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Fischer ML, Yepes Vivas SA, Wielsch N, Kirsch R, Vilcinskas A, Vogel H. You are what you eat-ecological niche and microhabitat influence venom activity and composition in aquatic bugs. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20222064. [PMID: 36946119 PMCID: PMC10031423 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.2064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/23/2023] Open
Abstract
True water bugs (Nepomorpha) are mostly predacious insects that live in aquatic habitats. They use their piercing-sucking mouthparts to inject venomous saliva that facilitates the capture and extra-oral digestion of prey animals, but their venom can also be deployed for defence. In Central Europe, nepomorph species representing different families coexist in the same habitat. However, their feeding ecology, including venom composition and deployment, has not been investigated in detail. We used an integrated proteotranscriptomic and bioactivity-based approach to test whether venom composition and activity differ between four water bug species sharing the same habitat but occupying different ecological niches. We found considerable species-dependent differences in the composition of digestive enzymes and venom components that probably evolved as adaptations to particular food sources, foraging strategies and/or microhabitats. The venom of Corixa punctata differed substantially from that of the three strictly predatory species (Ilyocoris cimicoides, Notonecta glauca and Nepa cinerea), and the abundance of herbivory-associated proteins confirms a mostly plant-based diet. Our findings reveal independent adaptations of the digestive and defensive enzyme repertoires accompanied by the evolution of distinct feeding strategies in aquatic bugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maike L. Fischer
- Department of Insect Symbiosis, Max-Planck-Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Thüringen, Germany
| | - Sol A. Yepes Vivas
- Department of Biochemistry, Max-Planck-Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Thüringen, Germany
| | - Natalie Wielsch
- Research Group Mass Spectrometry/Proteomics, Max-Planck-Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Thüringen, Germany
| | - Roy Kirsch
- Department of Insect Symbiosis, Max-Planck-Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Thüringen, Germany
| | - Andreas Vilcinskas
- Institute for Insect Biotechnology, Justus Liebig Universitat Giessen, 35392 Giessen, Hessen, Germany
| | - Heiko Vogel
- Department of Insect Symbiosis, Max-Planck-Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Thüringen, Germany
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2
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Zychar BC, Clissa PB, Carvalho E, Alves AS, Baldo C, Faquim-Mauro EL, Gonçalves LRC. Modulation of Adhesion Molecules Expression by Different Metalloproteases Isolated from Bothrops Snakes. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:803. [PMID: 34822587 PMCID: PMC8624849 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13110803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 11/06/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMP) are involved in local inflammatory reactions observed after snakebites. Based on domain composition, they are classified as PI (pro-domain + proteolytic domain), PII (PI + disintegrin-like domains), or PIII (PII + cysteine-rich domains). Here, we studied the role of different SVMPs domains in inducing the expression of adhesion molecules at the microcirculation of the cremaster muscle of mice. We used Jararhagin (Jar)-a PIII SVMP with intense hemorrhagic activity, and Jar-C-a Jar devoid of the catalytic domain, with no hemorrhagic activity, both isolated from B. jararaca venom and BnP-1-a weakly hemorrhagic P1 SVMP from B. neuwiedi venom. Toxins (0.5 µg) or PBS (100 µL) were injected into the scrotum of mice, and 2, 4, or 24 h later, the protein and gene expression of CD54 and CD31 in the endothelium, and integrins (CD11a and CD11b), expressed in leukocytes were evaluated. Toxins induced significant increases in CD54, CD11a, and CD11b at the initial time and a time-related increase in CD31 expression. In conclusion, our results suggest that, despite differences in hemorrhagic activities and domain composition of the SVMPs used in this study, they behave similarly to the induction of expression of adhesion molecules that promote leukocyte recruitment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianca C. Zychar
- Laboratory of Pathophysiology, Butantan Institute, São Paulo 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Patrícia B. Clissa
- Laboratory of Immunopathology, Butantan Institute, São Paulo 05503-900, Brazil; (P.B.C.); (E.L.F.-M.)
| | - Eneas Carvalho
- Laboratory of Bacteriology, Butantan Institute, São Paulo 05503-900, Brazil;
| | - Adilson S. Alves
- Department. of Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05503-900, Brazil;
| | - Cristiani Baldo
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, State University of Londrina, Paraná 86051-990, Brazil;
| | - Eliana L. Faquim-Mauro
- Laboratory of Immunopathology, Butantan Institute, São Paulo 05503-900, Brazil; (P.B.C.); (E.L.F.-M.)
