Association between physiological stress load and diet quality patterns differs between male and female adults

Association between urinary catecholamines and glucocorticoids and bone mineral density and osteoporosis in Puerto Rican adults

Chronic stress leads to elevated stress hormones, which may be linked to bone breakdown. Puerto Rican adults living on the US mainland have higher prevalence of stress than the general population, and higher and/or similar prevalence of osteoporosis compared with non-Hispanic Whites. The role of stress on bone remains unclear and may be modified by diet. A Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) pattern, as a measure of dietary quality, was most protective for bone outcomes among Puerto Ricans. In this cross-sectional study, 958 Boston Puerto Rican Health Study participants were included (aged: 59.9 ± 7.6 yr). Stress markers (epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol) were collected via 12-h urine samples and elevated concentrations were categorized using sex-specific cutoffs. BMD was assessed via DXA. Analysis of covariance models with least squares means were used to test differences in mean BMD between participants with elevated and non-elevated stress markers. Multivariable logistic regression examined associations between stress markers and osteoporosis in postmenopausal females and males. Models were adjusted for age, height, smoking, alcohol use, education, glucocorticoid use, and diabetes. Higher urinary epinephrine was associated with lower BMD at the LS (p = .012), FN (p = .005), trochanter (p < .001), and TH (p < .001) in Puerto Rican adults, and with higher odds of osteoporosis among males (odds ratio = 4.01 [95%CI: 1.11, 14.5], p = .03). An interaction between DASH and norepinephrine was noted for postmenopausal females at the LS. No associations were noted for norepinephrine or cortisol (p > .11), although higher urinary norepinephrine was associated with lower LS BMD in postmenopausal females not taking estrogen, with lower adherence to DASH (p = .03). Higher urinary epinephrine and norepinephrine were associated with poorer bone outcomes in Puerto Rican adults, in a sex-specific manner, warranting future longitudinal studies to clarify associations. Dietary quality may moderate these associations.

Association of Healthy Eating Index-2015 Total and Component Scores with Measures of Inflammation and Immune Activation in Healthy Adults

BACKGROUND

The Healthy Eating Index (HEI)-2015 measures diet quality and is associated with a lower risk of death from chronic disease. Dietary components may affect health via multiple mechanisms, including decreasing inflammation and affecting immune activation.

OBJECTIVE

We hypothesized that the overall HEI-2015 score, or individual component scores, would be associated with altered inflammation and immune activation in healthy adults.

METHODS

The association of HEI-2015 scores with 88 inflammation and immune activation markers was examined in 346 adults without diagnosed disease using general linear models to adjust for covariates, including visceral fat mass index (VFMI).

RESULTS

The overall HEI-2015 score was inversely associated with plasma C-reactive protein (CRP) and leukocyte concentrations, which are markers of inflammation, but these associations lost statistical significance with adjustment for VFMI. However, even with VFMI adjustment, the total vegetable score was inversely associated with total lymphocyte concentration (β = -0.157 ± 0.052, P = 0.019) and with monocyte and neutrophil activation (e.g., classic monocyte CD11b β = -0.153 ± 0.055, P = 0.030; neutrophil CD11b β = -0.122 ± 0.051, P = 0.049). The refined grain score was inversely associated with percent NK-T cells (β =-0.171 ± 0.058, P = 0.037), IL-10 production by T cells (β = -0.204 ± 0.057, P = 0.0039), and positively associated with plasma soluble CD14 (β = 0.220 ± 0.059, P = 0.0041). The total dairy score was positively associated with production of multiple cytokines by lipopolysaccharide-stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells [e.g., interleukin (IL)-1β β = 0.182 ± 0.054, P = 0.0066].

CONCLUSIONS

Adjustment for VFMI decreased the association of HEI-2015 with inflammation, consistent with the known role of adiposity in mediating effects of poor diet on inflammation. This study also identified component scores associated with various aspects of immune activation that bear further study to clarify possible health benefits. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02367287.

Association of Vitamin D Status with Immune Markers in a Cohort of Healthy Adults

BACKGROUND

Immune function is affected by vitamin D status, but the optimal serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D [25(OH)D] concentration for immune function is not known.

OBJECTIVES

We hypothesized that 25(OH)D would be associated with markers of inflammation and immune activation.

