Comparative proteomic profiling reveals aberrant cell proliferation in the brain of embryonic Ts1Cje, a mouse model of Down syndrome

Current insights and prospects for the pathogenesis and treatment of clinical manifestations associated with Down syndrome through neurotransmitter, inflammatory, and oxidative stress pathways

Individuals with Down syndrome exhibit various changes in the human body systems, including alterations in the ocular, neurological, and dermatological systems. Especially, preclinical and clinical studies have determined Down syndrome patients to possess reduced intellectual and cognition abilities, which neurobehavioral effects are associated with altered molecular markers in the brain. For instance, neuroinflammation and increased brain oxidative stress are reported in animals models of Down syndrome, and the reversal of those markers lead to positive effects. Dopaminergic and serotonergic neurons are altered in individuals with Down syndrome, with dopamine and serotonin secretion reduced and their transporters upregulated. Hence, blocking reuptake of dopamine and serotonin might improve Down syndrome behavioral impairments. Norepinephrine loss was observed in a mouse model of Down syndrome, and treatment with a β2 adrenergic receptor agonist improved behavioral symptoms. Moreover, targeting certain glutamatergic receptors, particularly in the hippocampus, might correct the glutamatergic dysfunction and altered behaviors. Inverse agonists or antagonists of GABAergic receptors suppress GABA's inhibitory role, an effect associated with improved cognition behaviors in models of Down syndrome. Reports also suggest partial involvement of the histaminergic system in the impairment of memory function observed in Down syndrome. Finally, cholinergic system alteration has been reported, but the therapeutic role of its modulation needs further investigation. This review collects and reports multi-Omics Studies on Down syndrome, the crucial roles of inflammation, oxidative stress independently as well as role of oxidative stress in pregnancies with Down Syndrome and biomarkers of maternal diagnosis of Down syndrome. This review further explained the role of neurotransmitter pathways in Down syndrome pathogenesis, prognosis and therapeutic intervention for Down syndrome and future directions for interventions.

Genes Associated with Disturbed Cerebral Neurogenesis in the Embryonic Brain of Mouse Models of Down Syndrome

Down syndrome (DS), also known as trisomy 21, is the most frequent genetic cause of intellectual disability. Although the mechanism remains unknown, delayed brain development is assumed to be involved in DS intellectual disability. Analyses with human with DS and mouse models have shown that defects in embryonic cortical neurogenesis may lead to delayed brain development. Cre-loxP-mediated chromosomal engineering has allowed the generation of a variety of mouse models carrying various partial Mmu16 segments. These mouse models are useful for determining genotype–phenotype correlations and identifying dosage-sensitive genes involved in the impaired neurogenesis. In this review, we summarize several candidate genes and pathways that have been linked to defective cortical neurogenesis in DS.

S100A6 and Its Brain Ligands in Neurodegenerative Disorders

The S100A6 protein is present in different mammalian cells and tissues including the brain. It binds Ca²⁺ and Zn²⁺ and interacts with many target proteins/ligands. The best characterized ligands of S100A6, expressed at high level in the brain, include CacyBP/SIP and Sgt1. Research concerning the functional role of S100A6 and these two ligands indicates that they are involved in various signaling pathways that regulate cell proliferation, differentiation, cytoskeletal organization, and others. In this review, we focused on the expression/localization of these proteins in the brain and on their possible role in neurodegenerative diseases. Published results demonstrate that S100A6, CacyBP/SIP, and Sgt1 are expressed in various brain structures and in the spinal cord and can be found in different cell types including neurons and astrocytes. When it comes to their possible involvement in nervous system pathology, it is evident that their expression/level and/or subcellular localization is changed when compared to normal conditions. Among diseases in which such changes have been observed are Alzheimer’s disease (AD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), epileptogenesis, Parkinson’s disease (PD), Huntington’s disease (HD), and others.