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3
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Cavalcante JDS, Nogueira Júnior FA, Bezerra Jorge RJ, Almeida C. Pain modulated by Bothrops snake venoms: Mechanisms of nociceptive signaling and therapeutic perspectives. Toxicon 2021; 201:105-114. [PMID: 34425141 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2021.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Revised: 08/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Snake venoms are substances mostly composed by proteins and peptides with high biological activity. Local and systemic effects culminate in clinical manifestations induced by these substances. Pain is the most uncomfortable condition, but it has not been well investigated. This review discusses Bothrops snakebite-induced nociception, highlighting molecules involved in the mediation of this process and perspectives in treatment of pain induced by Bothrops snake venoms (B. alternatus, B. asper, B. atrox, B. insularis, B. jararaca, B. pirajai, B. jararacussu, B. lanceolatus, B. leucurus, B. mattogrossensis, B. moojeni). We highlight, the understanding of the nociceptive signaling, especially in snakebite, enables more efficient treatment approaches. Finally, future perspectives for pain treatment concerning snakebite patients are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joeliton Dos Santos Cavalcante
- Graduate Program in Tropical Diseases, Botucatu Medical School (FMB), São Paulo State University, Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Francisco Assis Nogueira Júnior
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology and Drug Research and Development Center Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
| | - Roberta Jeane Bezerra Jorge
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology and Drug Research and Development Center Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
| | - Cayo Almeida
- Center of Mathematics, Computing Sciences and Cognition, Federal University of ABC, São Paulo, Brazil.
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4
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Ferraz CR, Carvalho TT, Fattori V, Saraiva-Santos T, Pinho-Ribeiro FA, Borghi SM, Manchope MF, Zaninelli TH, Cunha TM, Casagrande R, Clissa PB, Verri WA. Jararhagin, a snake venom metalloproteinase, induces mechanical hyperalgesia in mice with the neuroinflammatory contribution of spinal cord microglia and astrocytes. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 179:610-619. [PMID: 33662422 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.02.178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2020] [Revised: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Jararhagin is a hyperalgesic metalloproteinase from Bothrops jararaca venom. In rodents, jararhagin induces nociceptive behaviors that correlate with an increase in peripheral cytokine levels. However, the role of the spinal cord glia in pain processing after peripheral stimulus of jararhagin has not been investigated. Aiming to explore this proposal, mice received intraplantar (i.pl.) injection of jararhagin and the following parameters were evaluated: hyperalgesia, spinal cord TNF-α, IL-1β levels, and CX3CR1, GFAP and p-NFκB activation. The effects of intrathecal (i.t.) injection of TNF-α soluble receptor (etanercept), IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra), and inhibitors of NFκB (PDTC), microglia (minocycline) and astrocytes (α-aminoadipate) were investigated. Jararhagin inoculation induced cytokine production (TNF-α and IL-1β) in the spinal cord, which was reduced by treatment with PDTC (40% and 50%, respectively). Jararhagin mechanical hyperalgesia and cytokine production were inhibited by treatment with etanercept (67%), IL-1Ra (60%), PDTC (70%), minocycline (60%) and α-aminoadipate (45%). Furthermore, jararhagin induced an increase in p-NFκB, CX3CR1 and GFAP detection in the spinal cord indicating activation of NFκB, microglia and astrocytes. These results demonstrate for the first time that jararhagin-induced mechanical hyperalgesia is dependent on spinal cord activation of glial cells, consequent NFκB activation, and cytokine production in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camila R Ferraz
- Laboratory of Pain, Inflammation, Neuropathy, and Cancer, Department of Pathology, Londrina State University, Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Thacyana T Carvalho
- Laboratory of Pain, Inflammation, Neuropathy, and Cancer, Department of Pathology, Londrina State University, Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Victor Fattori
- Laboratory of Pain, Inflammation, Neuropathy, and Cancer, Department of Pathology, Londrina State University, Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Telma Saraiva-Santos
- Laboratory of Pain, Inflammation, Neuropathy, and Cancer, Department of Pathology, Londrina State University, Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Felipe A Pinho-Ribeiro
- Laboratory of Pain, Inflammation, Neuropathy, and Cancer, Department of Pathology, Londrina State University, Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Sergio M Borghi
- Laboratory of Pain, Inflammation, Neuropathy, and Cancer, Department of Pathology, Londrina State University, Londrina, Paraná, Brazil; Center for Research in Health Sciences, University of Northern Paraná, Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Marília F Manchope
- Laboratory of Pain, Inflammation, Neuropathy, and Cancer, Department of Pathology, Londrina State University, Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Tiago H Zaninelli
- Laboratory of Pain, Inflammation, Neuropathy, and Cancer, Department of Pathology, Londrina State University, Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Thiago M Cunha
- Department of Pharmacology, Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rubia Casagrande
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center of Health Sciences, Londrina State University, Londrina, Parana, Brazil
| | - Patricia B Clissa
- Laboratory of Immunopathology, Butantan Institute, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Waldiceu A Verri
- Laboratory of Pain, Inflammation, Neuropathy, and Cancer, Department of Pathology, Londrina State University, Londrina, Paraná, Brazil.
