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Dias RF, Rajan R, Baeta M, Belbut B, Marques T, Petreanu L. Visual experience reduces the spatial redundancy between cortical feedback inputs and primary visual cortex neurons. Neuron 2024:S0896-6273(24)00531-2. [PMID: 39137776 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2024.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 06/11/2024] [Accepted: 07/14/2024] [Indexed: 08/15/2024]
Abstract
The role of experience in the organization of cortical feedback (FB) remains unknown. We measured the effects of manipulating visual experience on the retinotopic specificity of supragranular and infragranular projections from the lateromedial (LM) visual area to layer (L)1 of the mouse primary visual cortex (V1). LM inputs were, on average, retinotopically matched with V1 neurons in normally and dark-reared mice, but visual exposure reduced the fraction of spatially overlapping inputs to V1. FB inputs from L5 conveyed more surround information to V1 than those from L2/3. The organization of LM inputs from L5 depended on their orientation preference and was disrupted by dark rearing. These observations were recapitulated by a model where visual experience minimizes receptive field overlap between LM inputs and V1 neurons. Our results provide a mechanism for the dependency of surround modulations on visual experience and suggest how expected interarea coactivation patterns are learned in cortical circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo F Dias
- Champalimaud Neuroscience Programme, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Radhika Rajan
- Champalimaud Neuroscience Programme, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Margarida Baeta
- Champalimaud Neuroscience Programme, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Beatriz Belbut
- Champalimaud Neuroscience Programme, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Tiago Marques
- Champalimaud Neuroscience Programme, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Leopoldo Petreanu
- Champalimaud Neuroscience Programme, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal.
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2
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Del Rosario J, Coletta S, Kim SH, Mobille Z, Peelman K, Williams B, Otsuki AJ, Del Castillo Valerio A, Worden K, Blanpain LT, Lovell L, Choi H, Haider B. Lateral inhibition in V1 controls neural & perceptual contrast sensitivity. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2023.11.10.566605. [PMID: 38014014 PMCID: PMC10680635 DOI: 10.1101/2023.11.10.566605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
Lateral inhibition is a central principle for sensory system function. It is thought to operate by the activation of inhibitory neurons that restrict the spatial spread of sensory excitation. Much work on the role of inhibition in sensory systems has focused on visual cortex; however, the neurons, computations, and mechanisms underlying cortical lateral inhibition remain debated, and its importance for visual perception remains unknown. Here, we tested how lateral inhibition from PV or SST neurons in mouse primary visual cortex (V1) modulates neural and perceptual sensitivity to stimulus contrast. Lateral inhibition from PV neurons reduced neural and perceptual sensitivity to visual contrast in a uniform subtractive manner, whereas lateral inhibition from SST neurons more effectively changed the slope (or gain) of neural and perceptual contrast sensitivity. A neural circuit model identified spatially extensive lateral projections from SST neurons as the key factor, and we confirmed this with anatomy and direct subthreshold measurements of a larger spatial footprint for SST versus PV lateral inhibition. Together, these results define cell-type specific computational roles for lateral inhibition in V1, and establish their unique consequences on sensitivity to contrast, a fundamental aspect of the visual world.
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3
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Eckmann S, Young EJ, Gjorgjieva J. Synapse-type-specific competitive Hebbian learning forms functional recurrent networks. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2305326121. [PMID: 38870059 PMCID: PMC11194505 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2305326121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2023] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Cortical networks exhibit complex stimulus-response patterns that are based on specific recurrent interactions between neurons. For example, the balance between excitatory and inhibitory currents has been identified as a central component of cortical computations. However, it remains unclear how the required synaptic connectivity can emerge in developing circuits where synapses between excitatory and inhibitory neurons are simultaneously plastic. Using theory and modeling, we propose that a wide range of cortical response properties can arise from a single plasticity paradigm that acts simultaneously at all excitatory and inhibitory connections-Hebbian learning that is stabilized by the synapse-type-specific competition for a limited supply of synaptic resources. In plastic recurrent circuits, this competition enables the formation and decorrelation of inhibition-balanced receptive fields. Networks develop an assembly structure with stronger synaptic connections between similarly tuned excitatory and inhibitory neurons and exhibit response normalization and orientation-specific center-surround suppression, reflecting the stimulus statistics during training. These results demonstrate how neurons can self-organize into functional networks and suggest an essential role for synapse-type-specific competitive learning in the development of cortical circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Eckmann
- Computation in Neural Circuits Group, Max Planck Institute for Brain Research, Frankfurt am Main60438, Germany
- Computational and Biological Learning Lab, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, CambridgeCB2 1PZ, United Kingdom
| | - Edward James Young
- Computational and Biological Learning Lab, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, CambridgeCB2 1PZ, United Kingdom
| | - Julijana Gjorgjieva
- Computation in Neural Circuits Group, Max Planck Institute for Brain Research, Frankfurt am Main60438, Germany
- School of Life Sciences, Technical University Munich, Freising85354, Germany
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4
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Neri P. Human sensory adaptation to the ecological structure of environmental statistics. J Vis 2024; 24:3. [PMID: 38441884 PMCID: PMC10916885 DOI: 10.1167/jov.24.3.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Humans acquire sensory information via fast, highly specialized detectors: For example, edge detectors monitor restricted regions of visual space over timescales of 100-200 ms. Surprisingly, this study demonstrates that their operation is nevertheless shaped by the ecological consistency of slow global statistical structure in the environment. In the experiments, humans acquired feature information from brief localized elements embedded within a virtual environment. Cast shadows are important for determining the appearance and layout of the environment. When the statistical reliability of shadows was manipulated, human feature detectors implicitly adapted to these changes over minutes, adjusting their response properties to emphasize either "image-based" or "object-based" anchoring of local visual elements. More specifically, local visual operators were more firmly anchored around object representations when shadows were reliable. As shadow reliability was reduced, visual operators disengaged from objects and became anchored around image features. These results indicate that the notion of sensory adaptation must be reframed around complex statistical constructs with ecological validity. These constructs far exceed the spatiotemporal selectivity bandwidth of sensory detectors, thus demonstrating the highly integrated nature of sensory processing during natural behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Neri
- Laboratoire des Systèmes Perceptifs (UMR8248), École normale supérieure, PSL Research University, Paris, France
- https://sites.google.com/site/neripeter/
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5
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Ligeralde A, Kuang Y, Yerxa TE, Pitcher MN, Feller M, Chung S. Unsupervised learning on spontaneous retinal activity leads to efficient neural representation geometry. ARXIV 2023:arXiv:2312.02791v1. [PMID: 38106456 PMCID: PMC10723543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
Prior to the onset of vision, neurons in the developing mammalian retina spontaneously fire in correlated activity patterns known as retinal waves. Experimental evidence suggests that retinal waves strongly influence the emergence of sensory representations before visual experience. We aim to model this early stage of functional development by using movies of neurally active developing retinas as pre-training data for neural networks. Specifically, we pre-train a ResNet-18 with an unsupervised contrastive learning objective (SimCLR) on both simulated and experimentally-obtained movies of retinal waves, then evaluate its performance on image classification tasks. We find that pre-training on retinal waves significantly improves performance on tasks that test object invariance to spatial translation, while slightly improving performance on more complex tasks like image classification. Notably, these performance boosts are realized on held-out natural images even though the pre-training procedure does not include any natural image data. We then propose a geometrical explanation for the increase in network performance, namely that the spatiotemporal characteristics of retinal waves facilitate the formation of separable feature representations. In particular, we demonstrate that networks pre-trained on retinal waves are more effective at separating image manifolds than randomly initialized networks, especially for manifolds defined by sets of spatial translations. These findings indicate that the broad spatiotemporal properties of retinal waves prepare networks for higher order feature extraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Ligeralde
- Biophysics Graduate Group, University of California, Berkeley
- Center for Computational Neuroscience, Flatiron Institute
| | - Yilun Kuang
- Center for Computational Neuroscience, Flatiron Institute
- Courant Inst. of Mathematical Sciences, New York University
| | - Thomas Edward Yerxa
- Center for Computational Neuroscience, Flatiron Institute
- Center for Neural Science, New York University
| | - Miah N Pitcher
- Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley
| | - Marla Feller
- Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley
| | - SueYeon Chung
- Center for Computational Neuroscience, Flatiron Institute
- Center for Neural Science, New York University
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6
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Yiling Y, Shapcott K, Peter A, Klon-Lipok J, Xuhui H, Lazar A, Singer W. Robust encoding of natural stimuli by neuronal response sequences in monkey visual cortex. Nat Commun 2023; 14:3021. [PMID: 37231014 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-38587-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Parallel multisite recordings in the visual cortex of trained monkeys revealed that the responses of spatially distributed neurons to natural scenes are ordered in sequences. The rank order of these sequences is stimulus-specific and maintained even if the absolute timing of the responses is modified by manipulating stimulus parameters. The stimulus specificity of these sequences was highest when they were evoked by natural stimuli and deteriorated for stimulus versions in which certain statistical regularities were removed. This suggests that the response sequences result from a matching operation between sensory evidence and priors stored in the cortical network. Decoders trained on sequence order performed as well as decoders trained on rate vectors but the former could decode stimulus identity from considerably shorter response intervals than the latter. A simulated recurrent network reproduced similarly structured stimulus-specific response sequences, particularly once it was familiarized with the stimuli through non-supervised Hebbian learning. We propose that recurrent processing transforms signals from stationary visual scenes into sequential responses whose rank order is the result of a Bayesian matching operation. If this temporal code were used by the visual system it would allow for ultrafast processing of visual scenes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Yiling
- Ernst Strüngmann Institute (ESI) for Neuroscience in Cooperation with Max Planck Society, 60528, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- International Max Planck Research School (IMPRS) for Neural Circuits, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, Goethe-University Frankfurt am Main, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Katharine Shapcott
- Ernst Strüngmann Institute (ESI) for Neuroscience in Cooperation with Max Planck Society, 60528, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Frankfurt Institute for Advanced Studies, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Alina Peter
- Ernst Strüngmann Institute (ESI) for Neuroscience in Cooperation with Max Planck Society, 60528, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- International Max Planck Research School (IMPRS) for Neural Circuits, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, Goethe-University Frankfurt am Main, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Johanna Klon-Lipok
- Max Planck Institute for Brain Research, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Huang Xuhui
- Intelligent Science and Technology Academy, China Aerospace Science and Industry Corporation (CASIC), 100144, Beijing, China
- Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
| | - Andreea Lazar
- Ernst Strüngmann Institute (ESI) for Neuroscience in Cooperation with Max Planck Society, 60528, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Wolf Singer
- Ernst Strüngmann Institute (ESI) for Neuroscience in Cooperation with Max Planck Society, 60528, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
- Frankfurt Institute for Advanced Studies, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
- Max Planck Institute for Brain Research, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
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7
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Ribeiro RT, Carvalho AVS, Palavro R, Durán-Carabali LE, Zemniaçak ÂB, Amaral AU, Netto CA, Wajner M. L-2-Hydroxyglutaric Acid Administration to Neonatal Rats Elicits Marked Neurochemical Alterations and Long-Term Neurobehavioral Disabilities Mediated by Oxidative Stress. Neurotox Res 2023; 41:119-140. [PMID: 36580261 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-022-00625-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2022] [Revised: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 12/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
L-2-Hydroxyglutaric aciduria (L-2-HGA) is an inherited neurometabolic disorder caused by deficient activity of L-2-hydroxyglutarate dehydrogenase. L-2-Hydroxyglutaric acid (L-2-HG) accumulation in the brain and biological fluids is the biochemical hallmark of this disease. Patients present exclusively neurological symptoms and brain abnormalities, particularly in the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. Since the pathogenesis of this disorder is still poorly established, we investigated the short-lived effects of an intracerebroventricular injection of L-2-HG to neonatal rats on redox homeostasis in the cerebellum, which is mostly affected in this disorder. We also determined immunohistochemical landmarks of neuronal viability (NeuN), astrogliosis (S100B and GFAP), microglia activation (Iba1), and myelination (MBP and CNPase) in the cerebral cortex and striatum following L-2-HG administration. Finally, the neuromotor development and cognitive abilities were examined. L-2-HG elicited oxidative stress in the cerebellum 6 h after its injection, which was verified by increased reactive oxygen species production, lipid oxidative damage, and altered antioxidant defenses (decreased concentrations of reduced glutathione and increased glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase activities). L-2-HG also decreased the content of NeuN, MBP, and CNPase, and increased S100B, GFAP, and Iba1 in the cerebral cortex and striatum at postnatal days 15 and 75, implying long-standing neuronal loss, demyelination, astrocyte reactivity, and increased inflammatory response, respectively. Finally, L-2-HG administration caused a delay in neuromotor development and a deficit of cognition in adult animals. Importantly, the antioxidant melatonin prevented L-2-HG-induced deleterious neurochemical, immunohistochemical, and behavioral effects, indicating that oxidative stress may be central to the pathogenesis of brain damage in L-2-HGA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Teixeira Ribeiro
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Andrey Vinícios Soares Carvalho
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Rafael Palavro
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, Porto Alegre, RS, 260090035-003, Brazil
| | - Luz Elena Durán-Carabali
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, Porto Alegre, RS, 260090035-003, Brazil
| | - Ângela Beatris Zemniaçak
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Alexandre Umpierrez Amaral
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Regional Integrada Do Alto Uruguai E das Missões, Av. Sete de Setembro, Erechim, RS, 162199709-910, Brazil
| | - Carlos Alexandre Netto
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, Porto Alegre, RS, 260090035-003, Brazil
| | - Moacir Wajner
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, Porto Alegre, RS, 260090035-003, Brazil.