Airway Ciliary Beating Affected by the Pcp4 Dose-Dependent [Ca2+]i Increase in Down Syndrome Mice, Ts1Rhr

In Ts1Rhr, a Down syndrome model mouse, the airway ciliary beatings are impaired; that is, decreases in ciliary beat frequency (CBF) and ciliary bend angle (CBA, an index of ciliary beat amplitude)). A resumption to two copies of the Pcp4 gene on the Ts1Rhr trisomic segment (Ts1Rhr:Pcp4+/+/-) rescues the decreases in CBF and CBA that occur in Ts1Rhr. In airway cilia, upon stimulation with procaterol (a β2-agonist), the CBF increase is slower over the time course than the CBA increase because of cAMP degradation by Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent phosphodiesterase 1 (PDE1) existing in the metabolon regulating CBF. In Ts1Rhr, procaterol-stimulated CBF increase was much slower over the time course than in the wild-type mouse (Wt) or Ts1Rhr:Pcp4+/+/-. However, in the presence of 8MmIBMX (8-methoxymethyl isobutylmethyl xanthine, an inhibitor of PDE1) or calmidazolium (an inhibitor of calmodulin), in both Wt and Ts1Rhr, procaterol stimulates CBF and CBA increases over a similar time course. Measurements of cAMP revealed that the cAMP contents were lower in Ts1Rhr than in Wt or in Ts1Rhr:Pcp4+/+/-, suggesting the activation of PDE1A that is present in Ts1Rhr airway cilia. Measurements of the intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) in airway ciliary cells revealed that temperature (increasing from 25 to 37 °C) or 4αPDD (a selective transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) agonist) stimulates a larger [Ca2+]i increase in Ts1Rhr than in Wt or Ts1Rhr:Pcp4+/+/-. In airway ciliary cells of Ts1Rhr, Pcp4-dose dependent activation of TRPV4 appears to induce an increase in the basal [Ca2+]i. In early embryonic day mice, a basal [Ca2+]i increased by PCP4 expressed may affect axonemal regulatory complexes regulated by the Ca2+-signal in Ts1Rhr, leading to a decrease in the basal CBF and CBA of airway cilia.

DYRK1A Overexpression Alters Cognition and Neural-Related Proteomic Pathways in the Hippocampus That Are Rescued by Green Tea Extract and/or Environmental Enrichment

Down syndrome (DS), caused by trisomy of chromosome 21, is the most common genetic cause of intellectual disability. We recently discovered that green tea extracts containing epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) improve cognition in mice transgenic for Dyrk1a (TgDyrk1A) and in a trisomic DS mouse model (Ts65Dn). Interestingly, paired with cognitive stimulation, green tea has beneficial pro-cognitive effects in DS individuals. Dual Specificity Tyrosine-Phosphorylation-Regulated Kinase 1A (DYRK1A) is a major candidate to explain the cognitive phenotypes of DS, and inhibiting its activity is a promising pro-cognitive therapy. DYRK1A kinase activity can be normalized in the hippocampus of transgenic DYRK1A mice administering green tea extracts, but also submitting the animals to environmental enrichment (EE). However, many other mechanisms could also explain the pro-cognitive effects of green tea extracts and EE. To underpin the overall alterations arising upon DYRK1A overexpression and the molecular processes underneath the pro-cognitive effects, we used quantitative proteomics. We investigated the hippocampal (phospho)proteome in basal conditions and after treatment with a green tea extract containing EGCG and/or EE in TgDyrk1A and control mice. We found that Dyrk1A overexpression alters protein and phosphoprotein levels of key postsynaptic and plasticity-related pathways and that these alterations were rescued upon the cognitive enhancer treatments.