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Mamede CCN, de Sousa Simamoto BB, da Cunha Pereira DF, de Oliveira Costa J, Ribeiro MSM, de Oliveira F. Edema, hyperalgesia and myonecrosis induced by Brazilian bothropic venoms: overview of the last decade. Toxicon 2020; 187:10-18. [PMID: 32846146 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2020] [Revised: 08/15/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Snakebite accidents are considered serious public health problems. They are often neglected, and individuals who have received insufficient treatment are subjected to various disabling alterations. Snake venoms are secretions composed of biologically active molecules capable of triggering local and systemic effects in envenomation victims. Bothropic snakes are responsible for most of the ophidian accidents in Brazil; their venoms are mainly related to local manifestations, due to a composition that is especially rich in proteases and phospholipases A2. The most common local damages are inflammation, with consequent cellular activation and release of inflammatory mediators, hemorrhage, edema, pain and (myo)necrosis, which may lead to amputation of the affected areas. Antivenom therapy is the main treatment for snakebites. However, the efficiency is mainly due to the neutralization of the toxins responsible for the systemic alterations. Thus, the local damages can evolve to markedly compromise the tissue. The complexity of these local effects associated with the toxicity of the snake venom components of the genus Bothrops, arouse interest in the study of the biochemical and pathophysiological mechanisms involved with the actions caused by toxins of the venom. Therefore, this review aims to analyze the edematogenic, hyperalgesic and myotoxic effects caused by Brazilian bothropic venoms in order to contribute to the study and elucidation of the mechanisms of action of its components and, consequently, enable discoveries of more effective combined therapies in the treatment of local damages resulting from envenoming.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Júnia de Oliveira Costa
- Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Triângulo Mineiro (IFTM), Ituiutaba, MG, Brazil
| | | | - Fabio de Oliveira
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia (UFU), Uberlândia, MG, Brazil
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Inflammatory Reaction Induced by Two Metalloproteinases Isolated from Bothrops atrox Venom and by Fragments Generated from the Hydrolysis of Basement Membrane Components. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12020096. [PMID: 32024243 PMCID: PMC7076977 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12020096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2019] [Revised: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs) play an important role in local tissue damage of snakebite patients, mostly by hydrolysis of basement membrane (BM) components. We evaluated the proinflammatory activity of SVMPs Atroxlysin-Ia (ATXL) and Batroxrhagin (BATXH) from Bothrops atrox venom and their hydrolysis products of Matrigel. BALB/c mice were injected with SVMPs (2 μg), for assessment of paw edema and peritoneal leukocyte accumulation. Both SVMPs induced edema, representing an increase of ~70% of the paw size. Leukocyte infiltrates reached levels of 6 × 106 with ATXL and 5 × 106 with BATXH. TNF-α was identified in the supernatant of BATXH—or venom-stimulated MPAC cells. Incubation of Matrigel with the SVMPs generated fragments, including peptides from Laminin, identified by LC–MS/MS. The Matrigel hydrolysis peptides caused edema that increased 30% the paw size and promoted leukocyte accumulation (4–5 × 106) to the peritoneal cavity, significantly higher than Matrigel control peptides 1 and 4 h after injection. Our findings suggest that ATXL and BATXH are involved in the inflammatory reaction observed in B. atrox envenomings by direct action on inflammatory cells or by releasing proinflammatory peptides from BM proteins that may amplify the direct action of SVMPs through activation of endogenous signaling pathways.
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7
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Leukocyte recruitment induced by snake venom metalloproteinases: Role of the catalytic domain. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2020; 521:402-407. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2019.10.144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2019] [Accepted: 10/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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8
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Ferraz CR, Arrahman A, Xie C, Casewell NR, Lewis RJ, Kool J, Cardoso FC. Multifunctional Toxins in Snake Venoms and Therapeutic Implications: From Pain to Hemorrhage and Necrosis. Front Ecol Evol 2019. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
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9
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Ferraz CR, Calixto-Campos C, Manchope MF, Casagrande R, Clissa PB, Baldo C, Verri WA. Jararhagin-induced mechanical hyperalgesia depends on TNF-α, IL-1β and NFκB in mice. Toxicon 2015; 103:119-28. [PMID: 26140746 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2015.06.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2015] [Revised: 06/18/2015] [Accepted: 06/18/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Jararhagin is a hemorrhagic metalloprotease from Bothrops jararaca snake venom. The hyperalgesic mechanisms of jararhagin were investigated focusing on the role of proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-1β) and the transcription factor NFκB. Intraplantar administration of jararhagin (1, 10, 100 and 1000 ng/paw) induced mechanical hyperalgesia, and increased TNF-α levels at 1, 3 and 5 h, and IL-1β levels at 0.5, 1 and 3 h after its injection in the paw tissue. Pre-treatment with morphine (2, 6, 12 μg/paw) inhibited jararhagin-induced mechanical hyperagesia. The systemic or local pre-treatment with etanercept (10 mg/kg and 100 μg/paw) and IL-1ra (30 mg/kg and 100 pg/paw) inhibited jararhagin-induced mechanical hyperalgesia. Co-administration of jararhagin (0.1 ng/paw) and TNF-α (0.1 pg/paw) or jararhagin (0.1 ng/paw) and IL-1β (1 pg/paw) enhanced the mechanical hyperalgesia. The systemic or local pre-treatment with PDTC (NFκB inhibitor; 100 mg/kg and 100 μg/paw) inhibited jararhagin-induced mechanical hyperalgesia as well as PDTC decreased the jararhagin-induced production of TNF-α and IL-1β. Thus, these data demonstrate the involvement of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-1β and nuclear transcription factor NFκB in jararhagin-induced mechanical hyperalgesia indicating that targeting these mechanisms might contribute to reduce the pain induced by B. jararaca snake venom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camila R Ferraz
- Departamento de Ciências Patológicas, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Rod. Celso Garcia Cid KM380 PR445, CEP 86057-970, Cx Postal 10.011, Londrina, Paraná, Brazil.