- Serviço de Genética Médica, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, Porto Alegre, RS, 235090035-007, Brazil.
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8
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Gilday OD, Praegel B, Maor I, Cohen T, Nelken I, Mizrahi A. Surround suppression in mouse auditory cortex underlies auditory edge detection. PLoS Comput Biol 2023; 19:e1010861. [PMID: 36656876 PMCID: PMC9888713 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2023] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Surround suppression (SS) is a fundamental property of sensory processing throughout the brain. In the auditory system, the early processing stream encodes sounds using a one dimensional physical space-frequency. Previous studies in the auditory system have shown SS to manifest as bandwidth tuning around the preferred frequency. We asked whether bandwidth tuning can be found around frequencies away from the preferred frequency. We exploited the simplicity of spectral representation of sounds to study SS by manipulating both sound frequency and bandwidth. We recorded single unit spiking activity from the auditory cortex (ACx) of awake mice in response to an array of broadband stimuli with varying central frequencies and bandwidths. Our recordings revealed that a significant portion of neuronal response profiles had a preferred bandwidth that varied in a regular way with the sound's central frequency. To gain insight into the possible mechanism underlying these responses, we modelled neuronal activity using a variation of the "Mexican hat" function often used to model SS. The model accounted for response properties of single neurons with high accuracy. Our data and model show that these responses in ACx obey simple rules resulting from the presence of lateral inhibitory sidebands, mostly above the excitatory band of the neuron, that result in sensitivity to the location of top frequency edges, invariant to other spectral attributes. Our work offers a simple explanation for auditory edge detection and possibly other computations of spectral content in sounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omri David Gilday
- The Edmond and Lily Safra Center for Brain Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Benedikt Praegel
- The Edmond and Lily Safra Center for Brain Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
- Department of Neurobiology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Ido Maor
- The Edmond and Lily Safra Center for Brain Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
- Department of Neurobiology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Tav Cohen
- Department of Neurobiology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Israel Nelken
- The Edmond and Lily Safra Center for Brain Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
- Department of Neurobiology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Adi Mizrahi
- The Edmond and Lily Safra Center for Brain Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
- Department of Neurobiology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
- * E-mail:
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9
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Sainsbury TTJ, Diana G, Meyer MP. Topographically Localized Modulation of Tectal Cell Spatial Tuning by Complex Natural Scenes. eNeuro 2023; 10:ENEURO.0223-22.2022. [PMID: 36543538 PMCID: PMC9833049 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0223-22.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The tuning properties of neurons in the visual system can be contextually modulated by the statistics of the area surrounding their receptive field (RF), particularly when the surround contains natural features. However, stimuli presented in specific egocentric locations may have greater behavioral relevance, raising the possibility that the extent of contextual modulation may vary with position in visual space. To explore this possibility, we utilized the small size and optical transparency of the larval zebrafish to describe the form and spatial arrangement of contextually modulated cells throughout an entire tectal hemisphere. We found that the spatial tuning of tectal neurons to a prey-like stimulus sharpens when the stimulus is presented against a background with the statistics of complex natural scenes, relative to a featureless background. These neurons are confined to a spatially restricted region of the tectum and have receptive fields centered within a region of visual space in which the presence of prey preferentially triggers hunting behavior. Our results suggest that contextual modulation of tectal neurons by complex backgrounds may facilitate prey-localization in cluttered visual environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas T J Sainsbury
- The Centre for Developmental Neurobiology and MRC Center for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, King's College London, London, United Kingdom, SE1 1UL
| | - Giovanni Diana
- The Centre for Developmental Neurobiology and MRC Center for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, King's College London, London, United Kingdom, SE1 1UL
- Insitut Pasteur, University of Paris, Paris, France, 75015
- Sampled Analytics, Arcueil, France, 94110
| | - Martin P Meyer
- The Centre for Developmental Neurobiology and MRC Center for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, King's College London, London, United Kingdom, SE1 1UL
- Lundbeck Foundation, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2100
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10
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Rupprecht P, Carta S, Hoffmann A, Echizen M, Blot A, Kwan AC, Dan Y, Hofer SB, Kitamura K, Helmchen F, Friedrich RW. A database and deep learning toolbox for noise-optimized, generalized spike inference from calcium imaging. Nat Neurosci 2021; 24:1324-1337. [PMID: 34341584 PMCID: PMC7611618 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-021-00895-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Inference of action potentials ('spikes') from neuronal calcium signals is complicated by the scarcity of simultaneous measurements of action potentials and calcium signals ('ground truth'). In this study, we compiled a large, diverse ground truth database from publicly available and newly performed recordings in zebrafish and mice covering a broad range of calcium indicators, cell types and signal-to-noise ratios, comprising a total of more than 35 recording hours from 298 neurons. We developed an algorithm for spike inference (termed CASCADE) that is based on supervised deep networks, takes advantage of the ground truth database, infers absolute spike rates and outperforms existing model-based algorithms. To optimize performance for unseen imaging data, CASCADE retrains itself by resampling ground truth data to match the respective sampling rate and noise level; therefore, no parameters need to be adjusted by the user. In addition, we developed systematic performance assessments for unseen data, openly released a resource toolbox and provide a user-friendly cloud-based implementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Rupprecht
- Brain Research Institute, University of Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland.
- Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Stefano Carta
- Brain Research Institute, University of Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Adrian Hoffmann
- Brain Research Institute, University of Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Mayumi Echizen
- Department of Neurophysiology, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Anesthesiology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Antonin Blot
- Sainsbury Wellcome Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- Biozentrum, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Alex C Kwan
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Yang Dan
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley CA, USA
| | - Sonja B Hofer
- Sainsbury Wellcome Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- Biozentrum, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Kazuo Kitamura
- Department of Neurophysiology, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Neurophysiology, University of Yamanashi, Yamanashi, Japan
| | - Fritjof Helmchen
- Brain Research Institute, University of Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Rainer W Friedrich
- Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland.
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
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11
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Circuit mechanisms for cortical plasticity and learning. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2021; 125:68-75. [PMID: 34332885 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2021.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The cerebral cortex integrates sensory information with emotional states and internal representations to produce coherent percepts, form associations, and execute voluntary actions. For the cortex to optimize perception, its neuronal network needs to dynamically retrieve and encode new information. Over the last few decades, research has started to provide insight into how the cortex serves these functions. Building on classical Hebbian plasticity models, the latest hypotheses hold that throughout experience and learning, streams of feedforward, feedback, and modulatory information operate in selective and coordinated manners to alter the strength of synapses and ultimately change the response properties of cortical neurons. Here, we describe cortical plasticity mechanisms that involve the concerted action of feedforward and long-range feedback input onto pyramidal neurons as well as the implication of local disinhibitory circuit motifs in this process.