Perturbation of the immune cells and prenatal neurogenesis by the triplication of the Erg gene in mouse models of Down syndrome

Some mouse models of Down syndrome (DS), including Ts1Cje mice, exhibit impaired prenatal neurogenesis with yet unknown molecular mechanism. To gain insights into the impaired neurogenesis, a transcriptomic and flow cytometry analysis of E14.5 Ts1Cje embryo brain was performed. Our analysis revealed that the neutrophil and monocyte ratios in the CD45-positive hematopoietic cells were relatively increased, in agreement with the altered expression of inflammation/immune-related genes, in Ts1Cje embryonic brain, whereas the relative number of brain macrophages was decreased in comparison to wild-type mice. Similar upregulation of inflammation-associated mRNAs was observed in other DS mouse models, with variable trisomic region lengths. We used genetic manipulation to assess the contribution of Erg, a trisomic gene in these DS models, known to regulation hemato-immune cells. The perturbed proportions of immune cells in Ts1Cje mouse brain were restored in Ts1Cje-Erg^+/+/Mld2 mice, which are disomic for functional Erg but otherwise trisomic on a Ts1Cje background. Moreover, the embryonic neurogenesis defects observed in Ts1Cje cortex were reduced in Ts1Cje-Erg^+/+/Mld2 embryos. Our findings suggest that Erg gene triplication contributes to the dysregulation of the homeostatic proportion of the populations of immune cells in the embryonic brain and decreased prenatal cortical neurogenesis in the prenatal brain with DS.

[Copper accumulation in the brain of Down syndrome model mice and its pathophysiological significance]

Down syndrome caused by triplication of human chromosome 21 (HSA21) is the most frequent aneuploidy, resulting in mental retardation, intellectual disability and accelerated aging. Individuals with DS are at an increased risk of developing Alzheimer's disease (AD)-like dementia, with up to 75% of DS people in their 60s developing dementia. Oxidative stress is widely accepted as a mechanism underlying a number of DS symptoms, such as accelerated aging and cognitive decline. Superoxide disumutase 1 (Sod1) and amiloyd precursor protein (App) genes are suggested as the candidate genes in HSA21 underlying the enhanced oxidative stress in individuals with DS. However, we previously demonstrated that the Ts1Cje mouse model, which has a normal copy number of both candidate genes, also shows enhanced oxidative stress, suggesting that triplicated genes other than Sod1 and App likely enhance oxidative stress in the brain of DS people. To identify the molecules with enhanced oxidative stress in Ts1Cje mice, we performed several -omics analyses. Recently, we showed that copper was accumulated in the brain of adult Ts1Cje mice in an analysis using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), and a low-copper diet was able to improve the elevated levels of copper. The low-copper diet also resolved some anomalies, such as the enhanced oxidative stress, accumulation of phosphorylated tau and low anxiety. These findings suggest that the accumulation of copper in the DS brain may be a therapeutic target for ameliorating a number of abnormal phenotypes in individuals with DS.

Lifespan analysis of brain development, gene expression and behavioral phenotypes in the Ts1Cje, Ts65Dn and Dp(16)1/Yey mouse models of Down syndrome

Down syndrome (DS) results from triplication of human chromosome 21. Neuropathological hallmarks of DS include atypical central nervous system development that manifests prenatally and extends throughout life. As a result, individuals with DS exhibit cognitive and motor deficits, and have delays in achieving developmental milestones. To determine whether different mouse models of DS recapitulate the human prenatal and postnatal phenotypes, here, we directly compared brain histogenesis, gene expression and behavior over the lifespan of three cytogenetically distinct mouse models of DS: Ts1Cje, Ts65Dn and Dp(16)1/Yey. Histological data indicated that Ts65Dn mice were the most consistently affected with respect to somatic growth, neurogenesis and brain morphogenesis. Embryonic and adult gene expression results showed that Ts1Cje and Ts65Dn brains had considerably more differentially expressed (DEX) genes compared with Dp(16)1/Yey mice, despite the larger number of triplicated genes in the latter model. In addition, DEX genes showed little overlap in identity and chromosomal distribution in the three models, leading to dissimilarities in affected functional pathways. Perinatal and adult behavioral testing also highlighted differences among the models in their abilities to achieve various developmental milestones and perform hippocampal- and motor-based tasks. Interestingly, Dp(16)1/Yey mice showed no abnormalities in prenatal brain phenotypes, yet they manifested behavioral deficits starting at postnatal day 15 that continued through adulthood. In contrast, Ts1Cje mice showed mildly abnormal embryonic brain phenotypes, but only select behavioral deficits as neonates and adults. Altogether, our data showed widespread and unexpected fundamental differences in behavioral, gene expression and brain development phenotypes between these three mouse models. Our findings illustrate unique limitations of each model when studying aspects of brain development and function in DS. This work helps to inform model selection in future studies investigating how observed neurodevelopmental abnormalities arise, how they contribute to cognitive impairment, and when testing therapeutic molecules to ameliorate the intellectual disability associated with DS.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Disturbance of redox homeostasis in Down Syndrome: Role of iron dysmetabolism