| | - Cássia Calixto-Campos
- Departamento de Ciências Patológicas, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Rod. Celso Garcia Cid KM380 PR445, CEP 86057-970, Cx Postal 10.011, Londrina, Paraná, Brazil.
| | - Marília F Manchope
- Departamento de Ciências Patológicas, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Rod. Celso Garcia Cid KM380 PR445, CEP 86057-970, Cx Postal 10.011, Londrina, Paraná, Brazil.
| | - Rubia Casagrande
- Departamento de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Avenida Robert Koch, 60, CEP 86039-440, Londrina, Paraná, Brazil.
| | - Patrícia B Clissa
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Instituto Butantan, Secretaria de Saúde, Av. Vital Brazil, 1500, CEP 05503-900, Butantan, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Cristiani Baldo
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biotecnologia, Centro de Ciências Exatas, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Rod. Celso Garcia Cid KM380 PR445, CEP 86057-970, Londrina, Paraná, Brazil.
| | - Waldiceu A Verri
- Departamento de Ciências Patológicas, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Rod. Celso Garcia Cid KM380 PR445, CEP 86057-970, Cx Postal 10.011, Londrina, Paraná, Brazil.
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10
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Lopes DS, Faquim-Mauro E, Magalhães GS, Lima IC, Baldo C, Fox JW, Moura-da-Silva AM, Clissa PB. Gene expression of inflammatory mediators induced by jararhagin on endothelial cells. Toxicon 2012; 60:1072-84. [PMID: 22960448 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2012] [Accepted: 07/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMP) are abundant toxins in venoms of viper snakes and play a relevant role in the complex and multifactorial tissue damage characteristic of Viperidae envenoming. Jararhagin, a SVMP isolated from Bothrops jararaca venom, induces a fast onset hemorrhagic lesions acting directly on the capillary vessels, which are disrupted by toxin adhesion and degradation of extracellular matrix proteins like collagen IV. Jararhagin also triggers inflammatory response, where endothelial cells are activated, resulting in the enhanced rolling of circulating leukocytes, nitric oxide generation, prostacyclin production and pro-inflammatory cytokines release. Jararhagin also decreases endothelial cells viability inducing apoptosis (in vitro studies). In the present study we attempted to correlate the effect of sub-apoptotic doses of jararhagin on human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and gene expression of pro-inflammatory mediators, using microarray assay, real time PCR and detection of specific proteins on HUVEC surface or released in the medium. Jararhagin was effective in activate and up-regulate the gene expression of different mediators such as E-selectin, VCAM-1, IL-8, CD69, Ang-2 and MMP-10. Despite the increase in expression of genes coding for such molecules, jararhagin did not induce increased concentrations of E-selectin, VCAM-1 and IL-8 produced or released by endothelial cells. In conclusion, jararhagin is able to activate pro-inflammatory gene transcription on endothelial cells however this stimulus is not sufficient to result in the consequent expression of pro-inflammatory effectors molecules like E-selectin, VCAM-1 and IL-8. The time courses of these events, as well as the doses of jararhagin are important points to be addressed herein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daiana S Lopes
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Instituto Butantan, Av. Dr. Vital Brasil 1500, 05503-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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Moura-da-Silva AM, Baldo C. Jararhagin, a hemorrhagic snake venom metalloproteinase from Bothrops jararaca. Toxicon 2012; 60:280-9. [PMID: 22534074 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2012] [Accepted: 03/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Jararhagin is a metalloproteinase isolated from Bothrops jararaca snake venom, which has been extensively studied. These studies showed its involvement on most of the systemic and local damaging effects of snakebite envenomings. In this review we comment on the major targets of jararhagin as the vascular endothelium, platelets and coagulation factors and also its action on other cell systems as inflammatory cells and their mediators, cancer and cell signaling. The mechanisms of jararhagin action are discussed together with structural features essential for the expression of its biological activities. The studies reviewed here denote jararhagin as a prototype for studies of snake venom metalloproteinases, bringing new insights into cellular-matrix interactions and adding for the improvement of snakebite treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana M Moura-da-Silva
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Instituto Butantan, Av. Vital Brasil 1500, CEP-05503-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
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12
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The down regulation of neutrophil oxidative metabolism by S100A8 and S100A9: implication of the protease-activated receptor-2. Mol Immunol 2011; 50:42-8. [PMID: 22204866 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2011.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2011] [Revised: 11/21/2011] [Accepted: 12/02/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
S100A8 and S100A9 regulate polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) recruitment and represent 40% of PMN cytosolic protein weight. We have shown that S100A8/S100A9 inhibit PMN oxidative metabolism. The present study was designed to elucidate the mechanisms of this anti-oxidative effect. We hypothesized that the protease activated receptor-2 (PAR-2) played a role in the down-regulation of PMN oxidative metabolism by S100A8/S100A9. Freshly isolated PMNs were tested for their ability to oxidize dichlorofluorescin-diacetate. Functional inhibition of PAR-2 with ENMD-1068, the pepducin P2pal-21 or an antibody directed at PAR-2 cleavage/activation site, resulted in a significant inhibition of S100A8 and S100A9 anti-oxidative effect. Conversely, the controlled activation of PAR-2 potentiated S100 anti-oxidative effect. Taken together, the data indicate that the anti-oxidative effect of S100A8/A9 is initiated by PAR-2 activation. S100A8/S100A9 may therefore dampen inflammation without interfering with its initial strength. This finding opens translational possibilities to limit deleterious PMN activation with a dual PAR-2/S100 strategy.
