistency), and two types of phase-based connectivity (inter-channel phase synchrony and weighted phase lag index).

Time-frequency dynamics of error monitoring in childhood: An EEG study

Error monitoring allows individuals to monitor and adapt their behavior by detecting errors. Error monitoring is thought to develop throughout childhood and adolescence. However, most of this evidence comes from studies in late childhood and adolescence utilizing event-related potentials (ERPs). The current study utilizes time-frequency (TF) and connectivity analyses to provide a comprehensive examination of age-related changes in error-monitoring processes across early childhood (N = 326; 50.9% females; 4-9 years). ERP analyses indicated the presence of the error-related negativity (ERN) and error positivity (Pe) across all ages. Results showed no error-specific age-related changes in the ERN and the Pe. However, TF analyses suggested error-related frontocentral responses in delta and theta signal strength (power), delta consistency (intertrial phase synchrony), and delta synchrony (interchannel phase synchrony) between frontrocentral and frontolateral clusters-all of which increased with age. Additionally, the current study examines the reliability and effect size estimates of the ERP and TF measures. For most measures, more trials were needed to achieve acceptable reliability than what is commonly used in the psychophysiological literature. Resources to facilitate the measurement and reporting of reliability are provided. Overall, findings highlight the utility of TF analyses and provide useful information for future studies examining the development of error monitoring.

Midfrontal Theta Activity in Psychiatric Illness: An Index of Cognitive Vulnerabilities Across Disorders

There is an urgent need to identify the mechanisms that contribute to atypical thinking and behavior associated with psychiatric illness. Behavioral and brain measures of cognitive control are associated with a variety of psychiatric disorders and conditions as well as daily life functioning. Recognition of the importance of cognitive control in human behavior has led to intensive research into behavioral and neurobiological correlates. Oscillations in the theta band (4-8 Hz) over medial frontal recording sites are becoming increasingly established as a direct neural index of certain aspects of cognitive control. In this review, we point toward evidence that theta acts to coordinate multiple neural processes in disparate brain regions during task processing to optimize behavior. Theta-related signals in human electroencephalography include the N2, the error-related negativity, and measures of theta power in the (time-)frequency domain. We investigate how these theta signals are affected in a wide range of psychiatric conditions with known deficiencies in cognitive control: anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and substance abuse. Theta-related control signals and their temporal consistency were found to differ in most patient groups compared with healthy control subjects, suggesting fundamental deficits in reactive and proactive control. Notably, however, clinical studies directly investigating the role of theta in the coordination of goal-directed processes across different brain regions are uncommon and are encouraged in future research. A finer-grained analysis of flexible, subsecond-scale functional networks in psychiatric disorders could contribute to a dimensional understanding of psychopathology.

Midfrontal theta oscillations and conflict monitoring in children and adults

Conflict monitoring is central in cognitive control, as detection of conflict serves as a signal for the need to engage control. This study examined whether (1) midfrontal theta oscillations similarly support conflict monitoring in children and adults, and (2) performance monitoring difficulty influences conflict monitoring and resolution. Children (n = 25) and adults (n = 24) completed a flanker task with fair or rigged response feedback. Relative to adults, children showed a smaller congruency effect on midfrontal theta power, overall lower midfrontal theta power and coherence, and (unlike adults) no correlation between midfrontal theta power and N2 amplitude, suggesting that reduced neural communication efficiency contributes to less efficient conflict monitoring in children than adults. In both age groups, response feedback fairness affected response times and the P3, but neither midfrontal theta oscillations nor the N2, indicating that performance monitoring difficulty influenced conflict resolution but not conflict monitoring.