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12
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Herrera-Esposito D, Coen-Cagli R, Gomez-Sena L. Flexible contextual modulation of naturalistic texture perception in peripheral vision. J Vis 2021; 21:1. [PMID: 33393962 PMCID: PMC7794279 DOI: 10.1167/jov.21.1.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Peripheral vision comprises most of our visual field, and is essential in guiding visual behavior. Its characteristic capabilities and limitations, which distinguish it from foveal vision, have been explained by the most influential theory of peripheral vision as the product of representing the visual input using summary statistics. Despite its success, this account may provide a limited understanding of peripheral vision, because it neglects processes of perceptual grouping and segmentation. To test this hypothesis, we studied how contextual modulation, namely the modulation of the perception of a stimulus by its surrounds, interacts with segmentation in human peripheral vision. We used naturalistic textures, which are directly related to summary-statistics representations. We show that segmentation cues affect contextual modulation, and that this is not captured by our implementation of the summary-statistics model. We then characterize the effects of different texture statistics on contextual modulation, providing guidance for extending the model, as well as for probing neural mechanisms of peripheral vision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Herrera-Esposito
- Laboratorio de Neurociencias, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Ruben Coen-Cagli
- Department of Systems and Computational Biology and Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Leonel Gomez-Sena
- Laboratorio de Neurociencias, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
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13
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Chen Q, Smith RG, Huang X, Wei W. Preserving inhibition with a disinhibitory microcircuit in the retina. eLife 2020; 9:62618. [PMID: 33269700 PMCID: PMC7728437 DOI: 10.7554/elife.62618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Previously, we found that in the mammalian retina, inhibitory inputs onto starburst amacrine cells (SACs) are required for robust direction selectivity of On-Off direction-selective ganglion cells (On-Off DSGCs) against noisy backgrounds (Chen et al., 2016). However, the source of the inhibitory inputs to SACs and how this inhibition confers noise resilience of DSGCs are unknown. Here, we show that when visual noise is present in the background, the motion-evoked inhibition to an On-Off DSGC is preserved by a disinhibitory motif consisting of a serially connected network of neighboring SACs presynaptic to the DSGC. This preservation of inhibition by a disinhibitory motif arises from the interaction between visually evoked network dynamics and short-term synaptic plasticity at the SAC-DSGC synapse. Although the disinhibitory microcircuit is well studied for its disinhibitory function in brain circuits, our results highlight the algorithmic flexibility of this motif beyond disinhibition due to the mutual influence between network and synaptic plasticity mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Chen
- Committee on Computational Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago, United States
| | - Robert G Smith
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, United States
| | - Xiaolin Huang
- Committee on Neurobiology, University of Chicago, Chicago, United States
| | - Wei Wei
- Committee on Computational Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago, United States.,Committee on Neurobiology, University of Chicago, Chicago, United States.,Department of Neurobiology, the University of Chicago, Chicago, United States.,Grossman Institute for Neuroscience, Quantitative Biology and Human Behavior, University of Chicago, Chicago, United States
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14
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Kowalewski NN, Kauttonen J, Stan PL, Jeon BB, Fuchs T, Chase SM, Lee TS, Kuhlman SJ. Development of Natural Scene Representation in Primary Visual Cortex Requires Early Postnatal Experience. Curr Biol 2020; 31:369-380.e5. [PMID: 33220181 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2020.10.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2020] [Revised: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The development of the visual system is known to be shaped by early-life experience. To identify response properties that contribute to enhanced natural scene representation, we performed calcium imaging of excitatory neurons in the primary visual cortex (V1) of awake mice raised in three different conditions (standard-reared, dark-reared, and delayed-visual experience) and compared neuronal responses to natural scene features in relation to simpler grating stimuli that varied in orientation and spatial frequency. We assessed population selectivity in the V1 by using decoding methods and found that natural scene discriminability increased by 75% between the ages of 4 and 6 weeks. Both natural scene and grating discriminability were higher in standard-reared animals than in those raised in the dark. This increase in discriminability was accompanied by a reduction in the number of neurons that responded to low-spatial-frequency gratings. At the same time, there was an increase in neuronal preference for natural scenes. Light exposure restricted to a 2- to 4-week window during adulthood did not induce improvements in natural scene or in grating stimulus discriminability. Our results demonstrate that experience reduces the number of neurons needed to effectively encode grating stimuli and that early visual experience enhances natural scene discriminability by directly increasing responsiveness to natural scene features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina N Kowalewski
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Janne Kauttonen
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, 1400 Locust Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA
| | - Patricia L Stan
- Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, 1400 Locust Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA; University of Pittsburgh Center for Neuroscience, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Brian B Jeon
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Neuroscience Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Thomas Fuchs
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, 1400 Locust Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA; Neuroscience Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Steven M Chase
- Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, 1400 Locust Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Neuroscience Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Tai Sing Lee
- Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, 1400 Locust Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA; Neuroscience Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Department of Computer Science, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Sandra J Kuhlman
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, 1400 Locust Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA; University of Pittsburgh Center for Neuroscience, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Neuroscience Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
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15
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Chéreau R, Bawa T, Fodoulian L, Carleton A, Pagès S, Holtmaat A. Dynamic perceptual feature selectivity in primary somatosensory cortex upon reversal learning. Nat Commun 2020; 11:3245. [PMID: 32591523 PMCID: PMC7319990 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-17005-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2019] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurons in primary sensory cortex encode a variety of stimulus features upon perceptual learning. However, it is unclear whether the acquired stimulus selectivity remains stable when the same input is perceived in a different context. Here, we monitor the activity of individual neurons in the mouse primary somatosensory cortex during reward-based texture discrimination. We track their stimulus selectivity before and after changing reward contingencies, which allows us to identify various classes of neurons. We find neurons that stably represented a texture or the upcoming behavioral choice, but the majority is dynamic. Among those, a subpopulation of neurons regains texture selectivity contingent on the associated reward value. These value-sensitive neurons forecast the onset of learning by displaying a distinct and transient increase in activity, depending on past behavioral experience. Thus, stimulus selectivity of excitatory neurons during perceptual learning is dynamic and largely relies on behavioral contingencies, even in primary sensory cortex. Do cortical neurons stably represent stimulus features in different contexts? Here, using calcium imaging, the authors show that texture selectivity of individual neurons is dynamic during reversal learning. For a subclass this is contingent on the associated reward and forecasts the onset of learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronan Chéreau
- Department of Basic Neurosciences and the Center for Neuroscience, CMU, University of Geneva, Rue Michel Servet 1, 1211, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Tanika Bawa
- Department of Basic Neurosciences and the Center for Neuroscience, CMU, University of Geneva, Rue Michel Servet 1, 1211, Geneva, Switzerland.,Lemanic Neuroscience Doctoral School, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Leon Fodoulian
- Department of Basic Neurosciences and the Center for Neuroscience, CMU, University of Geneva, Rue Michel Servet 1, 1211, Geneva, Switzerland.,Lemanic Neuroscience Doctoral School, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Alan Carleton
- Department of Basic Neurosciences and the Center for Neuroscience, CMU, University of Geneva, Rue Michel Servet 1, 1211, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Stéphane Pagès
- Department of Basic Neurosciences and the Center for Neuroscience, CMU, University of Geneva, Rue Michel Servet 1, 1211, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Anthony Holtmaat
- Department of Basic Neurosciences and the Center for Neuroscience, CMU, University of Geneva, Rue Michel Servet 1, 1211, Geneva, Switzerland.
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16
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Gleiss H, Encke J, Lingner A, Jennings TR, Brosel S, Kunz L, Grothe B, Pecka M. Cooperative population coding facilitates efficient sound-source separability by adaptation to input statistics. PLoS Biol 2019; 17:e3000150. [PMID: 31356637 PMCID: PMC6687189 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2019] [Revised: 08/08/2019] [Accepted: 07/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Our sensory environment changes constantly. Accordingly, neural systems continually adapt to the concurrent stimulus statistics to remain sensitive over a wide range of conditions. Such dynamic range adaptation (DRA) is assumed to increase both the effectiveness of the neuronal code and perceptual sensitivity. However, direct demonstrations of DRA-based efficient neuronal processing that also produces perceptual benefits are lacking. Here, we investigated the impact of DRA on spatial coding in the rodent brain and the perception of human listeners. Complex spatial stimulation with dynamically changing source locations elicited prominent DRA already on the initial spatial processing stage, the Lateral Superior Olive (LSO) of gerbils. Surprisingly, on the level of individual neurons, DRA diminished spatial tuning because of large response variability across trials. However, when considering single-trial population averages of multiple neurons, DRA enhanced the coding efficiency specifically for the concurrently most probable source locations. Intrinsic LSO population imaging of energy consumption combined with pharmacology revealed that a slow-acting LSO gain-control mechanism distributes activity across a group of neurons during DRA, thereby enhancing population coding efficiency. Strikingly, such “efficient cooperative coding” also improved neuronal source separability specifically for the locations that were most likely to occur. These location-specific enhancements in neuronal coding were paralleled by human listeners exhibiting a selective improvement in spatial resolution. We conclude that, contrary to canonical models of sensory encoding, the primary motive of early spatial processing is efficiency optimization of neural populations for enhanced source separability in the concurrent environment. The efficient coding hypothesis suggests that sensory processing adapts to the stimulus statistics to maximize information while minimizing energetic costs. This study finds that an auditory spatial processing circuit distributes activity across neurons to enhance processing efficiency, focally improving spatial resolution both in neurons and in human listeners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helge Gleiss
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Biology II, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitaet Muenchen, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Jörg Encke
- Chair of Bio-Inspired Information Processing, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Technical University of Munich, Garching, Germany
| | - Andrea Lingner
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Biology II, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitaet Muenchen, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Todd R. Jennings
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Biology II, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitaet Muenchen, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Sonja Brosel
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Biology II, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitaet Muenchen, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Lars Kunz
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Biology II, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitaet Muenchen, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Benedikt Grothe
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Biology II, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitaet Muenchen, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Michael Pecka
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Biology II, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitaet Muenchen, Martinsried, Germany
- * E-mail:
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17
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Marangio L, Galatolo S, Fronzoni L, Chillemi S, Di Garbo A. Phase-locking patterns in a resonate and fire neural model with periodic drive. Biosystems 2019; 184:103992. [PMID: 31323255 DOI: 10.1016/j.biosystems.2019.103992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Revised: 06/11/2019] [Accepted: 07/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In this paper we studied a resonate and fire relaxation oscillator subject to time dependent modulation to investigate phase-locking phenomena occurring in neurophysiological systems. The neural model (denoted LFHN) was obtained by linearization of the FitzHugh-Nagumo neural model near an hyperbolic fixed point and then by introducing an integrate-and-fire mechanism for spike generation. By employing specific tools to study circle maps, we showed that this system exhibits several phase-locking patterns in the presence of periodic perturbations. Moreover, both the amplitude and frequency of the modulation strongly impact its phase-locking properties. In addition, general conditions for the generation of firing activity were also obtained. In addition, it was shown that for moderate noise levels the phase-locking patterns of the LFHN persist. Moreover, in the presence of noise, the rotation number changes smoothly as the stimulation current increases. Then, the statistical properties of the firing map were investigated too. Lastly, the results obtained with the forced LFHN suggest that such neural model could be used to fit specific experimental data on the firing times of neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luigi Marangio
- Department of Mathematics, University of Pisa, Italy; Femto-ST Institute, Université de Bourgogne-Franche Comté, France
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18
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Nonlinear Processing of Shape Information in Rat Lateral Extrastriate Cortex. J Neurosci 2019; 39:1649-1670. [PMID: 30617210 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1938-18.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Revised: 11/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In rodents, the progression of extrastriate areas located laterally to primary visual cortex (V1) has been assigned to a putative object-processing pathway (homologous to the primate ventral stream), based on anatomical considerations. Recently, we found functional support for such attribution (Tafazoli et al., 2017), by showing that this cortical progression is specialized for coding object identity despite view changes, the hallmark property of a ventral-like pathway. Here, we sought to clarify what computations are at the base of such specialization. To this aim, we performed multielectrode recordings from V1 and laterolateral area LL (at the apex of the putative ventral-like hierarchy) of male adult rats, during the presentation of drifting gratings and noise movies. We found that the extent to which neuronal responses were entrained to the phase of the gratings sharply dropped from V1 to LL, along with the quality of the receptive fields inferred through reverse correlation. Concomitantly, the tendency of neurons to respond to different oriented gratings increased, whereas the sharpness of orientation tuning declined. Critically, these trends are consistent with the nonlinear summation of visual inputs that is expected to take place along the ventral stream, according to the predictions of hierarchical models of ventral computations and a meta-analysis of the monkey literature. This suggests an intriguing homology between the mechanisms responsible for building up shape selectivity and transformation tolerance in the visual cortex of primates and rodents, reasserting the potential of the latter as models to investigate ventral stream functions at the circuitry level.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Despite the growing popularity of rodents as models of visual functions, it remains unclear whether their visual cortex contains specialized modules for processing shape information. To addresses this question, we compared how neuronal tuning evolves from rat primary visual cortex (V1) to a downstream visual cortical region (area LL) that previous work has implicated in shape processing. In our experiments, LL neurons displayed a stronger tendency to respond to drifting gratings with different orientations while maintaining a sustained response across the whole duration of the drift cycle. These trends match the increased complexity of pattern selectivity and the augmented tolerance to stimulus translation found in monkey visual temporal cortex, thus revealing a homology between shape processing in rodents and primates.