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Peichoto ME, Zychar BC, Tavares FL, de Camargo Gonçalves LR, Acosta O, Santoro ML. Inflammatory effects of patagonfibrase, a metalloproteinase from Philodryas patagoniensis (Patagonia Green Racer; Dipsadidae) venom. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2011; 236:1166-72. [PMID: 21885478 DOI: 10.1258/ebm.2011.011125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Patagonfibrase is a P-III class metalloproteinase isolated from the venom of Philodryas patagoniensis, a South-American, rear-fanged 'colubrid' snake responsible for accidents with clinical significance. Since local inflammatory reactions are conspicuous signs of snakebites inflicted by this species and taking into consideration that most snake venom metalloproteinases exhibit inflammatory activity, this study deals with the proinflammatory effects evoked by patagonfibrase. Herein, we demonstrate that patagonfibrase causes a time- and dose-dependent hemorrhagic edema when injected into mouse hind paws. The peak of edema occurred at 30 min after injection, and the minimum edematogenic dose was 0.021 μg. By histological analysis, the presence of moderate to marked edema and hemorrhage, and a mild inflammatory infiltrate was observed. When injected subcutaneously into the scrotal bag of mice, patagonfibrase induced cell recruitment with a significant alteration in physiological parameters of leukocyte-endothelium interaction. The presence of 1 mmol/L o-phenanthroline, which chelates metal ions, significantly inhibited the proinflammatory effects induced by patagonfibrase. Taken together, these results imply that patagonfibrase is an important contributor to local inflammation elicited by P. patagoniensis envenomation, which may pave the way for novel therapeutic strategies to treat this snakebite. Moreover, our findings demonstrate for the first time that a venom metalloproteinase from a rear-fanged snake elicits proinflammatory effects mainly mediated by its catalytic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Elisa Peichoto
- Cátedra de Farmacología, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional del Nordeste, Sargento Cabral 2139, 3400 Corrientes, Argentina.
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Goyette J, Geczy CL. Inflammation-associated S100 proteins: new mechanisms that regulate function. Amino Acids 2010; 41:821-42. [PMID: 20213444 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-010-0528-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 248] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2009] [Accepted: 02/12/2010] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
This review focuses on new aspects of extracellular roles of the calgranulins. S100A8, S100A9 and S100A12 are constitutively expressed in neutrophils and induced in several cell types. The S100A8 and S100A9 genes are regulated by pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators and their functions may depend on cell type, mediators within a particular inflammatory milieu, receptors involved in their recognition and their post-translational modification. The S100A8 gene induction in macrophages is dependent on IL-10 and potentiated by immunosuppressive agents. S100A8 and S100A9 are oxidized by peroxide, hypochlorite and nitric oxide (NO). HOCl generates intra-chain sulfinamide bonds; stronger oxidation promotes cross-linked forms that are seen in human atheroma. S100A8 is >200-fold more sensitive to oxidative cross-linking than low-density lipoprotein and may reduce oxidative damage. S100A8 and S100A9 can be S-nitrosylated. S100A8-SNO suppresses mast cell activation and inflammation in the microcirculation and may act as an NO transporter to regulate vessel tone in inflammatory lesions. S100A12 activates mast cells and is a monocyte and mast cell chemoattractant; a G-protein-coupled mechanism may be involved. Structure-function studies are discussed in relation to conservation and divergence of functions in S100A8. S100A12 induces cytokines in mast cells, but not monocytes/macrophages. It forms complexes with Zn(2+) and, by chelating Zn(2+), S100A12 significantly inhibits MMPs. Zn(2+) in S100A12 complexes co-localize with MMP-9 in foam cells in atheroma. In summary, S100A12 has pro-inflammatory properties that are likely to be stable in an oxidative environment, because it lacks Cys and Met residues. Conversely, S100A8 and S100A9 oxidation and S-nitrosylation may have important protective mechanisms in inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse Goyette
- Centre for Infection and Inflammation Research, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