METHODS

We identified associations between 25(OH)D and immune markers from 361 healthy adults using polynomial regression. Linear regression was used to define the slope (β) of significant linear associations, and piecewise regression identified inflection points (IPs) for curvilinear associations with P < 0.05. IPs with a slope difference (SD) P < 0.05 before and after were significant.

RESULTS

25(OH)D had linear, negative associations with interleukin (IL)-6 (β: -0.126; P = 0.009) and macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC) (β: -0.108; P = 0.04) and a linear, positive association with matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-1 (β: 0.108; P = 0.04). Among the significant curvilinear associations, 2 showed negative associations below but positive associations above an IP with nearly significant SD P values, including percentage of effector-memory CD8 T cells (IP: 56.2 nmol/L; SD P = 0.067) and platelet concentration (IP: 38.9 nmol/L; SD P = 0.058). The opposite associations, positive below and negative above an IP, were seen for eotaxin (IP: 49.5 nmol/L; SD P = 0.049); interferon (IFN)-γ-induced protein-10 (IP-10) (IP: 71.8 nmol/L; SD P = 0.02); percentage of CD4 T cells expressing programmed cell death protein (PD)-1 (IP: 71.2 nmol/L; SD P = 0.01); percentage of Tregs expressing human leukocyte antigen, DR isotype (HLA-DR) (IP: 67.5 nmol/L; SD P < 0.0001); percentage of memory Tregs (IP: 68.8 nmol/L; SD P = 0.002); and percentage of memory Tregs expressing HLA-DR (IP: 68.8 nmol/L; SD P = 0.0008).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings are consistent with low vitamin D status allowing and higher vitamin D status dampening inflammation and immune activation. IP analysis identified possible thresholds for vitamin D effects on immune function. Two of 3 IPs at ∼50 nmol/L show higher inflammation below this concentration, suggesting 50 nmol/L as a minimum target for dampening inflammation. IPs at ∼70 nmol/L identify a threshold for CD4 T-cell activity, including Treg activation and IFN-γ-driven production of the T-cell chemokine IP-10, suggesting an optimal concentration for regulating adaptive immunity. This study was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02367287.

Higher Dietary Inflammatory Index Score Is Associated With a Greater Risk of High Allostatic Load in US Adults: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2017-2020

BACKGROUND

Allostatic load (AL) is a comprehensive indicator of chronic stress. Foods with pro-inflammatory properties can increase the risk of elevated AL levels. However, no studies have explored the association between AL and dietary inflammation.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between Dietary Inflammatory Index (DII) scores and AL.

DESIGN

This cross-sectional study examined dietary data from 24-hour dietary recalls and biomarkers associated with AL in adult participants 18 years and older from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2017-2020).

PARTICIPANTS/SETTING

The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey examines a nationally representative sample of approximately 5000 individuals each year. A total of 15 560 participants were surveyed during the 2017-2020 period, and 1577 participants were ultimately included in this study.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Twenty-six dietary components were selected to calculate the DII, and 10 biomarkers representing the cardiovascular, metabolic, and immune systems were chosen to calculate the AL.

STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED

Logistic regression and linear regression analyses were used to investigate the relationship between DII and AL and between each biomarker. Subgroup analyses were conducted based on sociodemographic variables, including age, sex, race and ethnicity, and BMI.

RESULTS

The risk of high AL was 1.53 times higher in those with DII scores in the highest quartile than in those with DII scores in the lowest quartile (odds ratio [OR] 1.53; 95% CI 1.00 to 2.36; Ptrend = .04). For each unit increase in DII, the probability of having high AL increased by 11% (OR 1.11; 95% CI 1.01 to 1.21; Ptrend = .03). Higher DII scores were significantly associated with higher systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, pulse, waist-to-hip ratio, and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein levels. Higher DII scores were also significantly associated with lower total cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels (P < .05). The association between DII score and AL was more pronounced in women (ORQuartile3vs1 2.04; 95% CI 1.15 to 3.61; ORQuartile4vs1 2.07; 95% CI 1.18 to 3.62; Ptrend = .01) and in those with a BMI < 24.9 (ORQuartile3vs1 4.74; 95% CI 1.21 to 18.05; Ptrend = .03).

CONCLUSIONS

This study found that higher DII scores were associated with greater risk of high AL. Further research with more rigorous study designs is needed to build on these results and evaluate the effect of diets with low inflammatory potential (low DII scores) on AL.