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19
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Avitan L, Goodhill GJ. Code Under Construction: Neural Coding Over Development. Trends Neurosci 2018; 41:599-609. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2018.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Revised: 05/17/2018] [Accepted: 05/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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20
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Camillo D, Ahmadlou M, Saiepour MH, Yasaminshirazi M, Levelt CN, Heimel JA. Visual Processing by Calretinin Expressing Inhibitory Neurons in Mouse Primary Visual Cortex. Sci Rep 2018; 8:12355. [PMID: 30120412 PMCID: PMC6098074 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-30958-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2018] [Accepted: 08/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Inhibition in the cerebral cortex is delivered by a variety of GABAergic interneurons. These cells have been categorized by their morphology, physiology, gene expression and connectivity. Many of these classes appear to be conserved across species, suggesting that the classes play specific functional roles in cortical processing. What these functions are, is still largely unknown. The largest group of interneurons in the upper layers of mouse primary visual cortex (V1) is formed by cells expressing the calcium-binding protein calretinin (CR). This heterogeneous class contains subsets of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) interneurons and somatostatin (SOM) interneurons. Here we show, using in vivo two-photon calcium imaging in mice, that CR neurons can be sensitive to stimulus orientation, but that they are less selective on average than the overall neuronal population. Responses of CR neurons are suppressed by a surrounding stimulus, but less so than the overall population. In rats and primates, CR interneurons have been suggested to provide disinhibition, but we found that in mice their in vivo activation by optogenetics causes a net inhibition of cortical activity. Our results show that the average functional properties of CR interneurons are distinct from the averages of the parvalbumin, SOM and VIP interneuron populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Camillo
- Cortical Structure & Function Group, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, an institute of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1105 BA, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Mehran Ahmadlou
- Cortical Structure & Function Group, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, an institute of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1105 BA, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - M Hadi Saiepour
- Molecular Visual Plasticity Group, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, an institute of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1105 BA, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Maryam Yasaminshirazi
- Cortical Structure & Function Group, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, an institute of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1105 BA, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Christiaan N Levelt
- Molecular Visual Plasticity Group, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, an institute of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1105 BA, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - J Alexander Heimel
- Cortical Structure & Function Group, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, an institute of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1105 BA, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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21
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Ahmadlou M, Tafreshiha A, Heimel JA. Visual Cortex Limits Pop-Out in the Superior Colliculus of Awake Mice. Cereb Cortex 2018; 27:5772-5783. [PMID: 29029071 PMCID: PMC5939206 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhx254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
We detect objects more readily if they differ from their surroundings in motion, color, or texture. This increased saliency is thought to be related to increased responses in the visual cortex. The superior colliculus is another brain area involved in vision and especially in directing gaze and attention. In this study, we show that differences in texture orientation also increase responses in the superficial layers of the superior colliculus that receive retinal and cortical input. We found that gratings evoke more neural response when surrounded by orthogonal gratings than when surrounded by parallel gratings, particularly in the awake mouse. This pop-out is not originating from the visual cortex, and silencing visual cortex increased the relative difference in response. A model shows that this can result from retinotopically matched excitation from visual cortex to the superior colliculus. We suggest that the perceptual saliency of a stimulus differing from its surround in a low-level feature like grating orientation could depend on visual processing in the superior colliculus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehran Ahmadlou
- Department of Cortical Structure and Function, The Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW), Meibergdreef 47, 1105 BA Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Azadeh Tafreshiha
- Department of Cortical Structure and Function, The Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW), Meibergdreef 47, 1105 BA Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - J Alexander Heimel
- Department of Cortical Structure and Function, The Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW), Meibergdreef 47, 1105 BA Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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22
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Beiderbeck B, Myoga MH, Müller NIC, Callan AR, Friauf E, Grothe B, Pecka M. Precisely timed inhibition facilitates action potential firing for spatial coding in the auditory brainstem. Nat Commun 2018; 9:1771. [PMID: 29720589 PMCID: PMC5932051 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-04210-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2017] [Accepted: 04/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The integration of excitatory and inhibitory synaptic inputs is fundamental to neuronal processing. In the mammalian auditory brainstem, neurons compare excitatory and inhibitory inputs from the ipsilateral and contralateral ear, respectively, for sound localization. However, the temporal precision and functional roles of inhibition in this integration process are unclear. Here, we demonstrate by in vivo recordings from the lateral superior olive (LSO) that inhibition controls spiking with microsecond precision throughout high frequency click trains. Depending on the relative timing of excitation and inhibition, neuronal spike probability is either suppressed or-unexpectedly-facilitated. In vitro conductance-clamp LSO recordings establish that a reduction in the voltage threshold for spike initiation due to a prior hyperpolarization results in post-inhibitory facilitation of otherwise sub-threshold synaptic events. Thus, microsecond-precise differences in the arrival of inhibition relative to excitation can facilitate spiking in the LSO, thereby promoting spatial sensitivity during the processing of faint sounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Beiderbeck
- Department Biology II, Division of Neurobiology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitaet Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, D-82152, Germany.,Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitaet Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, D-82152, Germany
| | - Michael H Myoga
- Department Biology II, Division of Neurobiology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitaet Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, D-82152, Germany.,Max Planck Institute of Neurobiology, Am Klopferspitz 18, Martinsried, 82152, Germany
| | - Nicolas I C Müller
- Department of Biology, Animal Physiology Group, University of Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, D-67653, Germany
| | - Alexander R Callan
- Department Biology II, Division of Neurobiology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitaet Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, D-82152, Germany.,Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitaet Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, D-82152, Germany
| | - Eckhard Friauf
- Department of Biology, Animal Physiology Group, University of Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, D-67653, Germany
| | - Benedikt Grothe
- Department Biology II, Division of Neurobiology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitaet Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, D-82152, Germany. .,Max Planck Institute of Neurobiology, Am Klopferspitz 18, Martinsried, 82152, Germany.
| | - Michael Pecka
- Department Biology II, Division of Neurobiology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitaet Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, D-82152, Germany.
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23
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Dipoppa M, Ranson A, Krumin M, Pachitariu M, Carandini M, Harris KD. Vision and Locomotion Shape the Interactions between Neuron Types in Mouse Visual Cortex. Neuron 2018; 98:602-615.e8. [PMID: 29656873 PMCID: PMC5946730 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2018.03.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2016] [Revised: 07/26/2017] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Cortical computation arises from the interaction of multiple neuronal types, including pyramidal (Pyr) cells and interneurons expressing Sst, Vip, or Pvalb. To study the circuit underlying such interactions, we imaged these four types of cells in mouse primary visual cortex (V1). Our recordings in darkness were consistent with a "disinhibitory" model in which locomotion activates Vip cells, thus inhibiting Sst cells and disinhibiting Pyr cells. However, the disinhibitory model failed when visual stimuli were present: locomotion increased Sst cell responses to large stimuli and Vip cell responses to small stimuli. A recurrent network model successfully predicted each cell type's activity from the measured activity of other types. Capturing the effects of locomotion, however, required allowing it to increase feedforward synaptic weights and modulate recurrent weights. This network model summarizes interneuron interactions and suggests that locomotion may alter cortical computation by changing effective synaptic connectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Dipoppa
- Institute of Neurology, University College London, London WC1N 3BG, UK.
| | - Adam Ranson
- Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London EC1V 9EL, UK
| | - Michael Krumin
- Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London EC1V 9EL, UK
| | - Marius Pachitariu
- Institute of Neurology, University College London, London WC1N 3BG, UK
| | - Matteo Carandini
- Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London EC1V 9EL, UK
| | - Kenneth D Harris
- Institute of Neurology, University College London, London WC1N 3BG, UK
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24
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Ziemba CM, Freeman J, Simoncelli EP, Movshon JA. Contextual modulation of sensitivity to naturalistic image structure in macaque V2. J Neurophysiol 2018; 120:409-420. [PMID: 29641304 PMCID: PMC6139455 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00900.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The stimulus selectivity of neurons in V1 is well known, as is the finding that their responses can be affected by visual input to areas outside of the classical receptive field. Less well understood are the ways selectivity is modified as signals propagate to visual areas beyond V1, such as V2. We recently proposed a role for V2 neurons in representing the higher order statistical dependencies found in images of naturally occurring visual texture. V2 neurons, but not V1 neurons, respond more vigorously to "naturalistic" images that contain these dependencies than to "noise" images that lack them. In this work, we examine the dependency of these effects on stimulus size. For most V2 neurons, the preference for naturalistic over noise stimuli was modest when presented in small patches and gradually strengthened with increasing size, suggesting that the mechanisms responsible for this enhanced sensitivity operate over regions of the visual field that are larger than the classical receptive field. Indeed, we found that surround suppression was stronger for noise than for naturalistic stimuli and that the preference for large naturalistic stimuli developed over a delayed time course consistent with lateral or feedback connections. These findings are compatible with a spatially broad facilitatory mechanism that is absent in V1 and suggest that a distinct role for the receptive field surround emerges in V2 along with sensitivity for more complex image structure. NEW & NOTEWORTHY The responses of neurons in visual cortex are often affected by visual input delivered to regions of the visual field outside of the conventionally defined receptive field, but the significance of such contextual modulations are not well understood outside of area V1. We studied the importance of regions beyond the receptive field in establishing a novel form of selectivity for the statistical dependencies contained in natural visual textures that first emerges in area V2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corey M Ziemba
- Center for Neural Science, New York University , New York, New York.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New York University , New York, New York
| | - Jeremy Freeman
- Center for Neural Science, New York University , New York, New York
| | - Eero P Simoncelli
- Center for Neural Science, New York University , New York, New York.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New York University , New York, New York
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25
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Han Y, Kebschull JM, Campbell RAA, Cowan D, Imhof F, Zador AM, Mrsic-Flogel TD. The logic of single-cell projections from visual cortex. Nature 2018; 556:51-56. [PMID: 29590093 DOI: 10.1038/nature26159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2017] [Accepted: 01/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Neocortical areas communicate through extensive axonal projections, but the logic of information transfer remains poorly understood, because the projections of individual neurons have not been systematically characterized. It is not known whether individual neurons send projections only to single cortical areas or distribute signals across multiple targets. Here we determine the projection patterns of 591 individual neurons in the mouse primary visual cortex using whole-brain fluorescence-based axonal tracing and high-throughput DNA sequencing of genetically barcoded neurons (MAPseq). Projections were highly diverse and divergent, collectively targeting at least 18 cortical and subcortical areas. Most neurons targeted multiple cortical areas, often in non-random combinations, suggesting that sub-classes of intracortical projection neurons exist. Our results indicate that the dominant mode of intracortical information transfer is not based on 'one neuron-one target area' mapping. Instead, signals carried by individual cortical neurons are shared across subsets of target areas, and thus concurrently contribute to multiple functional pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunyun Han
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medicine and Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Institute for Brain Research, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Biozentrum, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Justus M Kebschull
- Watson School of Biological Sciences, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, USA.,Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, USA
| | | | - Devon Cowan
- Biozentrum, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Fabia Imhof
- Biozentrum, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Anthony M Zador
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, USA
| | - Thomas D Mrsic-Flogel
- Biozentrum, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland.,Sainsbury Wellcome Centre, University College London, London, UK
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26
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Development of Cross-Orientation Suppression and Size Tuning and the Role of Experience. J Neurosci 2018; 38:2656-2670. [PMID: 29431651 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2886-17.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2017] [Revised: 12/19/2017] [Accepted: 01/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Many sensory neural circuits exhibit response normalization, which occurs when the response of a neuron to a combination of multiple stimuli is less than the sum of the responses to the individual stimuli presented alone. In the visual cortex, normalization takes the forms of cross-orientation suppression and surround suppression. At the onset of visual experience, visual circuits are partially developed and exhibit some mature features such as orientation selectivity, but it is unknown whether cross-orientation suppression is present at the onset of visual experience or requires visual experience for its emergence. We characterized the development of normalization and its dependence on visual experience in female ferrets. Visual experience was varied across the following three conditions: typical rearing, dark rearing, and dark rearing with daily exposure to simple sinusoidal gratings (14-16 h total). Cross-orientation suppression and surround suppression were noted in the earliest observations, and did not vary considerably with experience. We also observed evidence of continued maturation of receptive field properties in the second month of visual experience: substantial length summation was observed only in the oldest animals (postnatal day 90); evoked firing rates were greatly increased in older animals; and direction selectivity required experience, but declined slightly in older animals. These results constrain the space of possible circuit implementations of these features.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The development of the brain depends on both nature-factors that are independent of the experience of an individual animal-and nurture-factors that depend on experience. While orientation selectivity, one of the major response properties of neurons in visual cortex, is already present at the onset of visual experience, it is unknown whether response properties that depend on interactions among multiple stimuli develop without experience. We find that the properties of cross-orientation suppression and surround suppression are present at eye opening, and do not depend on visual experience. Our results are consistent with the idea that a majority of the basic properties of sensory neurons in primary visual cortex are derived independent of the experience of an individual animal.
