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Breitinger E, Dundon NM, Pokorny L, Wunram HL, Roessner V, Bender S. Contingent negative variation to tactile stimuli - differences in anticipatory and preparatory processes between participants with and without blindness. Cereb Cortex 2023; 33:7582-7594. [PMID: 36977633 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhad062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Revised: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
People who are blind demonstrate remarkable abilities within the spared senses and compensatory enhancement of cognitive skills, underscored by substantial plastic reorganization in relevant neural areas. However, little is known about whether people with blindness form top-down models of the world on short timescales more efficiently to guide goal-oriented behavior. This electroencephalography study investigates this hypothesis at the neurophysiological level, focusing on contingent negative variation (CNV) as a marker of anticipatory and preparatory processes prior to expected events. In sum, 20 participants with blindness and 27 sighted participants completed a classic CNV task and a memory CNV task, both containing tactile stimuli to exploit the expertise of the former group. Although the reaction times in the classic CNV task did not differ between groups, participants who are blind reached higher performance rates in the memory task. This superior performance co-occurred with a distinct neurophysiological profile, relative to controls: greater late CNV amplitudes over central areas, suggesting enhanced stimulus expectancy and motor preparation prior to key events. Controls, in contrast, recruited more frontal sites, consistent with inefficient sensory-aligned control. We conclude that in more demanding cognitive contexts exploiting the spared senses, people with blindness efficiently generate task-relevant internal models to facilitate behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Breitinger
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics, and Psychotherapy, University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Germany
| | - Neil M Dundon
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, University of Freiburg, Germany
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA
| | - Lena Pokorny
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics, and Psychotherapy, University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Germany
| | - Heidrun L Wunram
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics, and Psychotherapy, University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Germany
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Germany
| | - Veit Roessner
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Technische Universität Dresden, Faculty of Medicine, University Hospital C. G. Carus, Germany
| | - Stephan Bender
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics, and Psychotherapy, University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Germany
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Nikolenko VN, Rizaeva NA, Oganesyan MV, Vekhova KA, Alyautdinova NAF, Balan SI, Karashaeva TA, Bolotskaya AA. Brain commissures and related pathologies. NEUROLOGY, NEUROPSYCHIATRY, PSYCHOSOMATICS 2022. [DOI: 10.14412/2074-2711-2022-6-73-79] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- V. N. Nikolenko
- I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University of the Ministry of Health of Russia (Sechenov University); Lomonosov Moscow State University
| | - N. A. Rizaeva
- I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University of the Ministry of Health of Russia (Sechenov University); Lomonosov Moscow State University
| | - M. V. Oganesyan
- I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University of the Ministry of Health of Russia (Sechenov University); Lomonosov Moscow State University
| | - K. A. Vekhova
- I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University of the Ministry of Health of Russia (Sechenov University)
| | | | | | - T. A. Karashaeva
- I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University of the Ministry of Health of Russia (Sechenov University)
| | - A. A. Bolotskaya
- I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University of the Ministry of Health of Russia (Sechenov University)
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Firbank MJ, daSilva Morgan K, Collerton D, Elder GJ, Parikh J, Olsen K, Schumacher J, Ffytche D, Taylor JP. Investigation of structural brain changes in Charles Bonnet Syndrome. Neuroimage Clin 2022; 35:103041. [PMID: 35576854 PMCID: PMC9118504 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2022.103041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2021] [Revised: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Reduced grey matter in the occipital cortex in eye disease groups. Widespread altered diffusivity in eye disease groups. No cortical or white matter changes associated with presence of visual hallucinations. Negative association between hippocampal volume and Hallucination severity.