The dynamic monitoring and control mechanism in problem solving: Evidence from theta and alpha oscillations

Although both originality and value are considered necessary criteria to identify creative ideas, little is known about how original and valuable ideas are generated in the human brain. To reveal how people monitor and control ongoing processing in the pursuit of original and valuable ideas, high-density electroencephalography (EEG) was used to record electrophysiological signals when participants were performing chunk decomposition tasks via novel-appropriate, novel-inappropriate, ordinary-appropriate and ordinary-inappropriate pathways. The results showed that approximately 100 ms after the problem was presented, novel pathways showed increased theta synchronization in the frontal sites compared to ordinary pathways. Novel pathways were associated with increased alpha desynchronization over the entire brain scale. These theta and alpha oscillations likely indicated rapid monitoring and effective control of novel processing in thinking. In the latter stages of problem solving, particularly during the 2000-2600-ms intervals, increased theta synchronization with decreased alpha desynchronization was found between novel-inappropriate and novel-appropriate pathways, which likely indicated slow monitoring and less control of inappropriate processing in novel thinking. The findings demonstrated the dynamic monitoring and control mechanism in the pursuit of original and valuable ideas.

Conjoint fluctuations of PFC-mediated processes and behavior: An investigation of error-related neural mechanisms in relation to sustained attention

The ability to detect errors, which derives from the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), is crucial to maintain attention over a long period of time. While impairment of this ability has been reported in patients with sustained attention disruption, the role mPFC-mediated processes play in the intra-individual fluctuation of sustained attention remains an open question. In this context, we computed the variance time course of reaction time (RT) of 42 healthy individuals to distinguish intra-individual periods of low and high performance instability, assumed to represent optimal and suboptimal attentional states, when performing a sustained Go/NoGo task. Analysis of the neurophysiological mechanisms of response monitoring revealed a specific reduction in the error-related negativity (ERN) amplitude and frontal midline theta power during periods of high compared to low RT variability, but only in individuals with a higher standard deviation of reaction time (SD-RT). Concerning post-error adaptation, an increase in the correct-related negativity (CRN) amplitude as well as the frontal lateral theta power on trials following errors was observed in individuals with lower SD-RT but not in those with higher SD-RT. Our results thus show that individuals with poor sustained attention ability exhibit altered post-error adaptation and attentional state-dependent efficiency of error monitoring. Conversely, individuals with good sustained attention performances retained their post-error adaptation and response monitoring regardless of the attentional periods. These findings reveal the critical role of the action-monitoring system in intra-individual behavioral stability and highlight the importance of considering attentional states when studying mPFC-mediated processes, especially in subjects with low sustained attention ability.

The influence of monetary reward on proactive and reactive control in adolescent males

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Reward reduced RT interference during reactive control, but increased RT interference during proactive control in male adolescents.

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Increased reward-related cue-locked theta power was associated with increased RT interference on proactive trials.

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Increased reward-related stimulus-locked theta inter-channel phase synchrony was related to facilitated performance on proactive trials.

Adolescence is marked by increased reward-seeking, which can alter cognitive control abilities. Previous research found that rewards actually improve cognitive control in children, adolescents, and adults, but these studies only investigated reactive control. The goal of the current study was to elucidate reward’s influence on both proactive and reactive control during adolescence. To this end, 68 (Mean age = 13.61, SD = 2.52) male adolescents completed a rewarded cued flanker paradigm while electroencephalogram (EEG) was collected. Theta power and inter-channel phase synchrony, both implicated in cognitive control, were quantified after cues and stimuli to understand their role during reward-cognitive control interactions. The data suggest that reward reduced interference during reactive control; however, reward increased interference during proactive control in this sample of adolescent males. Reward-related increases in cue-locked theta power predicted more reward-related RT interference on proactive trials. In contrast, increases in stimulus-locked theta ICPS were associated with better performance on rewarded proactive trials. The pattern of results show that reward differentially impacted proactive and reactive control in adolescence, which may have implications for the increased risk-taking behaviors observed during adolescence.

Pain and Stress Detection Using Wearable Sensors and Devices-A Review

Pain is a subjective feeling; it is a sensation that every human being must have experienced all their life. Yet, its mechanism and the way to immune to it is still a question to be answered. This review presents the mechanism and correlation of pain and stress, their assessment and detection approach with medical devices and wearable sensors. Various physiological signals (i.e., heart activity, brain activity, muscle activity, electrodermal activity, respiratory, blood volume pulse, skin temperature) and behavioral signals are organized for wearables sensors detection. By reviewing the wearable sensors used in the healthcare domain, we hope to find a way for wearable healthcare-monitoring system to be applied on pain and stress detection. Since pain leads to multiple consequences or symptoms such as muscle tension and depression that are stress related, there is a chance to find a new approach for chronic pain detection using daily life sensors or devices. Then by integrating modern computing techniques, there is a chance to handle pain and stress management issue.