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27
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Singer W. Neuronal oscillations: unavoidable and useful? Eur J Neurosci 2018; 48:2389-2398. [PMID: 29247490 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.13796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2017] [Revised: 11/09/2017] [Accepted: 11/27/2017] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Neuronal systems have a high propensity to engage in oscillatory activity because both the properties of individual neurons and canonical circuit motifs favour rhythmic activity. In addition, coupled oscillators can engage in a large variety of dynamical regimes, ranging from synchronization with different phase offsets to chaotic behaviour. Which regime prevails depends on differences between preferred oscillation frequencies, coupling strength and coupling delays. The ability of delay coupled oscillator networks to generate a rich repertoire of temporally structured activation sequences is exploited by central pattern generator networks for the control of movements. However, it is less clear whether temporal patterning of neuronal discharges also plays a role in cognitive processes. Here, it will be argued that the temporal patterning of neuronal discharges emerging from delay coupled oscillator networks plays a pivotal role in all instances in which selective relations have to be established between the responses of distributed assemblies of neurons. Examples are the dynamic formation of functional networks, the selective routing of activity in densely interconnected networks, the attention-dependent selection of sensory signals, the fast and context-dependent binding of responses for further joint processing in pattern recognition and the formation of associations by learning. Special consideration is given to arguments that challenge a functional role of oscillations and synchrony in cognition because of the volatile nature of these phenomena and recent evidence will be reviewed suggesting that this volatility is functionally advantageous.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolf Singer
- Max Planck Institute for Brain Research (MPI), Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,Frankfurt Institute for Advanced Studies (FIAS), Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,Ernst Struengmann Institute for Neuroscience, Deutschorenstrasse 48, 60528, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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28
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Ranson A. Stability and Plasticity of Contextual Modulation in the Mouse Visual Cortex. Cell Rep 2017; 18:840-848. [PMID: 28122235 PMCID: PMC5289925 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2016.12.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2016] [Revised: 11/08/2016] [Accepted: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Activity of neurons in primary visual cortex is shaped by sensory and behavioral context. However, the long-term stability of the influence of contextual factors in the mature cortex remains poorly understood. To investigate this, we used two-photon calcium imaging to track the influence of surround suppression and locomotion on individual neurons over 14 days. We found that highly active excitatory neurons and parvalbumin-positive (PV+) interneurons exhibited relatively stable modulation by visual context. Similarly, most neurons exhibited a stable yet distinct degree of modulation by locomotion. In contrast, less active excitatory neurons exhibited plasticity in visual context influence, resulting in increased suppression. These findings suggest that the mature visual cortex possesses stable subnetworks of neurons, differentiated by cell type and activity level, which have distinctive and stable interactions with sensory and behavioral contexts, as well as other less active and more labile neurons, which are sensitive to visual experience. Highly active excitatory neurons are stably modulated by visual context Lower activity neurons exhibit plasticity of influence of visual context in mature V1 PV interneurons maintain relatively stable modulation by visual and behavioral context Majority of excitatory neurons are stably modulated by behavioral context
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Ranson
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF24 4HQ, UK.
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29
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Guan W, Cao JW, Liu LY, Zhao ZH, Fu Y, Yu YC. Eye opening differentially modulates inhibitory synaptic transmission in the developing visual cortex. eLife 2017; 6:32337. [PMID: 29227249 PMCID: PMC5746341 DOI: 10.7554/elife.32337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2017] [Accepted: 12/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Eye opening, a natural and timed event during animal development, influences cortical circuit assembly and maturation; yet, little is known about its precise effect on inhibitory synaptic connections. Here, we show that coinciding with eye opening, the strength of unitary inhibitory postsynaptic currents (uIPSCs) from somatostatin-expressing interneurons (Sst-INs) to nearby excitatory neurons, but not interneurons, sharply decreases in layer 2/3 of the mouse visual cortex. In contrast, the strength of uIPSCs from fast-spiking interneurons (FS-INs) to excitatory neurons significantly increases during eye opening. More importantly, these developmental changes can be prevented by dark rearing or binocular lid suture, and reproduced by the artificial opening of sutured lids. Mechanistically, this differential maturation of synaptic transmission is accompanied by a significant change in the postsynaptic quantal size. Together, our study reveals a differential regulation in GABAergic circuits in the cortex driven by eye opening may be crucial for cortical maturation and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wuqiang Guan
- Jing'an District Center Hospital of Shanghai, Institutes of Brain Science, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jun-Wei Cao
- Jing'an District Center Hospital of Shanghai, Institutes of Brain Science, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lin-Yun Liu
- Jing'an District Center Hospital of Shanghai, Institutes of Brain Science, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhi-Hao Zhao
- Jing'an District Center Hospital of Shanghai, Institutes of Brain Science, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yinghui Fu
- Jing'an District Center Hospital of Shanghai, Institutes of Brain Science, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yong-Chun Yu
- Jing'an District Center Hospital of Shanghai, Institutes of Brain Science, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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30
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Muir DR, Molina-Luna P, Roth MM, Helmchen F, Kampa BM. Specific excitatory connectivity for feature integration in mouse primary visual cortex. PLoS Comput Biol 2017; 13:e1005888. [PMID: 29240769 PMCID: PMC5746254 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Revised: 12/28/2017] [Accepted: 11/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Local excitatory connections in mouse primary visual cortex (V1) are stronger and more prevalent between neurons that share similar functional response features. However, the details of how functional rules for local connectivity shape neuronal responses in V1 remain unknown. We hypothesised that complex responses to visual stimuli may arise as a consequence of rules for selective excitatory connectivity within the local network in the superficial layers of mouse V1. In mouse V1 many neurons respond to overlapping grating stimuli (plaid stimuli) with highly selective and facilitatory responses, which are not simply predicted by responses to single gratings presented alone. This complexity is surprising, since excitatory neurons in V1 are considered to be mainly tuned to single preferred orientations. Here we examined the consequences for visual processing of two alternative connectivity schemes: in the first case, local connections are aligned with visual properties inherited from feedforward input (a 'like-to-like' scheme specifically connecting neurons that share similar preferred orientations); in the second case, local connections group neurons into excitatory subnetworks that combine and amplify multiple feedforward visual properties (a 'feature binding' scheme). By comparing predictions from large scale computational models with in vivo recordings of visual representations in mouse V1, we found that responses to plaid stimuli were best explained by assuming feature binding connectivity. Unlike under the like-to-like scheme, selective amplification within feature-binding excitatory subnetworks replicated experimentally observed facilitatory responses to plaid stimuli; explained selective plaid responses not predicted by grating selectivity; and was consistent with broad anatomical selectivity observed in mouse V1. Our results show that visual feature binding can occur through local recurrent mechanisms without requiring feedforward convergence, and that such a mechanism is consistent with visual responses and cortical anatomy in mouse V1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dylan R. Muir
- Biozentrum, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- Laboratory of Neural Circuit Dynamics, Brain Research Institute, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Patricia Molina-Luna
- Laboratory of Neural Circuit Dynamics, Brain Research Institute, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Morgane M. Roth
- Biozentrum, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- Laboratory of Neural Circuit Dynamics, Brain Research Institute, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Fritjof Helmchen
- Laboratory of Neural Circuit Dynamics, Brain Research Institute, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Björn M. Kampa
- Laboratory of Neural Circuit Dynamics, Brain Research Institute, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Department of Neurophysiology, Institute of Biology 2, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
- JARA-BRAIN, Aachen, Germany
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31
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Ursino M, Crisafulli A, di Pellegrino G, Magosso E, Cuppini C. Development of a Bayesian Estimator for Audio-Visual Integration: A Neurocomputational Study. Front Comput Neurosci 2017; 11:89. [PMID: 29046631 PMCID: PMC5633019 DOI: 10.3389/fncom.2017.00089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2017] [Accepted: 09/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The brain integrates information from different sensory modalities to generate a coherent and accurate percept of external events. Several experimental studies suggest that this integration follows the principle of Bayesian estimate. However, the neural mechanisms responsible for this behavior, and its development in a multisensory environment, are still insufficiently understood. We recently presented a neural network model of audio-visual integration (Neural Computation, 2017) to investigate how a Bayesian estimator can spontaneously develop from the statistics of external stimuli. Model assumes the presence of two unimodal areas (auditory and visual) topologically organized. Neurons in each area receive an input from the external environment, computed as the inner product of the sensory-specific stimulus and the receptive field synapses, and a cross-modal input from neurons of the other modality. Based on sensory experience, synapses were trained via Hebbian potentiation and a decay term. Aim of this work is to improve the previous model, including a more realistic distribution of visual stimuli: visual stimuli have a higher spatial accuracy at the central azimuthal coordinate and a lower accuracy at the periphery. Moreover, their prior probability is higher at the center, and decreases toward the periphery. Simulations show that, after training, the receptive fields of visual and auditory neurons shrink to reproduce the accuracy of the input (both at the center and at the periphery in the visual case), thus realizing the likelihood estimate of unimodal spatial position. Moreover, the preferred positions of visual neurons contract toward the center, thus encoding the prior probability of the visual input. Finally, a prior probability of the co-occurrence of audio-visual stimuli is encoded in the cross-modal synapses. The model is able to simulate the main properties of a Bayesian estimator and to reproduce behavioral data in all conditions examined. In particular, in unisensory conditions the visual estimates exhibit a bias toward the fovea, which increases with the level of noise. In cross modal conditions, the SD of the estimates decreases when using congruent audio-visual stimuli, and a ventriloquism effect becomes evident in case of spatially disparate stimuli. Moreover, the ventriloquism decreases with the eccentricity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauro Ursino
- Department of Electrical, Electronic and Information Engineering, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | | | | | - Elisa Magosso
- Department of Electrical, Electronic and Information Engineering, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Cristiano Cuppini
- Department of Electrical, Electronic and Information Engineering, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
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32
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Input timing for spatial processing is precisely tuned via constant synaptic delays and myelination patterns in the auditory brainstem. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:E4851-E4858. [PMID: 28559325 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1702290114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Precise timing of synaptic inputs is a fundamental principle of neural circuit processing. The temporal precision of postsynaptic input integration is known to vary with the computational requirements of a circuit, yet how the timing of action potentials is tuned presynaptically to match these processing demands is not well understood. In particular, action potential timing is shaped by the axonal conduction velocity and the duration of synaptic transmission delays within a pathway. However, it is not known to what extent these factors are adapted to the functional constraints of the respective circuit. Here, we report the finding of activity-invariant synaptic transmission delays as a functional adaptation for input timing adjustment in a brainstem sound localization circuit. We compared axonal and synaptic properties of the same pathway between two species with dissimilar timing requirements (gerbil and mouse): In gerbils (like humans), neuronal processing of sound source location requires exceptionally high input precision in the range of microseconds, but not in mice. Activity-invariant synaptic transmission and conduction delays were present exclusively in fast conducting axons of gerbils that also exhibited unusual structural adaptations in axon myelination for increased conduction velocity. In contrast, synaptic transmission delays in mice varied depending on activity levels, and axonal myelination and conduction velocity exhibited no adaptations. Thus, the specializations in gerbils and their absence in mice suggest an optimization of axonal and synaptic properties to the specific demands of sound localization. These findings significantly advance our understanding of structural and functional adaptations for circuit processing.