Background and objectives In Charles Bonnet Syndrome (CBS), visual hallucinations (VH) are experienced by people with sight loss due to eye disease or lesional damage to early visual pathways. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to investigate structural brain changes using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in CBS. Methods Sixteen CBS patients, 17 with eye disease but no VH, and 19 normally sighted people took part. Participants were imaged on a 3T scanner, with 1 mm resolution T1 weighted structural imaging, and diffusion tensor imaging with 64 diffusion directions. Results The three groups were well matched for age, sex and cognitive scores (MMSE). The two eye disease groups were matched on visual acuity. Compared to the sighted controls, we found reduced grey matter in the occipital cortex in both eye disease groups. We also found reductions of fractional anisotropy and increased diffusivity in widespread areas, including occipital tracts, the corpus callosum, and the anterior thalamic radiation. We did not find any significant differences between the eye disease participants with VH versus without VH, but did observe a negative association between hippocampal volume and VH severity in the CBS group. Discussion Our findings suggest that although there are cortical and subcortical effects associated with sight loss, structural changes do not explain the occurrence of VHs. CBS may relate instead to connectivity or excitability changes in brain networks linked to vision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Firbank
- Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
| | - Katrina daSilva Morgan
- Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Daniel Collerton
- Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Greg J Elder
- Northumbria Sleep Research, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Jehill Parikh
- Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Kirsty Olsen
- Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Julia Schumacher
- Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Dominic Ffytche
- Department of Old Age Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, UK
| | - John-Paul Taylor
- Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
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Grégoire A, Deggouj N, Dricot L, Decat M, Kupers R. Brain Morphological Modifications in Congenital and Acquired Auditory Deprivation: A Systematic Review and Coordinate-Based Meta-Analysis. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:850245. [PMID: 35418829 PMCID: PMC8995770 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.850245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroplasticity following deafness has been widely demonstrated in both humans and animals, but the anatomical substrate of these changes is not yet clear in human brain. However, it is of high importance since hearing loss is a growing problem due to aging population. Moreover, knowing these brain changes could help to understand some disappointing results with cochlear implant, and therefore could improve hearing rehabilitation. A systematic review and a coordinate-based meta-analysis were realized about the morphological brain changes highlighted by MRI in severe to profound hearing loss, congenital and acquired before or after language onset. 25 papers were included in our review, concerning more than 400 deaf subjects, most of them presenting prelingual deafness. The most consistent finding is a volumetric decrease in gray matter around bilateral auditory cortex. This change was confirmed by the coordinate-based meta-analysis which shows three converging clusters in this region. The visual areas of deaf children is also significantly impacted, with a decrease of the volume of both gray and white matters. Finally, deafness is responsible of a gray matter increase within the cerebellum, especially at the right side. These results are largely discussed and compared with those from deaf animal models and blind humans, which demonstrate for example a much more consistent gray matter decrease along their respective primary sensory pathway. In human deafness, a lot of other factors than deafness could interact on the brain plasticity. One of the most important is the use of sign language and its age of acquisition, which induce among others changes within the hand motor region and the visual cortex. But other confounding factors exist which have been too little considered in the current literature, such as the etiology of the hearing impairment, the speech-reading ability, the hearing aid use, the frequent associated vestibular dysfunction or neurocognitive impairment. Another important weakness highlighted by this review concern the lack of papers about postlingual deafness, whereas it represents most of the deaf population. Further studies are needed to better understand these issues, and finally try to improve deafness rehabilitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anaïs Grégoire
- Department of ENT, Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, Brussels, Belgium
- Institute of NeuroScience (IoNS), UCLouvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Naïma Deggouj
- Department of ENT, Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, Brussels, Belgium
- Institute of NeuroScience (IoNS), UCLouvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Laurence Dricot
- Institute of NeuroScience (IoNS), UCLouvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Monique Decat
- Department of ENT, Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, Brussels, Belgium
- Institute of NeuroScience (IoNS), UCLouvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Ron Kupers
- Institute of NeuroScience (IoNS), UCLouvain, Brussels, Belgium
- Department of Neuroscience, Panum Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Ecole d’Optométrie, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
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Qu 曲晓霞 X, Ding 丁静文 J, Wang 王倩 Q, Cui 崔靖 J, Dong J, Guo 郭健 J, Li 李婷 T, Xie 解立志 L, Li 李冬梅 D, Xian 鲜军舫 J. Effect of the long-term lack of half visual inputs on the white matter microstructure in congenital monocular blindness. Brain Res 2022; 1781:147832. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2022.147832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Revised: 02/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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Innocenti GM. Defining neuroplasticity. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2022; 184:3-18. [PMID: 35034744 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-819410-2.00001-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Neuroplasticity, i.e., the modifiability of the brain, is different in development and adulthood. The first includes changes in: (i) neurogenesis and control of neuron number; (ii) neuronal migration; (iii) differentiation of the somato-dendritic and axonal phenotypes; (iv) formation of connections; (v) cytoarchitectonic differentiation. These changes are often interrelated and can lead to: (vi) system-wide modifications of brain structure as well as to (vii) acquisition of specific functions such as ocular dominance or language. Myelination appears to be plastic both in development and adulthood, at least, in rodents. Adult neuroplasticity is limited, and is mainly expressed as changes in the strength of excitatory and inhibitory synapses while the attempts to regenerate connections have met with limited success. The outcomes of neuroplasticity are not necessarily adaptive, but can also be the cause of neurological and psychiatric pathologies.