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Zychar BC, Dale CS, Demarchi DS, Gonçalves LRC. Contribution of metalloproteases, serine proteases and phospholipases A2 to the inflammatory reaction induced by Bothrops jararaca crude venom in mice. Toxicon 2010; 55:227-34. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.07.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2009] [Revised: 07/19/2009] [Accepted: 07/23/2009] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Pagano RL, Sampaio SC, Juliano MA, Juliano L, Giorgi R. Involvement of proteinase-activated receptors 1 and 2 in spreading and phagocytosis by murine adherent peritoneal cells: modulation by the C-terminal of S100A9 protein. Eur J Pharmacol 2009; 628:240-6. [PMID: 19941849 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2009.11.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2009] [Revised: 11/02/2009] [Accepted: 11/16/2009] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Proteinase-activated receptors (PAR) are widely recognized for their modulatory properties in inflammatory and immune responses; however, their direct role on phagocyte effector functions remains unknown. S100A9, a protein secreted during inflammatory responses, deactivates activated peritoneal macrophages, and its C-terminal portion inhibits spreading and phagocytosis of adherent peritoneal cells. Herein, the effect of PAR1 and PAR2 agonists was investigated on spreading and phagocytosis by adherent peritoneal cells, as well as the ability of murine C-terminal of S100A9 peptide (mS100A9p) to modulate this effect. Adherent peritoneal cells obtained from mouse abdominal cavity were incubated with PAR1 and PAR2 agonists and spreading and phagocytosis of Candida albicans particles were evaluated. PAR1 agonists increased both the spreading and the phagocytic activity, but PAR2 agonists only increased the spreading index. mS100A9p reverted both the increased spreading and phagocytosis induced by PAR1 agonists, but no interference in the increased spreading induced by PAR2 agonists was noticed. The shorter homologue peptide to the C-terminal of mS100A9p, corresponding to the H(92)-E(97) region, also reverted the increased spreading and phagocytosis induced by PAR1 agonists. These findings show that proteinase-activated receptors have an important role for spreading and phagocytosis of adherent peritoneal cells, and that the peptide corresponding to the C-terminal of S100A9 protein is a remarkable candidate for use as a novel compound to modulate PAR1 function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosana L Pagano
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, Av Prof Lineu Prestes, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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Dale CS, Altier C, Cenac N, Giorgi R, Juliano MA, Juliano L, Zamponi GW, Vergnolle N. Analgesic properties of S100A9 C-terminal domain: a mechanism dependent on calcium channel inhibition. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2009; 23:427-38. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-8206.2009.00686.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Paccola CC, Gutierrez VP, Longo I, Juliano L, Juliano MA, Giorgi R. Antinociceptive effect of the C-terminus of murine S100A9 protein on experimental neuropathic pain. Peptides 2008; 29:1806-14. [PMID: 18582512 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2008.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2008] [Revised: 05/28/2008] [Accepted: 05/30/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The synthetic peptide identical to the C-terminus of murine S100A9 protein (mS100A9p) has antinociceptive effect on different acute inflammatory pain models. In this study, the effect of mS100A9p was investigated on neuropathic pain induced by chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve in rats. Hyperalgesia, allodynia, and spontaneous pain were assessed to evaluate nociception. These three signs were detected as early as 2 days after sciatic nerve constriction and lasted for over 14 days after CCI. Rats were treated with different doses of mS100A9p by intraplantar, oral, or intrathecal routes on day 14 after CCI, and nociception was evaluated 1h later. These three routes of administration blocked hyperalgesia, allodynia and spontaneous pain. The duration of the effect of mS100A9p depends on the route used and phenomenon analyzed. Moreover, intraplantar injection of mS100A9p in the contralateral paw inhibited the hyperalgesia on day 14 days after CCI. The results obtained herein demonstrate the antinociceptive effect of the C-terminus of murine S100A9 protein on experimental neuropathic pain, suggesting a potential therapeutic use for it in persistent pain syndromes, assuming that tolerance does not develop to mS100A9p.
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Pagano RL, Mariano M, Giorgi R. Neutrophilic cell-free exudate induces antinociception mediate by the protein S100A9. Mediators Inflamm 2007; 2006:36765. [PMID: 17047291 PMCID: PMC1618946 DOI: 10.1155/mi/2006/36765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Calcium-binding protein S100A9 (MRP-14) induces
antinociceptive effect in an experimental model of
painful sensibility and participates of antinociception observed
during neutrophilic peritonitis induced by glycogen or carrageenan
in mice. In this study, the direct antinociceptive role of the
protein S100A9 in neutrophilic cell-free exudates obtained of mice
injected with glycogen was investigated. Mice were
intraperitoneally injected with a glycogen solution, and after
4, 8, 24, and 48 hours, either the pattern of cell
migration of the peritoneal exudate or the nociceptive response of
animals was evaluated. The glycogen-induced neutrophilic
peritonitis evoked antinociception 4 and 8 hours after
inoculation of the irritant. Peritoneal cell-free exudates,
collected in different times after the irritant injection, were
transferred to naive animals which were submitted to the
nociceptive test. The transference of exudates also induced
antinociceptive effect, and neutralization of S100A9 activity by
anti-S100A9 monoclonal antibody totally reverted this response.