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33
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Mazziotti R, Baroncelli L, Ceglia N, Chelini G, Sala GD, Magnan C, Napoli D, Putignano E, Silingardi D, Tola J, Tognini P, Arthur JSC, Baldi P, Pizzorusso T. Mir-132/212 is required for maturation of binocular matching of orientation preference and depth perception. Nat Commun 2017; 8:15488. [PMID: 28534484 PMCID: PMC5457514 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms15488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2016] [Accepted: 04/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are known to mediate post-transcriptional gene regulation, but their role in postnatal brain development is still poorly explored. We show that the expression of many miRNAs is dramatically regulated during functional maturation of the mouse visual cortex with miR-132/212 family being one of the top upregulated miRNAs. Age-downregulated transcripts are significantly enriched in miR-132/miR-212 putative targets and in genes upregulated in miR-132/212 null mice. At a functional level, miR-132/212 deletion affects development of receptive fields of cortical neurons determining a specific impairment of binocular matching of orientation preference, but leaving orientation and direction selectivity unaltered. This deficit is associated with reduced depth perception in the visual cliff test. Deletion of miR-132/212 from forebrain excitatory neurons replicates the binocular matching deficits. Thus, miR-132/212 family shapes the age-dependent transcriptome of the visual cortex during a specific developmental window resulting in maturation of binocular cortical cells and depth perception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raffaele Mazziotti
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health NEUROFARBA University of Florence, Area San Salvi—Pad. 26, 50135 Florence, Italy
| | - Laura Baroncelli
- Institute of Neuroscience, National Research Council, Via Moruzzi, 1 56124 Pisa, Italy
| | - Nicholas Ceglia
- Department of Computer Science, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, USA
- Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, USA
| | - Gabriele Chelini
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health NEUROFARBA University of Florence, Area San Salvi—Pad. 26, 50135 Florence, Italy
| | - Grazia Della Sala
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health NEUROFARBA University of Florence, Area San Salvi—Pad. 26, 50135 Florence, Italy
| | - Christophe Magnan
- Department of Computer Science, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, USA
- Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, USA
| | - Debora Napoli
- BIO@SNS lab, Scuola Normale Superiore via Moruzzi, 1 56124 Pisa, Italy
| | - Elena Putignano
- Institute of Neuroscience, National Research Council, Via Moruzzi, 1 56124 Pisa, Italy
| | - Davide Silingardi
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health NEUROFARBA University of Florence, Area San Salvi—Pad. 26, 50135 Florence, Italy
| | - Jonida Tola
- Institute of Neuroscience, National Research Council, Via Moruzzi, 1 56124 Pisa, Italy
| | - Paola Tognini
- BIO@SNS lab, Scuola Normale Superiore via Moruzzi, 1 56124 Pisa, Italy
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, USA
- Center for Epigenetics and Metabolism, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, USA
| | - J. Simon C. Arthur
- Division of Cell Signalling and Immunology, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Pierre Baldi
- Department of Computer Science, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, USA
- Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, USA
- Center for Epigenetics and Metabolism, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, USA
| | - Tommaso Pizzorusso
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health NEUROFARBA University of Florence, Area San Salvi—Pad. 26, 50135 Florence, Italy
- Institute of Neuroscience, National Research Council, Via Moruzzi, 1 56124 Pisa, Italy
- BIO@SNS lab, Scuola Normale Superiore via Moruzzi, 1 56124 Pisa, Italy
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34
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Angelucci A, Bijanzadeh M, Nurminen L, Federer F, Merlin S, Bressloff PC. Circuits and Mechanisms for Surround Modulation in Visual Cortex. Annu Rev Neurosci 2017; 40:425-451. [PMID: 28471714 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-neuro-072116-031418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Surround modulation (SM) is a fundamental property of sensory neurons in many species and sensory modalities. SM is the ability of stimuli in the surround of a neuron's receptive field (RF) to modulate (typically suppress) the neuron's response to stimuli simultaneously presented inside the RF, a property thought to underlie optimal coding of sensory information and important perceptual functions. Understanding the circuit and mechanisms for SM can reveal fundamental principles of computations in sensory cortices, from mouse to human. Current debate is centered over whether feedforward or intracortical circuits generate SM, and whether this results from increased inhibition or reduced excitation. Here we present a working hypothesis, based on theoretical and experimental evidence, that SM results from feedforward, horizontal, and feedback interactions with local recurrent connections, via synaptic mechanisms involving both increased inhibition and reduced recurrent excitation. In particular, strong and balanced recurrent excitatory and inhibitory circuits play a crucial role in the computation of SM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Angelucci
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Moran Eye Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84132; , , , ,
| | - Maryam Bijanzadeh
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Moran Eye Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84132; , , , ,
| | - Lauri Nurminen
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Moran Eye Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84132; , , , ,
| | - Frederick Federer
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Moran Eye Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84132; , , , ,
| | - Sam Merlin
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Moran Eye Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84132; , , , ,
| | - Paul C Bressloff
- Department of Mathematics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84132;
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35
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Tafazoli S, Safaai H, De Franceschi G, Rosselli FB, Vanzella W, Riggi M, Buffolo F, Panzeri S, Zoccolan D. Emergence of transformation-tolerant representations of visual objects in rat lateral extrastriate cortex. eLife 2017; 6. [PMID: 28395730 PMCID: PMC5388540 DOI: 10.7554/elife.22794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2016] [Accepted: 02/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Rodents are emerging as increasingly popular models of visual functions. Yet, evidence that rodent visual cortex is capable of advanced visual processing, such as object recognition, is limited. Here we investigate how neurons located along the progression of extrastriate areas that, in the rat brain, run laterally to primary visual cortex, encode object information. We found a progressive functional specialization of neural responses along these areas, with: (1) a sharp reduction of the amount of low-level, energy-related visual information encoded by neuronal firing; and (2) a substantial increase in the ability of both single neurons and neuronal populations to support discrimination of visual objects under identity-preserving transformations (e.g., position and size changes). These findings strongly argue for the existence of a rat object-processing pathway, and point to the rodents as promising models to dissect the neuronal circuitry underlying transformation-tolerant recognition of visual objects. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.22794.001 Everyday, we see thousands of different objects with many different shapes, colors, sizes and textures. Even an individual object – for example, a face – can present us with a virtually infinite number of different images, depending on from where we view it. In spite of this extraordinary variability, our brain can recognize objects in a fraction of a second and without any apparent effort. Our closest relatives in the animal kingdom, the non-human primates, share our ability to effortlessly recognize objects. For many decades, they have served as invaluable models to investigate the circuits of neurons in the brain that underlie object recognition. In recent years, mice and rats have also emerged as useful models for studying some aspects of vision. However, it was not clear whether these rodents’ brains could also perform complex visual processes like recognizing objects. Tafazoli, Safaai et al. have now recorded the responses of visual neurons in rats to a set of objects, each presented across a range of positions, sizes, rotations and brightness levels. Applying computational and mathematical tools to these responses revealed that visual information progresses through a number of brain regions. The identity of the visual objects is gradually extracted as the information travels along this pathway, in a way that becomes more and more robust to changes in how the object appears. Overall, Tafazoli, Safaai et al. suggest that rodents share with primates some of the key computations that underlie the recognition of visual objects. Therefore, the powerful sets of experimental approaches that can be used to study rats and mice – for example, genetic and molecular tools – could now be used to study the circuits of neurons that enable object recognition. Gaining a better understanding of such circuits can, in turn, inspire the design of more powerful artificial vision systems and help to develop visual prosthetics. Achieving these goals will require further work to understand how different classes of neurons in different brain regions interact as rodents perform complex visual discrimination tasks. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.22794.002
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Affiliation(s)
- Sina Tafazoli
- Visual Neuroscience Lab, International School for Advanced Studies (SISSA), Trieste, Italy
| | - Houman Safaai
- Visual Neuroscience Lab, International School for Advanced Studies (SISSA), Trieste, Italy.,Laboratory of Neural Computation, Center for Neuroscience and Cognitive Systems @UniTn, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Rovereto, Italy.,Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, United States
| | - Gioia De Franceschi
- Visual Neuroscience Lab, International School for Advanced Studies (SISSA), Trieste, Italy
| | | | - Walter Vanzella
- Visual Neuroscience Lab, International School for Advanced Studies (SISSA), Trieste, Italy
| | - Margherita Riggi
- Visual Neuroscience Lab, International School for Advanced Studies (SISSA), Trieste, Italy
| | - Federica Buffolo
- Visual Neuroscience Lab, International School for Advanced Studies (SISSA), Trieste, Italy
| | - Stefano Panzeri
- Laboratory of Neural Computation, Center for Neuroscience and Cognitive Systems @UniTn, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Rovereto, Italy
| | - Davide Zoccolan
- Visual Neuroscience Lab, International School for Advanced Studies (SISSA), Trieste, Italy
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36
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Ursino M, Cuppini C, Magosso E. Multisensory Bayesian Inference Depends on Synapse Maturation during Training: Theoretical Analysis and Neural Modeling Implementation. Neural Comput 2017; 29:735-782. [DOI: 10.1162/neco_a_00935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Recent theoretical and experimental studies suggest that in multisensory conditions, the brain performs a near-optimal Bayesian estimate of external events, giving more weight to the more reliable stimuli. However, the neural mechanisms responsible for this behavior, and its progressive maturation in a multisensory environment, are still insufficiently understood. The aim of this letter is to analyze this problem with a neural network model of audiovisual integration, based on probabilistic population coding—the idea that a population of neurons can encode probability functions to perform Bayesian inference. The model consists of two chains of unisensory neurons (auditory and visual) topologically organized. They receive the corresponding input through a plastic receptive field and reciprocally exchange plastic cross-modal synapses, which encode the spatial co-occurrence of visual-auditory inputs. A third chain of multisensory neurons performs a simple sum of auditory and visual excitations. The work includes a theoretical part and a computer simulation study. We show how a simple rule for synapse learning (consisting of Hebbian reinforcement and a decay term) can be used during training to shrink the receptive fields and encode the unisensory likelihood functions. Hence, after training, each unisensory area realizes a maximum likelihood estimate of stimulus position (auditory or visual). In cross-modal conditions, the same learning rule can encode information on prior probability into the cross-modal synapses. Computer simulations confirm the theoretical results and show that the proposed network can realize a maximum likelihood estimate of auditory (or visual) positions in unimodal conditions and a Bayesian estimate, with moderate deviations from optimality, in cross-modal conditions. Furthermore, the model explains the ventriloquism illusion and, looking at the activity in the multimodal neurons, explains the automatic reweighting of auditory and visual inputs on a trial-by-trial basis, according to the reliability of the individual cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauro Ursino
- Department of Electrical, Electronic and Information Engineering University of Bologna, I 40136 Bologna, Italy
| | - Cristiano Cuppini
- Department of Electrical, Electronic and Information Engineering University of Bologna, I 40136 Bologna, Italy
| | - Elisa Magosso
- Department of Electrical, Electronic and Information Engineering University of Bologna, I 40136 Bologna, Italy
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Thompson A, Gribizis A, Chen C, Crair MC. Activity-dependent development of visual receptive fields. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2017; 42:136-143. [PMID: 28088066 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2016.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2016] [Revised: 12/16/2016] [Accepted: 12/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
It is widely appreciated that neuronal activity contributes to the development of brain representations of the external world. In the visual system, in particular, it is well known that activity cooperates with molecular cues to establish the topographic organization of visual maps on a macroscopic scale [1,2] (Huberman et al., 2008; Cang and Feldheim, 2013), mapping axons in a retinotopic and eye-specific manner. In recent years, significant progress has been made in elucidating the role of activity in driving the finer-scale circuit refinement that shapes the receptive fields of individual cells. In this review, we focus on these recent breakthroughs-primarily in mice, but also in other mammals where noted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Thompson
- Department of Neurology, F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 300 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Alexandra Gribizis
- Department of Neuroscience, Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Chinfei Chen
- Department of Neurology, F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 300 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
| | - Michael C Crair
- Department of Neuroscience, Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA.