Down Syndrome (DS) is the most common genetic form of intellectual disability that leads in the majority of cases to development of early-onset Alzheimer-like dementia (AD). The neuropathology of DS has several common features with AD including alteration of redox homeostasis, mitochondrial deficits, and inflammation among others. Interestingly, some of the genes encoded by chromosome 21 are responsible of increased oxidative stress (OS) conditions that are further exacerbated by decreased antioxidant defense. Previous studies from our groups showed that accumulation of oxidative damage is an early event in DS neurodegeneration and that oxidative modifications of selected proteins affects the integrity of the protein degradative systems, antioxidant response, neuronal integrity and energy metabolism. In particular, the current review elaborates recent findings demonstrating the accumulation of oxidative damage in DS and we focus attention on specific deregulation of iron metabolism, which affects both the central nervous system and the periphery. Iron dysmetabolism is a well-recognized factor that contributes to neurodegeneration; thus we opine that better understanding how and to what extent the concerted loss of iron dyshomeostasis and increased OS occur in DS could provide novel insights for the development of therapeutic strategies for the treatment of Alzheimer-like dementia.

Pyruvate kinase M1 interacts with A-Raf and inhibits endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced apoptosis by activating MEK1/ERK pathway in mouse insulinoma cells

Apoptotic death of pancreatic β cells is a major cause of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) progression. Two isoforms of pyruvate kinase, PKM1 and PKM2, have been reported to participate in cell death in several cell types; however, little is known about their causal pathways in pancreatic β-cell death. We examined whether the suppression of PKM1 or PKM2 affects endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-induced apoptosis in a pancreatic β-cell line, MIN6, and Beta-TC-6 and found that knockdown of PKM1, but not of PKM2, leads to the induction of ER stress-induced apoptosis in these cells. We also investigated the mechanism by which PKM1 inhibits ER stress-induced apoptosis. We confirmed that PKM1 interacts with A-Raf, an upstream regulator of the MEK/ERK pathway, and that this interaction contributes to MEK1 phosphorylation by A-Raf. PKM1 knockdown suppresses the phosphorylation of MEK, ERK, and caspase-9 (Thr125), which is phosphorylated by the MEK/ERK pathway, thereby inhibiting the cleavage and activation of caspase-9. Thus, PKM1 knockdown activates the caspase-9/caspase-3 pathway under ER stress conditions and leads to apoptosis.

Comprehensive Analyses of Molecules with Altered Expression in the Brain of a Mouse Model of Down Syndrome for Identification of Pharmacotherapeutic Targets

Down syndrome, caused by the triplication of human chromosome 21, is the most frequent genetic cause of mental retardation. Mice with a segmental trisomy for mouse chromosome 16, which is orthologous to human chromosome 21, exhibit abnormalities similar to those in individuals with Down syndrome and therefore offer the opportunity for a genotype-phenotype correlation. In the current review, I present several mouse lines with trisomic regions of various lengths and discuss their usefulness for elucidating the mechanisms underlying Down syndrome-associated developmental cognitive disabilities. In addition, our recent comprehensive study attempting to identify molecules with disturbed expression in the brain of a mouse model of Down syndrome in order to develop a pharmacologic therapy for Down syndrome is described.