Dynamic Adjustments of Midfrontal Control Signals in Adults and Adolescents

During task performance, our level of cognitive control is dynamically adjusted to task demands as reflected, for example, by the congruency sequence effect (CSE) in conflict tasks. Although brain areas related to cognitive control show protracted maturation across adolescence, previous studies found that adolescents show similar behavioral CSEs to adults. In the present study, we investigated whether there are age-related changes in the neural underpinnings of dynamic control adjustments using electroencephalography. Early adolescents (ages 12-14, N = 30) and young adults (ages 25-27, N = 29) completed a confound-minimized flanker task optimized for the detection of sequential control adjustments. The CSE was observed in midfrontal theta power thought to capture anterior cingulate cortex-mediated monitoring processes but was not modulated significantly by age. Adolescents, however, showed a smaller congruency effect in the power and cross-trial temporal consistency of midfrontal theta oscillations than adults. No age differences were observed in phase-based connectivity between midfrontal and lateral frontal regions in the theta band. These findings provide strong support for the role of midfrontal theta oscillations in conflict monitoring and reactive control and suggest that the cognitive system of early adolescents initially responds less reliably to the occurrence of conflict than that of adults.

6 Hz transcranial alternating current stimulation of mPFC improves sustained attention and modulates alpha phase synchronization and power in dorsal attention network

Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) is a noninvasive brain stimulation tool appropriate to modulate cortical oscillations and activity via the application of weak currents. The major goal of this study was to investigate the effects of medial Prefrontal Cortex (mPFC) stimulation on sustained attention task performance measured by Rapid Visual Information Processing (RVIP) task and the brain networks assumed to be critical to sustained attention. mPFC has been shown to be involved in sustained attention performance and as a main hub in default mode network (DMN). mPFC activity modulation via theta tACS was implemented in this study. This was a single blind study with 21 participants receiving active and sham stimulation with the electrodes on FPz and the Inion. tACS was able to impact different RVIP measures (total hits, A' (sensitivity to target), total correct rejection, etc.). Relative power spectrum density (PSD) analysis yielded significant increases in theta frequency mostly in the fronto-central regions after active tACS and current source density (CSD) analysis yielded significant power modulations in theta frequency band in post-central gyrus. Furthermore, phase locking value (PLV) analysis showed that there were significant changes in cortical connections in the Dorsal Attention Network (DAN) in alpha frequency band. This study showed that theta frequency tACS over mPFC, was able to produce significant modulations in an RVIP task and its associated brain networks in healthy participants.

Associations among the home language environment and neural activity during infancy

Characteristics of the home language environment, independent of socioeconomic background, may account for disparities in early language abilities. Past studies have reported links between the quantity of language input within the home and differences in brain function during early childhood. The current study examined associations between home language input and EEG brain activity in a socioeconomically diverse sample of 6- to 12-month-old infants (N = 94). Replicating past studies, a positive correlation was found between measures of socioeconomic status and language input. Examining links between language input and brain activity, analyses yielded a negative association, with children who heard more adult words in the home demonstrating reduced EEG beta power (13-19 Hz) in the parietal region. Exploratory analyses revealed a significant interaction between language input and the amount of chaos and disorganization in the home. Specifically, among children living in high-chaos households, children who heard more adult words tended to have reduced EEG activity. Among children living in low-chaos homes, there was no link between adult word count and children's EEG activity. These findings demonstrate the importance of the early home environment context in shaping neurocognitive trajectories.