Specific circulating miRNAs are associated with plasma lipids in a healthy American cohort

Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c) is both a therapeutic target and a risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD). MicroRNA (miRNA) has been shown to regulate cholesterol homeostasis, and miRNA in blood circulation has been linked to hypercholesterolemia. However, few studies to date have associated miRNA with phenotypes like LDL-c in a healthy population. To this end, we analyzed circulating miRNA in relation to LDL-c in a healthy cohort of 353 participants using two separate bioinformatic approaches. The first approach found that miR-15b-5p and miR-16-5p were upregulated in individuals with at-risk levels of LDL-c. The second approach identified two miRNA clusters, one that positively and a second that negatively correlated with LDL-c. Included in the cluster that positively correlated with LDL-c were miR-15b-5p and miR-16-5p, as well as other miRNA from the miR-15/107, miR-30, and let-7 families. Cross-species analyses suggested that several miRNAs that associated with LDL-c are conserved between mice and humans. Finally, we examined the influence of diet on circulating miRNA. Our results robustly linked circulating miRNA with LDL-c, suggesting that miRNA could be used as biomarkers for hypercholesterolemia or targets for developing cholesterol-lowering drugs.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study explored the association between circulating microRNA (miRNA) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c) in a healthy population of 353 participants. Two miRNAs, miR-15b-5p and miR-16-5p, were upregulated in individuals with at-risk LDL-c levels. Several miRNA clusters were positively and negatively correlated with LDL-c and are known to target mRNA involved in lipid metabolism. The study also investigated the influence of diet on circulating miRNA, suggesting potential biomarkers for hypercholesterolemia.

Lateralization of the 5-HT1A receptors in the basolateral amygdala in metabolic and anxiety responses to chronic restraint stress

Behavioral and functional studies describe hemispheric asymmetry in anxiety and metabolic behaviors in responses to stress. However, no study has reported serotonergic receptor (the 5-HT1A receptor) lateralization in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) in vivo on anxiety and metabolic behaviors under stress. In the present study, the effect of unilateral and bilateral suppression of the 5-HT1A receptor in the BLA on anxiety, and metabolic responses to chronic restraint stress was assessed. Male Wistar rats 7 days after cannulation into the BLA received chronic restraint stress for 14 consecutive days. 20 minutes before induction of stress, WAY-100-635 (selective 5-HT1A antagonist) or sterile saline (vehicle) was administered either uni- or bi-laterally into the BLA. Behavioral (elevated plus maze; EPM, and open field test), and metabolic parameter studies were performed. Results showed that stress causes a significant increase in weight gain compared to control. In the non-stress condition, the left and bilaterally, and in the stress condition the right, left, and both sides, inhibition of 5-HT1A in the BLA reduced weight gain. In the restraint stress condition, only inhibition of the 5-HT1A receptor in the left BLA led to decreased food intake compared to the control group. In stress conditions, inhibition of the 5-HT1A receptor on the right, left, and bilateral BLA increased water intake compared to the stress group. Inhibition of the 5-HT1A receptor on the left side of the BLA by WAY-100-635 induced anxiety-like behaviors in stressed rats. Similarly, WAY-100-635 on the left BLA effectively caused anxiety-like behaviors in both EPM and open field tests in the control animals. In conclusion, it seems that 5-HT1A receptors in the left BLA are more responsible for anxiety-like behaviors and metabolic changes in responses to stress.

Association of intestinal bacteria with immune activation in a cohort of healthy adults

IMPORTANCE

Chronic inflammation may develop over time in healthy adults as a result of a variety of factors, such as poor diet directly affecting the composition of the intestinal microbiome, or by causing obesity, which may also affect the intestinal microbiome. These effects may trigger the activation of an immune response that could eventually lead to an inflammation-related disease, such as colon cancer. Before disease develops it may be possible to identify subclinical inflammation or immune activation attributable to specific intestinal bacteria normally found in the gut that could result in future adverse health impacts. In the present study, we examined a group of healthy men and women across a wide age range with and without obesity to determine which bacteria were associated with particular types of immune activation to identify potential preclinical markers of inflammatory disease risk. Several associations were found that may help develop dietary interventions to lower disease risk.