A Comprehensive Diverse '-omics' Approach to Better Understanding the Molecular Pathomechanisms of Down Syndrome

Diverse ‘-omics’ technologies permit the comprehensive quantitative profiling of a variety of biological molecules. Comparative ‘-omics’ analyses, such as transcriptomics and proteomics, are powerful and useful tools for unraveling the molecular pathomechanisms of various diseases. As enhanced oxidative stress has been demonstrated in humans and mice with Down syndrome (DS), a redox proteomic analysis is useful for understanding how enhanced oxidative stress aggravates the state of individuals with oxidative stress-related disorders. In this review, ‘-omics’ analyses in humans with DS and mouse models of DS are summarized, and the molecular dissection of this syndrome is discussed.

Ts1Cje Down syndrome model mice exhibit environmental stimuli-triggered locomotor hyperactivity and sociability concurrent with increased flux through central dopamine and serotonin metabolism

Ts1Cje mice have a segmental trisomy of chromosome 16 that is orthologous to human chromosome 21 and display Down syndrome-like cognitive impairments. Despite the occurrence of affective and emotional impairments in patients with Down syndrome, these parameters are poorly documented in Down syndrome mouse models, including Ts1Cje mice. Here, we conducted comprehensive behavioral analyses, including anxiety-, sociability-, and depression-related tasks, and biochemical analyses of monoamines and their metabolites in Ts1Cje mice. Ts1Cje mice showed enhanced locomotor activity in novel environments and increased social contact with unfamiliar partners when compared with wild-type littermates, but a significantly lower activity in familiar environments. Ts1Cje mice also exhibited some signs of decreased depression like-behavior. Furthermore, Ts1Cje mice showed monoamine abnormalities, including increased extracellular dopamine and serotonin, and enhanced catabolism in the striatum and ventral forebrain. This study constitutes the first report of deviated monoamine metabolism that may help explain the basis for abnormal behaviors, including the environmental stimuli-triggered hyperactivity, increased sociability and decreased depression-like behavior in Ts1Cje mice.

Specific age-related molecular alterations in the cerebellum of Down syndrome mouse models

Down syndrome, or trisomy 21, has been modeled with various trisomic and transgenic mice to help understand the consequences of an altered gene dosage in brain development and function. Though Down syndrome has been associated with premature aging, little is known about the molecular and cellular alterations that target brain function. To help identify alterations at specific ages, we analyzed the cerebellum of Ts1Cje mice, trisomic for 77 HSA21 orthologs, at three ages-young (4 months), middle-age (12 months), and old (17 months)-compared to age-matched controls. Quantification of neuronal and glial markers (n=11) revealed increases in GFAP, with an age effect, and S100B, with age and genotype effects. The genotype effect on S100B with age was unexpected as Ts1Cje has only two copies of the S100b gene. Interestingly, the different increase in GFAP observed between Ts1Cje (trisomic segment includes Pcp4 gene) and controls was magnified in TgPCP4 mice (1 extra copy of the human PCP4 gene) at the same age. S100B increase was not found in the TgPCP4 confirming a difference of regulation with aging for GFAP and S100B and excluding the calcium signaling regulator, Pcp4, as a potential candidate for increase of S100B in the Ts1Cje. To understand these differences, comparison of GFAP and S100B immunostainings at young and middle-age were performed. Immunohistochemical detection of differences in GFAP and S100B localization with aging implicate S100B+ oligodendrocytes as a new phenotypic target in this specific aging process.