The Maryland analysis of developmental EEG (MADE) pipeline

Compared to adult EEG, EEG signals recorded from pediatric populations have shorter recording periods and contain more artifact contamination. Therefore, pediatric EEG data necessitate specific preprocessing approaches in order to remove environmental noise and physiological artifacts without losing large amounts of data. However, there is presently a scarcity of standard automated preprocessing pipelines suitable for pediatric EEG. In an effort to achieve greater standardization of EEG preprocessing, and in particular, for the analysis of pediatric data, we developed the Maryland analysis of developmental EEG (MADE) pipeline as an automated preprocessing pipeline compatible with EEG data recorded with different hardware systems, different populations, levels of artifact contamination, and length of recordings. MADE uses EEGLAB and functions from some EEGLAB plugins and includes additional customized features particularly useful for EEG data collected from pediatric populations. MADE processes event-related and resting state EEG from raw data files through a series of preprocessing steps and outputs processed clean data ready to be analyzed in time, frequency, or time-frequency domain. MADE provides a report file at the end of the preprocessing that describes a variety of features of the processed data to facilitate the assessment of the quality of processed data. In this article, we discuss some practical issues, which are specifically relevant to pediatric EEG preprocessing. We also provide custom-written scripts to address these practical issues. MADE is freely available under the terms of the GNU General Public License at https://github.com/ChildDevLab/MADE-EEG-preprocessing-pipeline.

Adolescent cognitive control and mediofrontal theta oscillations are disrupted by neglect: Associations with transdiagnostic risk for psychopathology in a randomized controlled trial

Children that have experienced psychosocial neglect display impairments in self-monitoring and controlling their behavior (cognitive control) and are at broad, transdiagnostic risk for psychopathology. However, the neural underpinnings of such effects remain unclear. Event-related mediofrontal theta oscillations reflect a neural process supporting cognitive control that may relate to transdiagnostic psychopathology risk. Recent work demonstrates reduced mediofrontal theta in rodent models of neglect; however, similar findings have not been reported in humans. Here, 136 children reared in Romanian institutions were randomly assigned to either a high-quality foster care intervention and placed with families or remained in institutions; 72 never-institutionalized children served as a comparison group. The intervention ended at 54 months; event-related mediofrontal theta and psychopathology were assessed at 12- and 16-year follow-up assessments. Institutional rearing (neglect) predicted reduced mediofrontal theta by age 16, which was linked to heightened transdiagnostic risk for psychopathology (P factor); no specific associations with internalizing/externalizing factors were present once transdiagnostic risk was accounted for. Earlier placement into foster care yielded greater mediofrontal activity by age 16. Moreover, foster care placement was associated with the developmental trajectory of mediofrontal theta across the adolescent period (ages 12–16), which was, in turn, associated with greater reductions in transdiagnostic risk across this same period. These data reflect the first experimental evidence that the development of mediofrontal theta is impacted by removal from situations of neglect in humans, and further characterizes the importance of studying developmental change in mediofrontal theta during the adolescent period.

Neural dynamics of executive function in cognitively able kindergarteners with autism spectrum disorders as predictors of concurrent academic achievement

Although electrophysiological (electroencephalography) measures of executive functions (e.g. error monitoring) have been used to predict academic achievement in typically developing children, work investigating a link between error monitoring and academic skills in children with autism spectrum disorder is limited. In this study, we employed traditional electrophysiological and advanced time-frequency methods, combined with principal component analyses, to extract neural activity related to error monitoring and tested their relations to academic achievement in cognitively able kindergarteners with autism spectrum disorder. In total, 35 cognitively able kindergarteners with autism spectrum disorder completed academic assessments and the child-friendly "Zoo Game" Go/No-go task at school entry. The Go/No-go task successfully elicited an error-related negativity and error positivity in children with autism spectrum disorder as young as 5 years at fronto-central and posterior electrode sites, respectively. We also observed increased response-related theta power during errors relative to correct trials at fronto-central sites. Both larger error positivity and theta power significantly predicted concurrent academic achievement after controlling for behavioral performance on the Zoo Game and intelligence quotient. These results suggest that the use of time-frequency electroencephalography analyses, combined with traditional event-related potential measures, may provide new opportunities to investigate neurobiological mechanisms of executive function and academic achievement in young children with autism spectrum disorder.