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Stimulus-Driven Population Activity Patterns in Macaque Primary Visual Cortex. PLoS Comput Biol 2016; 12:e1005185. [PMID: 27935935 PMCID: PMC5147778 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2015] [Accepted: 10/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Dimensionality reduction has been applied in various brain areas to study the activity of populations of neurons. To interpret the outputs of dimensionality reduction, it is important to first understand its outputs for brain areas for which the relationship between the stimulus and neural response is well characterized. Here, we applied principal component analysis (PCA) to trial-averaged neural responses in macaque primary visual cortex (V1) to study two fundamental, population-level questions. First, we characterized how neural complexity relates to stimulus complexity, where complexity is measured using relative comparisons of dimensionality. Second, we assessed the extent to which responses to different stimuli occupy similar dimensions of the population activity space using a novel statistical method. For comparison, we performed the same dimensionality reduction analyses on the activity of a recently-proposed V1 receptive field model and a deep convolutional neural network. Our results show that the dimensionality of the population response changes systematically with alterations in the properties and complexity of the visual stimulus. A central goal in systems neuroscience is to understand how large populations of neurons work together to enable us to sense, to reason, and to act. To go beyond single-neuron and pairwise analyses, recent studies have applied dimensionality reduction methods to neural population activity to reveal tantalizing evidence of neural mechanisms underlying a wide range of brain functions. To aid in interpreting the outputs of dimensionality reduction, it is important to vary the inputs to a brain area and ask whether the outputs of dimensionality reduction change in a sensible manner, which has not yet been shown. In this study, we recorded the activity of tens of neurons in the primary visual cortex (V1) of macaque monkeys while presenting different visual stimuli. We found that the dimensionality of the population activity grows with stimulus complexity, and that the population responses to different stimuli occupy similar dimensions of the population firing rate space, in accordance with the visual stimuli themselves. For comparison, we applied the same analysis methods to the activity of a recently-proposed V1 receptive field model and a deep convolutional neural network. Overall, we found dimensionality reduction to yield interpretable results, providing encouragement for the use of dimensionality reduction in other brain areas.
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39
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Jointly reduced inhibition and excitation underlies circuit-wide changes in cortical processing in Rett syndrome. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:E7287-E7296. [PMID: 27803317 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1615330113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Rett syndrome (RTT) arises from loss-of-function mutations in methyl-CpG binding protein 2 gene (Mecp2), but fundamental aspects of its physiological mechanisms are unresolved. Here, by whole-cell recording of synaptic responses in MeCP2 mutant mice in vivo, we show that visually driven excitatory and inhibitory conductances are both reduced in cortical pyramidal neurons. The excitation-to-inhibition (E/I) ratio is increased in amplitude and prolonged in time course. These changes predict circuit-wide reductions in response reliability and selectivity of pyramidal neurons to visual stimuli, as confirmed by two-photon imaging. Targeted recordings reveal that parvalbumin-expressing (PV+) interneurons in mutant mice have reduced responses. PV-specific MeCP2 deletion alone recapitulates effects of global MeCP2 deletion on cortical circuits, including reduced pyramidal neuron responses and reduced response reliability and selectivity. Furthermore, MeCP2 mutant mice show reduced expression of the cation-chloride cotransporter KCC2 (K+/Cl- exporter) and a reduced KCC2/NKCC1 (Na+/K+/Cl- importer) ratio. Perforated patch recordings demonstrate that the reversal potential for GABA is more depolarized in mutant mice, but is restored by application of the NKCC1 inhibitor bumetanide. Treatment with recombinant human insulin-like growth factor-1 restores responses of PV+ and pyramidal neurons and increases KCC2 expression to normalize the KCC2/NKCC1 ratio. Thus, loss of MeCP2 in the brain alters both excitation and inhibition in brain circuits via multiple mechanisms. Loss of MeCP2 from a specific interneuron subtype contributes crucially to the cell-specific and circuit-wide deficits of RTT. The joint restoration of inhibition and excitation in cortical circuits is pivotal for functionally correcting the disorder.
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Vinck M, Bosman CA. More Gamma More Predictions: Gamma-Synchronization as a Key Mechanism for Efficient Integration of Classical Receptive Field Inputs with Surround Predictions. Front Syst Neurosci 2016; 10:35. [PMID: 27199684 PMCID: PMC4842768 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2016.00035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2016] [Accepted: 04/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
During visual stimulation, neurons in visual cortex often exhibit rhythmic and synchronous firing in the gamma-frequency (30–90 Hz) band. Whether this phenomenon plays a functional role during visual processing is not fully clear and remains heavily debated. In this article, we explore the function of gamma-synchronization in the context of predictive and efficient coding theories. These theories hold that sensory neurons utilize the statistical regularities in the natural world in order to improve the efficiency of the neural code, and to optimize the inference of the stimulus causes of the sensory data. In visual cortex, this relies on the integration of classical receptive field (CRF) data with predictions from the surround. Here we outline two main hypotheses about gamma-synchronization in visual cortex. First, we hypothesize that the precision of gamma-synchronization reflects the extent to which CRF data can be accurately predicted by the surround. Second, we hypothesize that different cortical columns synchronize to the extent that they accurately predict each other’s CRF visual input. We argue that these two hypotheses can account for a large number of empirical observations made on the stimulus dependencies of gamma-synchronization. Furthermore, we show that they are consistent with the known laminar dependencies of gamma-synchronization and the spatial profile of intercolumnar gamma-synchronization, as well as the dependence of gamma-synchronization on experience and development. Based on our two main hypotheses, we outline two additional hypotheses. First, we hypothesize that the precision of gamma-synchronization shows, in general, a negative dependence on RF size. In support, we review evidence showing that gamma-synchronization decreases in strength along the visual hierarchy, and tends to be more prominent in species with small V1 RFs. Second, we hypothesize that gamma-synchronized network dynamics facilitate the emergence of spiking output that is particularly information-rich and sparse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Vinck
- School of Medicine, Yale University New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Conrado A Bosman
- Cognitive and Systems Neuroscience Group, Swammerdam Institute, Center for Neuroscience, University of AmsterdamAmsterdam, Netherlands; Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma de ChileSantiago, Chile
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41
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Vallentin D, Kosche G, Lipkind D, Long MA. Neural circuits. Inhibition protects acquired song segments during vocal learning in zebra finches. Science 2016; 351:267-71. [PMID: 26816377 DOI: 10.1126/science.aad3023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Vocal imitation involves incorporating instructive auditory information into relevant motor circuits through processes that are poorly understood. In zebra finches, we found that exposure to a tutor's song drives spiking activity within premotor neurons in the juvenile, whereas inhibition suppresses such responses upon learning in adulthood. We measured inhibitory currents evoked by the tutor song throughout development while simultaneously quantifying each bird's learning trajectory. Surprisingly, we found that the maturation of synaptic inhibition onto premotor neurons is correlated with learning but not age. We used synthetic tutoring to demonstrate that inhibition is selective for specific song elements that have already been learned and not those still in refinement. Our results suggest that structured inhibition plays a crucial role during song acquisition, enabling a piece-by-piece mastery of complex tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Vallentin
- NYU Neuroscience Institute and Department of Otolaryngology, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, NY 10016, USA. Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY 10003, USA
| | - Georg Kosche
- NYU Neuroscience Institute and Department of Otolaryngology, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, NY 10016, USA. Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY 10003, USA
| | - Dina Lipkind
- Laboratory of Vocal Learning, Department of Psychology, Hunter College, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Michael A Long
- NYU Neuroscience Institute and Department of Otolaryngology, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, NY 10016, USA. Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY 10003, USA.
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42
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Miller KD. Canonical computations of cerebral cortex. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2016; 37:75-84. [PMID: 26868041 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2016.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2016] [Accepted: 01/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The idea that there is a fundamental cortical circuit that performs canonical computations remains compelling though far from proven. Here we review evidence for two canonical operations within sensory cortical areas: a feedforward computation of selectivity; and a recurrent computation of gain in which, given sufficiently strong external input, perhaps from multiple sources, intracortical input largely, but not completely, cancels this external input. This operation leads to many characteristic cortical nonlinearities in integrating multiple stimuli. The cortical computation must combine such local processing with hierarchical processing across areas. We point to important changes in moving from sensory cortex to motor and frontal cortex and the possibility of substantial differences between cortex in rodents vs. species with columnar organization of selectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth D Miller
- Center for Theoretical Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, Swartz Program in Theoretical Neuroscience, Kavli Institute for Brain Science, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032-2695, United States.
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43
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Abstract
Intrinsic neuronal variability significantly limits information encoding in the primary visual cortex (V1). Certain stimuli can suppress this intertrial variability to increase the reliability of neuronal responses. In particular, responses to natural scenes, which have broadband spatiotemporal statistics, are more reliable than responses to stimuli such as gratings. However, very little is known about which stimulus statistics modulate reliable coding and how this occurs at the neural ensemble level. Here, we sought to elucidate the role that spatial correlations in natural scenes play in reliable coding. We developed a novel noise-masking method to systematically alter spatial correlations in natural movies, without altering their edge structure. Using high-speed two-photon calcium imaging in vivo, we found that responses in mouse V1 were much less reliable at both the single neuron and population level when spatial correlations were removed from the image. This change in reliability was due to a reorganization of between-neuron correlations. Strongly correlated neurons formed ensembles that reliably and accurately encoded visual stimuli, whereas reducing spatial correlations reduced the activation of these ensembles, leading to an unreliable code. Together with an ensemble-specific normalization model, these results suggest that the coordinated activation of specific subsets of neurons underlies the reliable coding of natural scenes.