Alteration of Energy Metabolism and Antioxidative Processing in the Hippocampus of Rats Reared in Long-Term Environmental Enrichment

Environmental enrichment (EE) is a typical experimental method that promotes levels of novelty and complexity that enhance experience-dependent neuroplasticity and cognitive behavior function in laboratory animals. Early EE is associated with resilience in the face of later-life challenges. Since increased synaptic activity enhances endogenous neuronal antioxidant defenses, we hypothesized that long-term EE beginning at an early stage may alter the levels of oxidative stress. We investigated global protein expression and oxidative stress in hippocampal proteins from rats nurtured for a 6-month EE beginning in the prenatal period. The analysis of protein expression was carried out using 2-dimensional gel electrophoresis with matrix-associated laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Proteins with altered expression were involved in energy metabolism (phosphoglycerate mutase 1, α-enolase isoform 1, adenylate kinase 1, and triose phosphate isomerase) and antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase 1, glutathione S-transferase ω type 1, peroxiredoxin 5, DJ-1, and glial maturation factor β). Using Western blot assays, some of the proteins with altered expression and NADPH oxidase 2 were confirmed to be decreased. Further confirmation was demonstrated with attenuated expression of 7,8-dihydro-8-oxo-deoxyguanine, a DNA oxidative stress marker, in the hippocampus of EE group rats. Our data demonstrate that a long-term EE program beginning in the prenatal and early postnatal phase of development modulates energy metabolism and reduced oxidant stress possibly through enhanced synaptic activity. We provide evidence that EE can be developed as a tool to protect the brain from oxidative stress-induced injury.

CacyBP/SIP--Structure and variety of functions

BACKGROUND

CacyBP/SIP (Calcyclin-Binding Protein and Siah-1 Interacting Protein) is a small modular protein implicated in a wide range of cellular processes. It is expressed in different tissues of mammals but homologs are also found in some lower organisms. In mammals, a high level of CacyBP/SIP is present in tumor cells and in neurons. CacyBP/SIP binds several target proteins such as members of the S100 family, components of a ubiquitin ligase complex, and cytoskeletal proteins.

SCOPE OF REVIEW

CacyBP/SIP has been shown to be involved in protein de-phosphorylation, ubiquitination, cytoskeletal dynamics, regulation of gene expression, cell proliferation, differentiation, and tumorigenesis. This review focuses on very recent reports on CacyBP/SIP structure and function in these important cellular processes.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

CacyBP/SIP is a multi-domain and multi-functional protein. Altered levels of CacyBP/SIP in several cancers implicate its involvement in the maintenance of cell homeostasis. Changes in CacyBP/SIP subcellular localization in neurons of AD brains suggest that this protein is strongly linked to neurodegenerative diseases. Elucidation of CacyBP/SIP structure and cellular function is leading to greater understanding of its role in normal physiology and disease pathologies.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

The available results suggest that CacyBP/SIP is a key player in multiple biological processes. Detailed characterization of the physical, biochemical and biological properties of CacyBP/SIP will provide better insight into the regulation of its diverse functions in vivo, and given the association with specific diseases, will help clarify the potential of therapeutic targeting of this protein.

Protein expression profiles characterize distinct features of mouse cerebral cortices at different developmental stages

The proper development of the mammalian cerebral cortex requires precise protein synthesis and accurate regulation of protein expression levels. To reveal signatures of protein expression in developing mouse cortices, we here generate proteomic profiles of cortices at embryonic and postnatal stages using tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). We found that protein expression profiles are mostly consistent with biological features of the developing cortex. Gene Ontology (GO) and KEGG pathway analyses demonstrate conserved molecules that maintain cortical development such as proteins involved in metabolism. GO and KEGG pathway analyses further identify differentially expressed proteins that function at specific stages, for example proteins regulating the cell cycle in the embryonic cortex, and proteins controlling axon guidance in the postnatal cortex, suggesting that distinct protein expression profiles determine biological events in the developing cortex. Furthermore, the STRING network analysis has revealed that many proteins control a single biological event, such as the cell cycle regulation, through cohesive interactions, indicating a complex network regulation in the cortex. Our study has identified protein networks that control the cortical development and has provided a protein reference for further investigation of protein interactions in the cortex.