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Innocenti GM, Schmidt K, Milleret C, Fabri M, Knyazeva MG, Battaglia-Mayer A, Aboitiz F, Ptito M, Caleo M, Marzi CA, Barakovic M, Lepore F, Caminiti R. The functional characterization of callosal connections. Prog Neurobiol 2021; 208:102186. [PMID: 34780864 PMCID: PMC8752969 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2021.102186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2021] [Revised: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The functional characterization of callosal connections is informed by anatomical data. Callosal connections play a conditional driving role depending on the brain state and behavioral demands. Callosal connections play a modulatory function, in addition to a driving role. The corpus callosum participates in learning and interhemispheric transfer of sensorimotor habits. The corpus callosum contributes to language processing and cognitive functions.
The brain operates through the synaptic interaction of distant neurons within flexible, often heterogeneous, distributed systems. Histological studies have detailed the connections between distant neurons, but their functional characterization deserves further exploration. Studies performed on the corpus callosum in animals and humans are unique in that they capitalize on results obtained from several neuroscience disciplines. Such data inspire a new interpretation of the function of callosal connections and delineate a novel road map, thus paving the way toward a general theory of cortico-cortical connectivity. Here we suggest that callosal axons can drive their post-synaptic targets preferentially when coupled to other inputs endowing the cortical network with a high degree of conditionality. This might depend on several factors, such as their pattern of convergence-divergence, the excitatory and inhibitory operation mode, the range of conduction velocities, the variety of homotopic and heterotopic projections and, finally, the state-dependency of their firing. We propose that, in addition to direct stimulation of post-synaptic targets, callosal axons often play a conditional driving or modulatory role, which depends on task contingencies, as documented by several recent studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgio M Innocenti
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Signal Processing Laboratory (LTS5), École Polytechnique Fédérale (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Kerstin Schmidt
- Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Natal, Brazil
| | - Chantal Milleret
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, Collège de France, CNRS UMR 7241, INSERM U 1050, Label Memolife, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Mara Fabri
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, Marche Polytechnic University, Ancona, Italy
| | - Maria G Knyazeva
- Laboratoire de Recherche en Neuroimagerie (LREN), Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland; Leenaards Memory Centre and Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | - Francisco Aboitiz
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencias and Departamento de Psiquiatría, Escuela de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Maurice Ptito
- Harland Sanders Chair in Visual Science, École d'Optométrie, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Qc, Canada; Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montréal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montréal, Qc, Canada; Department of Neuroscience, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Matteo Caleo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padua, Italy; CNR Neuroscience Institute, Pisa, Italy
| | - Carlo A Marzi
- Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Muhamed Barakovic
- Signal Processing Laboratory (LTS5), École Polytechnique Fédérale (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Franco Lepore
- Department of Psychology, Centre de Recherche en Neuropsychologie et Cognition, University of Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Roberto Caminiti
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Rome SAPIENZA, Rome, Italy; Neuroscience and Behavior Laboratory, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Rome, Italy.
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Ptito M, Paré S, Dricot L, Cavaliere C, Tomaiuolo F, Kupers R. A quantitative analysis of the retinofugal projections in congenital and late-onset blindness. NEUROIMAGE-CLINICAL 2021; 32:102809. [PMID: 34509923 PMCID: PMC8435915 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2021.102809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Revised: 07/14/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Congenital (CB) and late blind (LB) affects the integrity brain visual structures. We measured the integrity of the retino-fugal system using structural MRI images. Optic nerve, optic tract, optic chiasm and LGN were reduced by 50 to 60% in CB and LB. There were no differences between CB and LB. In LB, optic nerve volume correlated negatively with blindness duration.
Vision loss early in life has dramatic consequences on the organization of the visual system and hence on structural plasticity of its remnant components. Most of the studies on the anatomical changes in the brain following visual deprivation have focused on the re-organization of the visual cortex and its afferent and efferent projections. In this study, we performed a quantitative analysis of the volume and size of the optic chiasm, optic nerve, optic tract and the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), the retino recipient thalamic nucleus. Analysis was carried out on structural T1-weighted MRIs from 22 congenitally blind (CB), 14 late blind (LB) and 29 age -and sex-matched sighted control (SC) subjects. We manually segmented the optic nerve, optic chiasm and optic tract, while LGN volumes were extracted using in-house software. We also measured voxel intensity of optic nerve, optic chiasm and optic tract. Mean volumes of the optic nerve, optic tract and optic chiasm were reduced by 50 to 60% in both CB and LB participants. No significant differences were found between the congenitally and late-onset blind participants for any of the measures. Our data further revealed reduced white matter voxel intensities in optic nerve, optic chiasm and optic tract in blind compared to sighted participants, suggesting decreased myelin content in the atrophied white matter. The LGN was reduced by 50% and 44% in CB and LB, respectively. In LB, optic nerve volume correlated negatively with the blindness duration index; no such correlation was found for optic chiasm, optic tract and LGN. The observation that despite the absence of visual input about half of the subcortical retinofugal projections are structurally preserved raises the question of their functional role. One possibility is that the surviving fibers play a role in the maintenance of circadian rhythms in the blind through the intrinsically photosensitive melanopsin-containing retinal ganglion cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maurice Ptito
- School of Optometry, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada; BRAINlab, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark; Danish Research Center for Magnetic Resonance (DRCMR), Copenhagen University Hospital, Hvidovre, Denmark
| | - Samuel Paré
- School of Optometry, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Laurence Dricot
- Institute of NeuroScience (IoNS), Université catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), Belgium
| | - Carlo Cavaliere
- IRCCS SDN, Naples, Italy; Coma Science Group, Cyclotron Research Center and Neurology Department, University and University Hospital of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Francesco Tomaiuolo
- Univesità degli Studi di Messina, Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Sperimentale
| | - Ron Kupers
- School of Optometry, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada; BRAINlab, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark; Institute of NeuroScience (IoNS), Université catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), Belgium.