A Diet Pattern Characterized by Sugar-Sweetened Beverages Is Associated with Lower Decision-Making Performance in the Iowa Gambling Task, Elevated Stress Exposure, and Altered Autonomic Nervous System Reactivity in Men and Women

The executive brain mediates and facilitates a set of cognitive functions, such as decision making, planning, self-regulation, emotional regulation, and attention. Executive dysfunction and related diseases are a rising public health concern. Evidence supports a link between nutritional factors and executive function (EF), but relatively little information exists about the relationship between diet patterns and this higher order cognitive ability. We and others have reported on the relationships between body weight regulation and affective decision making, as measured by performance in the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). However, little is known about the relationships between performance in this decision-making task and whole diet patterns. In this study, we tested whether data-derived diet patterns based on energy-adjusted food intake data from the Block Food Frequency Questionnaire were associated with decision-making performance in the IGT. Secondarily, we examined the influence of these diet patterns on self-reported chronic stress exposure and heart rate variability, which is a marker of autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity. In prior studies, stress and ANS activity were shown to influence decision-making performance in the IGT. In this study, five distinct diet patterns were identified by cluster and factor analyses. A diet pattern best characterized by elevated sugar-sweetened beverage and added sugar consumption was associated with the lowest decision-making performance (p = 0.0049) and higher stress exposure (p = 0.0097). This same diet pattern was associated (p = 0.0374) with an IGT-affiliated decline in high-frequency HRV and an increase in low-frequency HRV, suggesting diet-induced ANS regulatory shifts in response to performing the EF task. Compared to the sugar-sweetened beverage diet pattern, diet patterns defined by more fruits/vegetables and low red meat (p = 0.0048) or higher omega-3 fatty acids and seafood (p = 0.0029) consumption were associated with lower chronic stress exposure. All outcomes were statistically adjusted for differences in BMI, age, sex, education level, and sensorimotor ability. Our findings provide new information that further supports the potential importance of whole diet patterns on cognitive disease prevention.

Effects of a genetic variant rs13266634 in the zinc transporter 8 gene (SLC30A8) on insulin and lipid levels before and after a high-fat mixed macronutrient tolerance test in U.S. adults

BACKGROUND

The common C-allele of rs13266634 (c.973C>T or p.Arg325Trp) in SLC30A8 (ZNT8) is associated with increased risk of type 2 diabetes. While previous studies have examined the correlation of the variant with insulin and glucose metabolism, the effects of this variant on insulin and lipid responses after a lipid challenge in humans remain elusive. The goal of this study was to determine whether the C-allele had an impact on an individual's risk to metabolic syndromes in U.S. adults.

METHOD

We studied the genotypes of rs13266634 in 349 individuals aged between 18 and 65 y with BMI ranging from 18.5 to 45 kg/m². The subjects were evaluated for insulin, glucose, HbA1c, ghrelin, and lipid profiles before and after a high-fat mixed macronutrient tolerance test (MMTT).

RESULTS

We found that the effects of variants rs13266634 on glucose and lipid metabolism were sex-dimorphic, greater impact on males than on females. Insulin incremental area under the curve (AUC) after MMTT was significantly decreased in men with the CC genotype (p < 0.05). Men with the CC genotype also had the lowest fasting non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) concentrations. On the other hand, the TT genotype was associated with a slower triglyceride removal from the circulation in men after MMTT. The reduced triglyceride removal was also observed in subjects with BMI ≥ 30 carrying either the heterozygous or homozygous T-allele. Nevertheless, the SNP had little effect on fasting or postprandial blood glucose and cholesterol concentrations.

CONCLUSION

We conclude that the CC genotype negatively affects insulin response after MMTT while the T-allele may negatively influence lipolysis during fasting and postprandial blood triglyceride removal in men and obese subjects, a novel finding in this study.