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44
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Lenz M, Galanis C, Müller-Dahlhaus F, Opitz A, Wierenga CJ, Szabó G, Ziemann U, Deller T, Funke K, Vlachos A. Repetitive magnetic stimulation induces plasticity of inhibitory synapses. Nat Commun 2016; 7:10020. [PMID: 26743822 PMCID: PMC4729863 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms10020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2015] [Accepted: 10/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is used as a therapeutic tool in neurology and psychiatry. While repetitive magnetic stimulation (rMS) has been shown to induce plasticity of excitatory synapses, it is unclear whether rMS can also modify structural and functional properties of inhibitory inputs. Here we employed 10-Hz rMS of entorhinohippocampal slice cultures to study plasticity of inhibitory neurotransmission on CA1 pyramidal neurons. Our experiments reveal a rMS-induced reduction in GABAergic synaptic strength (2-4 h after stimulation), which is Ca(2+)-dependent and accompanied by the remodelling of postsynaptic gephyrin scaffolds. Furthermore, we present evidence that 10-Hz rMS predominantly acts on dendritic, but not somatic inhibition. Consistent with this finding, a reduction in clustered gephyrin is detected in CA1 stratum radiatum of rTMS-treated anaesthetized mice. These results disclose that rTMS induces coordinated Ca(2+)-dependent structural and functional changes of specific inhibitory postsynapses on principal neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maximilian Lenz
- Institute of Clinical Neuroanatomy, Neuroscience Center, Goethe-University, Frankfurt/Main 60590, Germany
| | - Christos Galanis
- Institute of Clinical Neuroanatomy, Neuroscience Center, Goethe-University, Frankfurt/Main 60590, Germany
| | - Florian Müller-Dahlhaus
- Department of Neurology and Stroke and Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, Eberhard-Karls-University, Tübingen 72076, Germany
| | - Alexander Opitz
- Center for Biomedical Imaging and Neuromodulation, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, New York 10962, USA.,Center for the Developing Brain, Child Mind Institute, New York, New York 10022, USA
| | - Corette J Wierenga
- Division of Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht 3584 CH, The Netherlands
| | - Gábor Szabó
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Budapest H1083, Hungary
| | - Ulf Ziemann
- Department of Neurology and Stroke and Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, Eberhard-Karls-University, Tübingen 72076, Germany
| | - Thomas Deller
- Institute of Clinical Neuroanatomy, Neuroscience Center, Goethe-University, Frankfurt/Main 60590, Germany
| | - Klaus Funke
- Department of Neurophysiology, Medical Faculty, Ruhr-University, Bochum 44780, Germany
| | - Andreas Vlachos
- Institute of Clinical Neuroanatomy, Neuroscience Center, Goethe-University, Frankfurt/Main 60590, Germany
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45
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Litwin-Kumar A, Rosenbaum R, Doiron B. Inhibitory stabilization and visual coding in cortical circuits with multiple interneuron subtypes. J Neurophysiol 2016; 115:1399-409. [PMID: 26740531 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00732.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2015] [Accepted: 01/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent anatomical and functional characterization of cortical inhibitory interneurons has highlighted the diverse computations supported by different subtypes of interneurons. However, most theoretical models of cortex do not feature multiple classes of interneurons and rather assume a single homogeneous population. We study the dynamics of recurrent excitatory-inhibitory model cortical networks with parvalbumin (PV)-, somatostatin (SOM)-, and vasointestinal peptide-expressing (VIP) interneurons, with connectivity properties motivated by experimental recordings from mouse primary visual cortex. Our theory describes conditions under which the activity of such networks is stable and how perturbations of distinct neuronal subtypes recruit changes in activity through recurrent synaptic projections. We apply these conclusions to study the roles of each interneuron subtype in disinhibition, surround suppression, and subtractive or divisive modulation of orientation tuning curves. Our calculations and simulations determine the architectural and stimulus tuning conditions under which cortical activity consistent with experiment is possible. They also lead to novel predictions concerning connectivity and network dynamics that can be tested via optogenetic manipulations. Our work demonstrates that recurrent inhibitory dynamics must be taken into account to fully understand many properties of cortical dynamics observed in experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashok Litwin-Kumar
- Center for Theoretical Neuroscience, Columbia University, New York, New York; Department of Mathematics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; and
| | - Robert Rosenbaum
- Department of Applied and Computational Mathematics and Statistics, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana; Interdisciplinary Center for Network Science and Applications, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana; Department of Mathematics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; and
| | - Brent Doiron
- Department of Mathematics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; and Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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46
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Sadeh S, Clopath C, Rotter S. Emergence of Functional Specificity in Balanced Networks with Synaptic Plasticity. PLoS Comput Biol 2015; 11:e1004307. [PMID: 26090844 PMCID: PMC4474917 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1004307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2014] [Accepted: 04/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In rodent visual cortex, synaptic connections between orientation-selective neurons are unspecific at the time of eye opening, and become to some degree functionally specific only later during development. An explanation for this two-stage process was proposed in terms of Hebbian plasticity based on visual experience that would eventually enhance connections between neurons with similar response features. For this to work, however, two conditions must be satisfied: First, orientation selective neuronal responses must exist before specific recurrent synaptic connections can be established. Second, Hebbian learning must be compatible with the recurrent network dynamics contributing to orientation selectivity, and the resulting specific connectivity must remain stable for unspecific background activity. Previous studies have mainly focused on very simple models, where the receptive fields of neurons were essentially determined by feedforward mechanisms, and where the recurrent network was small, lacking the complex recurrent dynamics of large-scale networks of excitatory and inhibitory neurons. Here we studied the emergence of functionally specific connectivity in large-scale recurrent networks with synaptic plasticity. Our results show that balanced random networks, which already exhibit highly selective responses at eye opening, can develop feature-specific connectivity if appropriate rules of synaptic plasticity are invoked within and between excitatory and inhibitory populations. If these conditions are met, the initial orientation selectivity guides the process of Hebbian learning and, as a result, functionally specific and a surplus of bidirectional connections emerge. Our results thus demonstrate the cooperation of synaptic plasticity and recurrent dynamics in large-scale functional networks with realistic receptive fields, highlight the role of inhibition as a critical element in this process, and paves the road for further computational studies of sensory processing in neocortical network models equipped with synaptic plasticity. In primary visual cortex of mammals, neurons are selective to the orientation of contrast edges. In some species, as cats and monkeys, neurons preferring similar orientations are adjacent on the cortical surface, leading to smooth orientation maps. In rodents, in contrast, such spatial orientation maps do not exist, and neurons of different specificities are mixed in a salt-and-pepper fashion. During development, however, a “functional” map of orientation selectivity emerges, where connections between neurons of similar preferred orientations are selectively enhanced. Here we show how such feature-specific connectivity can arise in realistic neocortical networks of excitatory and inhibitory neurons. Our results demonstrate how recurrent dynamics can work in cooperation with synaptic plasticity to form networks where neurons preferring similar stimulus features connect more strongly together. Such networks, in turn, are known to enhance the specificity of neuronal responses to a stimulus. Our study thus reveals how self-organizing connectivity in neuronal networks enable them to achieve new or enhanced functions, and it underlines the essential role of recurrent inhibition and plasticity in this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sadra Sadeh
- Bernstein Center Freiburg & Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
- Bioengineering Department, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Claudia Clopath
- Bioengineering Department, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Stefan Rotter
- Bernstein Center Freiburg & Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
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47
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Rubin DB, Van Hooser SD, Miller KD. The stabilized supralinear network: a unifying circuit motif underlying multi-input integration in sensory cortex. Neuron 2015; 85:402-17. [PMID: 25611511 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2014.12.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/09/2014] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Neurons in sensory cortex integrate multiple influences to parse objects and support perception. Across multiple cortical areas, integration is characterized by two neuronal response properties: (1) surround suppression--modulatory contextual stimuli suppress responses to driving stimuli; and (2) "normalization"--responses to multiple driving stimuli add sublinearly. These depend on input strength: for weak driving stimuli, contextual influences facilitate or more weakly suppress and summation becomes linear or supralinear. Understanding the circuit operations underlying integration is critical to understanding cortical function and disease. We present a simple, general theory. A wealth of integrative properties, including the above, emerge robustly from four cortical circuit properties: (1) supralinear neuronal input/output functions; (2) sufficiently strong recurrent excitation; (3) feedback inhibition; and (4) simple spatial properties of intracortical connections. Integrative properties emerge dynamically as circuit properties, with excitatory and inhibitory neurons showing similar behaviors. In new recordings in visual cortex, we confirm key model predictions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel B Rubin
- Center for Theoretical Neuroscience, Doctoral Program in Neurobiology and Behavior, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Stephen D Van Hooser
- Department of Biology, Swartz Center for Theoretical Biology, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA 02454, USA
| | - Kenneth D Miller
- Center for Theoretical Neuroscience, Doctoral Program in Neurobiology and Behavior, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Swartz Program in Theoretical Neuroscience, Kavli Institute for Brain Science, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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48
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Zoccolan D. Invariant visual object recognition and shape processing in rats. Behav Brain Res 2015; 285:10-33. [PMID: 25561421 PMCID: PMC4383365 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.12.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2014] [Revised: 12/19/2014] [Accepted: 12/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Invariant visual object recognition is the ability to recognize visual objects despite the vastly different images that each object can project onto the retina during natural vision, depending on its position and size within the visual field, its orientation relative to the viewer, etc. Achieving invariant recognition represents such a formidable computational challenge that is often assumed to be a unique hallmark of primate vision. Historically, this has limited the invasive investigation of its neuronal underpinnings to monkey studies, in spite of the narrow range of experimental approaches that these animal models allow. Meanwhile, rodents have been largely neglected as models of object vision, because of the widespread belief that they are incapable of advanced visual processing. However, the powerful array of experimental tools that have been developed to dissect neuronal circuits in rodents has made these species very attractive to vision scientists too, promoting a new tide of studies that have started to systematically explore visual functions in rats and mice. Rats, in particular, have been the subjects of several behavioral studies, aimed at assessing how advanced object recognition and shape processing is in this species. Here, I review these recent investigations, as well as earlier studies of rat pattern vision, to provide an historical overview and a critical summary of the status of the knowledge about rat object vision. The picture emerging from this survey is very encouraging with regard to the possibility of using rats as complementary models to monkeys in the study of higher-level vision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Zoccolan
- Visual Neuroscience Lab, International School for Advanced Studies (SISSA), 34136 Trieste, Italy.
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49
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Lewis CM, Bosman CA, Fries P. Recording of brain activity across spatial scales. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2014; 32:68-77. [PMID: 25544724 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2014.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2014] [Revised: 12/03/2014] [Accepted: 12/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Brain activity reveals exquisite coordination across spatial scales, from local microcircuits to brain-wide networks. Understanding how the brain represents, transforms and communicates information requires simultaneous recordings from distributed nodes of whole brain networks with single-cell resolution. Realizing multi-site recordings from communicating populations is hampered by the need to isolate clusters of interacting cells, often on a day-to-day basis. Chronic implantation of multi-electrode arrays allows long-term tracking of activity. Lithography on thin films provides a means to produce arrays of variable resolution, a high degree of flexibility, and minimal tissue displacement. Sequential application of surface arrays to monitor activity across brain-wide networks and subsequent implantation of laminar arrays to target specific populations enables continual refinement of spatial scale while maintaining coverage.
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Affiliation(s)
- C M Lewis
- Ernst Strüngmann Institute (ESI) for Neuroscience in Cooperation with Max Planck Society, 60528 Frankfurt, Germany; Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen, 6525 EN Nijmegen, Netherlands.
| | - C A Bosman
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen, 6525 EN Nijmegen, Netherlands; Cognitive and Systems Neuroscience Group, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Center for Neuroscience, University of Amsterdam, 1098 XH Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - P Fries
- Ernst Strüngmann Institute (ESI) for Neuroscience in Cooperation with Max Planck Society, 60528 Frankfurt, Germany; Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen, 6525 EN Nijmegen, Netherlands
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