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Fenlon LR, Suarez R, Lynton Z, Richards LJ. The evolution, formation and connectivity of the anterior commissure. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2021; 118:50-59. [PMID: 33958283 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2021.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Revised: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 04/10/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The anterior commissure is the most ancient of the forebrain interhemispheric connections among all vertebrates. Indeed, it is the predominant pallial commissure in all non-eutherian vertebrates, universally subserving basic functions related to olfaction and survival. A key feature of the anterior commissure is its ability to convey connections from diverse brain areas, such as most of the neocortex in non-eutherian mammals, thereby mediating the bilateral integration of diverse functions. Shared developmental mechanisms between the anterior commissure and more evolutionarily recent commissures, such as the corpus callosum in eutherians, have led to the hypothesis that the former may have been a precursor for additional expansion of commissural circuits. However, differences between the formation of the anterior commissure and other telencephalic commissures suggest that independent developmental mechanisms underlie the emergence of these connections in extant species. Here, we review the developmental mechanisms and connectivity of the anterior commissure across evolutionarily distant species, and highlight its potential functional importance in humans, both in the course of normal neurodevelopment, and as a site of plastic axonal rerouting in the absence or damage of other connections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura R Fenlon
- The University of Queensland, The Queensland Brain Institute, Brisbane, Australia.
| | - Rodrigo Suarez
- The University of Queensland, The Queensland Brain Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Zorana Lynton
- The University of Queensland, The Queensland Brain Institute, Brisbane, Australia; The Faculty of Medicine, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Linda J Richards
- The University of Queensland, The Queensland Brain Institute, Brisbane, Australia; The School of Biomedical Sciences, Brisbane, Australia.
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Ptito M, Bleau M, Djerourou I, Paré S, Schneider FC, Chebat DR. Brain-Machine Interfaces to Assist the Blind. Front Hum Neurosci 2021; 15:638887. [PMID: 33633557 PMCID: PMC7901898 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2021.638887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The loss or absence of vision is probably one of the most incapacitating events that can befall a human being. The importance of vision for humans is also reflected in brain anatomy as approximately one third of the human brain is devoted to vision. It is therefore unsurprising that throughout history many attempts have been undertaken to develop devices aiming at substituting for a missing visual capacity. In this review, we present two concepts that have been prevalent over the last two decades. The first concept is sensory substitution, which refers to the use of another sensory modality to perform a task that is normally primarily sub-served by the lost sense. The second concept is cross-modal plasticity, which occurs when loss of input in one sensory modality leads to reorganization in brain representation of other sensory modalities. Both phenomena are training-dependent. We also briefly describe the history of blindness from ancient times to modernity, and then proceed to address the means that have been used to help blind individuals, with an emphasis on modern technologies, invasive (various type of surgical implants) and non-invasive devices. With the advent of brain imaging, it has become possible to peer into the neural substrates of sensory substitution and highlight the magnitude of the plastic processes that lead to a rewired brain. Finally, we will address the important question of the value and practicality of the available technologies and future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maurice Ptito
- École d’Optométrie, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Maxime Bleau
- École d’Optométrie, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Ismaël Djerourou
- École d’Optométrie, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Samuel Paré
- École d’Optométrie, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Fabien C. Schneider
- TAPE EA7423 University of Lyon-Saint Etienne, Saint Etienne, France
- Neuroradiology Unit, University Hospital of Saint-Etienne, Saint-Etienne, France
| | - Daniel-Robert Chebat
- Visual and Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory (VCN Lab), Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Ariel University, Ariel, Israël
- Navigation and Accessibility Research Center of Ariel University (NARCA), Ariel, Israël
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