This effect was not observed when experiments were made 24 or
48 hours after glycogen injection. These results clearly
indicate that S100A9 is secreted during glycogen-induced
neutrophilic peritonitis, and that this protein is responsible by
antinociception observed in the initial phase of inflammatory
reaction. Thus, these data reinforce the hypothesis that the
calcium-binding protein S100A9 participates of the endogenous
control of inflammatory pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosana L. Pagano
- Laboratory of Pathophysiology, Butantan Institute,
Avenue Vital Brazil 1500, São Paulo 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Mario Mariano
- Discipline of Immunology, Federal University of
São Paulo, Rua Botucatu 862, São Paulo 04023-062, Brazil
- Discipline of Immunology, Paulista University, Rua Dr Bacelar 1212, São Paulo 04026-002, Brazil
| | - Renata Giorgi
- Laboratory of Pathophysiology, Butantan Institute,
Avenue Vital Brazil 1500, São Paulo 05503-900, Brazil
- *Renata Giorgi:
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Olivo RDA, Teixeira CFP, Wallace JL, Gutierrez JM, Zamuner SR. Role of cyclooxygenases in oedema-forming activity of bothropic venoms. Toxicon 2007; 49:670-7. [PMID: 17204299 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2006] [Revised: 11/08/2006] [Accepted: 11/13/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The venoms of Bothrops asper (BaV) and Bothrops jararaca (BjV), two of the most medically important poisonous snakes of Latin America, cause pronounced oedema in the victims through poorly understood mechanisms. In the present study, we examined the possible role of cyclooxygenases (COX) in the genesis of mouse paw oedema caused by BaV and BjV injections. BaV at 2.5 microg/paw and BjV at 0.75 microg/paw induced significant oedema that persisted for up to 6h following subplantar injection. Treatment with indomethacin (2 mg/kg), rofecoxib, (10 mg/kg), or dexamethasone (2 mg/kg) significantly reduced the BaV- and BjV-induced oedema formation. Treatment with SC-560 (30 mg/kg) significantly reduced the oedema formation induced by BjV but had no effect on that induced by BaV. Both venoms induced significant increases in the levels of prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) and the expression of COX-1 and COX-2 in paw tissue. The peak of oedema formation and PGE(2) release correlated with marked expression of COX-2 in the paw tissue. These results demonstrate that injection of BaV and BjV results in a rapid increase in oedema formation that is, at least partially, mediated by arachidonic acid metabolites formed by COX-2. In the case of BjV, COX-1-derived prostanoids also appear to contribute significantly to the inflammatory changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renata do A Olivo
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Butantan Institute, Avenida Vital Brazil 1500, 05503-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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Dale CS, Pagano RDL, Paccola CC, Pinotti-Guirao T, Juliano MA, Juliano L, Giorgi R. Effect of the C-terminus of murine S100A9 protein on experimental nociception. Peptides 2006; 27:2794-802. [PMID: 16920226 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2006.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2006] [Revised: 07/04/2006] [Accepted: 07/06/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Calcium-binding protein S100A9 induces antinociception in mice evaluated by the writhing test. Similarly, a peptide identical to the C-terminus of murine S100A9 (mS100A9p) inhibits the hyperalgesia induced by jararhagin, a metalloprotease. Thus, we investigated the effect of mS100A9p on different models used to evaluate nociception. mS100A9p induced a dose-dependent inhibitory effect on the writhing test, and on mechanical hyperalgesia induced by carrageenan. mS100A9p inhibited thermal hyperalgesia induced by carrageenan. mS100A9p did not modify the nociceptive response in hot plate or tail-flick tests. These data demonstrate that the C-terminus of S100A9 protein interferes with control mechanisms of inflammatory pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camila Squarzoni Dale
- Laboratory of Pathophysiology, Butantan Institute, Av. Vital Brazil 1500, São Paulo, SP 05503-900, Brazil
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Dale CS, Cenac N, Britto LRG, Juliano MA, Juliano L, Vergnolle N, Giorgi R. The C-terminus of murine S100A9 protein inhibits hyperalgesia induced by the agonist peptide of protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR2). Br J Pharmacol 2006; 149:374-84. [PMID: 16967049 PMCID: PMC1978433 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0706884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE S100A9 protein induces anti-nociception in rodents, in different experimental models of inflammatory pain. Herein, we investigated the effects of a fragment of the C-terminus of S100A9 (mS100A9p), on the hyperalgesia induced by serine proteases, through the activation of protease-activated receptor-2 (PAR2). EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia induced by PAR2 agonists (SLIGRL-NH2 and trypsin) was measured in rats submitted to the paw pressure or plantar tests, and Egr-1 expression was determined by immunohistochemistry in rat spinal cord dorsal horn. Calcium flux in human embryonic kidney cells (HEK), which naturally express PAR2, in Kirsten virus-transformed kidney cells, transfected (KNRK-PAR2) or not (KNRK) with PAR2, and in mouse dorsal root ganglia neurons (DRG) was measured by fluorimetric methods. KEY RESULTS mS100A9p inhibited mechanical hyperalgesia induced by trypsin, without modifying its enzymatic activity. Mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia induced by SLIGRL-NH2 were inhibited by mS100A9p. SLIGRL-NH2 enhanced Egr-1 expression, a marker of nociceptor activation, and this effect was inhibited by concomitant treatment with mS100A9p. mS100A9p inhibited calcium mobilization in DRG neurons in response to the PAR2 agonists trypsin and SLIGRL-NH2, but also in response to capsaicin and bradykinin, suggesting a direct effect of mS100A9 on sensory neurons. No effect on the calcium flux induced by trypsin or SLIGRL in HEK cells or KNRK-PAR2 cells was observed. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS These data demonstrate that mS100A9p interferes with mechanisms involved in nociception and hyperalgesia and modulates, possibly directly on sensory neurons, the PAR2-induced nociceptive signal.
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Affiliation(s)
- C S Dale
- Laboratory of Pathophysiology, Butantan Institute São Paulo, Brazil
| | - N Cenac
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Calgary Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - L R G Britto
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo São Paulo, Brazil
| | - M A Juliano
- Department of Biophysics, Pharmacology Institute, Federal University of São Paulo São Paulo, Brazil
| | - L Juliano
- Department of Biophysics, Pharmacology Institute, Federal University of São Paulo São Paulo, Brazil
| | - N Vergnolle
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Calgary Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Author for correspondence:
| | - R Giorgi
- Laboratory of Pathophysiology, Butantan Institute São Paulo, Brazil
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Bonavita AGC, da Costa AS, Pires ALA, Neves-Ferreira AGC, Perales J, Cordeiro RSB, Martins MA, e Silva PMR. Contribution of mast cells and snake venom metalloproteinases to the hyperalgesia induced by Bothrops jararaca venom in rats. Toxicon 2006; 47:885-93. [PMID: 16730041 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2005] [Revised: 02/24/2006] [Accepted: 02/24/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Bothrops jararaca venom (Bjv) is known to induce local inflammation and severe pain. Since, mast cells are able to secrete mediators involved in algesic processes, in this study we examined the putative role of these cells in the hyperalgesia triggered by Bjv in the rat paw. We noted that treatment with mast cell stabilizer sodium cromoglicate as well as with histamine and 5-hydroxytriptamine receptor antagonists meclizine and methysergide, respectively, inhibited the Bjv-induced hyperalgesia. In addition, we showed that stimulation of isolated rat peritoneal mast cells with Bjv in vitro resulted in the release of stored and neo-generated inflammatory mediators such as histamine and leukotriene C(4), respectively. Bjv-induced histamine secretion was clearly sensitive to treatment with sodium cromoglicate and sodium nedocromil. We further observed that metalloproteinase inhibitors 1,10-phenantroline and DM43 inhibited mast cell degranulation in vitro, under conditions where inhibitors of phospholipase A(2) as well as of serine- and cysteine-proteinases were inactive. Altogether, our findings indicate that mast cells seem to contribute to the hyperalgesia caused by Bjv in the rat paw, and also provide evidence that this response might be dependent on the ability of the Bjv to activate directly mast cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- André Gustavo C Bonavita
- Laboratory of Inflammation, Department of Physiology and Pharmacodynamics, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Av. Brasil, CEP 21040-900, 4365 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Abstract
Jararhagin is a 52 kDa hemorrhagic P-III metalloproteinase isolated from the venom of the medically important Brazilian pit-viper Bothrops jararaca. It is a member of the reprolysin family of zinc metalloproteinases containing a catalytic metalloproteinase domain followed by a disintegrin-like and a cysteine-rich domain. The impact of jararhagin on hemostasis has been extensively studied using in vitro and in vivo model systems as well as in clinical studies. Jararhagin-induced hemorrhage is the result of the degradation of sub-endothelial matrix proteins leading to the disruption of the blood vessel endothelium, with accompanying disturbances in platelet function. The versatility of jararhagin is further demonstrated by its direct action on von Willebrand factor, the degradation of fibrinogen, by its inhibition of platelet adhesion to collagen and by its inability to be affected by the plasma inhibitor alpha(2)-macroglobulin. Collagen-induced platelet aggregation is inhibited by jararhagin though the binding of the molecule to the alpha(2) subunit I domain of the platelet surface alpha(2)beta(1) integrin (collagen receptor). Jararhagin also cleaves the beta(1) subunit of the same integrin, inhibiting platelet interaction and ultimately causing impairment of signal transduction. The effect of jararhagin on cell systems other than platelets is evaluated; in fibroblasts, jararhagin functions as a collagen-mimetic substrate and, in endothelial cells, it causes apoptosis and indirectly inhibits cell proliferation by release of angiostatin-like compounds. Jararhagin induces a strong pro-inflammatory response characterized by intense leukocyte accumulation at the site of the injection. Although hemorrhage and edema are a response to the direct effect of jararhagin, jararhagin-induced inflammation and necrosis are dependent on macrophages and key pro-inflammatory cytokines or their receptors. Some data also indicate that the toxin possesses anti-tumorgenic properties. Methods for inhibiting jararhagin are reviewed; this encompasses the use of synthetic peptides to the isolation of naturally occurring mammalian peptides and the development of toxin-specific antibodies through DNA immunisation and monoclonal antibody technologies. The availability of jararhagin makes it an important tool for research into the mechanisms of action of similar toxins, for insights into cellular interactions and for clinical investigations into the treatment of envenomings from B. jararaca.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gavin D Laing
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, UK
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