A Scoping Review of Rodent Studies Investigating the Epigenetic Mechanisms in the Brain Underlying the Effects of Diet on Depressive-like Behaviour

A healthy diet has been highly associated with a decreased risk for mental health problems such as major depression. Evidence from human studies shows that diet can influence mood but there is a poor understanding of the molecular mechanisms behind these effects, especially the role of epigenetic alterations in the brain. Our objective was to use the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) format to gather all recent studies using animal models that investigate direct or indirect (on the offspring) effects of diet on depressive symptoms, including studies that assess epigenetic mechanisms in the brain. In this format, two authors conducted independent database searches of PubMed, Web of Science, and Academic search premier using one search block "diet epigenetics depression" to find papers published between 2000 and 2022. Relevant studies were selected using pre-defined inclusion/exclusion criteria that were performed independently by the two authors before a subset of studies were selected for qualitative analysis. A total of 11 studies met the inclusion criteria for this systematic scoping review. We found that the literature focuses primarily on the effects of individual nutrients, instead of a specific diet, on despair-like behaviour and anxiety. Studies are heterogenous with the techniques used to asses epigenetic changes in the brain and therefore making it hard to reach common mechanistic explanations. However, all studies report diet-induced changes in the epigenome mainly by the action of DNA methylation, histone acetylation and microRNAs that are parallelel with changes in behaviour. Moreover studies show that inadequate maternal diets can make the offspring more susceptible to develop anxiety and depressive-like behaviour later in life, which is paralleled with changes in the epigenome. Overall, this systematic review shows that there is some literature suggesting a role of brain epigenetics on the diet-induced protective or detrimental effects, specifically on anxiety and depressive-like behaviour. However, studies are limited, lacking the study of some types of diets, behavioural tasks or epigenetic mechanisms. Nevertherless, it shows the importance of genome-environment interactions, bringing new insights towards mechanisms that could be involved in the pathophysiology of mood disorders as well as putative therapeutic targets.

Associations of microbial and indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase-derived tryptophan metabolites with immune activation in healthy adults

Background

Tryptophan (Trp) metabolites from intestinal bacteria (indole, indole acetic acid [IAA] and indole propionic acid [IPA]), and the Trp metabolite kynurenine (Kyn) from the indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) pathway, are aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) agonists and thus, can regulate immune activity via the AhR pathway. We hypothesized that plasma concentrations of these metabolites would be associated with markers of immune activation in a cohort of healthy adults in a manner consistent with AhR-mediated immune-regulation. We also hypothesized that the plasma Kyn/Trp ratio, a marker of IDO activity, would be associated with immune markers reflecting IDO activation in innate immune cells. Finally, we hypothesized that some intestinal bacteria would be associated with plasma indole, IPA and IAA, and that these bacteria themselves would be associated with immune markers.

Methods

A novel set of 88 immune markers, and plasma Trp metabolites, were measured in 362 healthy adults. Bacterial taxa from stool were identified by 16S rRNA gene analysis. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to identify significant associations with immune markers.

Results

The sum of indole and IAA was positively associated with natural killer T-cells levels. Kyn and Kyn/Trp were positively associated with neopterin and IP-10, markers of type 1 immunity, and TNF-α and C-reactive protein (CRP), markers of the acute phase response, and the regulatory cytokine IL-10. Three bacteria negatively associated with Trp metabolites were associated with markers of immune activation: the family Lachnospiraceae with higher lymphocyte counts but lower level of activated CD4 T-cells, the genus Dorea with higher production of IFN-γ by T-cells in PBMC cultures, and the genus Ruminococcus with higher production IL-6 in PBMC cultures stimulated with bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS).

Conclusions

In this cohort of healthy adults bacterial Trp metabolites were not strongly associated with immune markers. Conversely, the Kyn/Trp ratio was strongly associated with markers of systemic inflammation and the acute phase response, consistent with IDO activation in innate immune cells. Finally, commensal bacteria associated with lower plasma (and perhaps intestinal) levels of bacterial Trp metabolites were associated with greater immune activation, possibly reflecting decreased regulatory immune activity related to lower intestinal levels of bacterial indole metabolites.

Monocyte subsets display age-dependent alterations at fasting and undergo non-age-dependent changes following consumption of a meal

Background

Monocytes are a heterogenous population of immune cells whose subsets and functions become substantially dysregulated with advanced age. Although much of our current understanding of the age-related changes in monocytes is derived from fasting blood samples, most people are predominately in the postprandial state during waking hours. As hormonal, metabolic, and immunological changes in response to the consumption of a meal are manifested in postprandial blood, it’s unclear how age-dependent changes in peripheral monocytes at fasting are impacted by a dietary challenge.

Objective

We investigated the impact of age and meal consumption on circulating monocyte frequencies and subsets defined as classical (CD14 + CD16-), intermediate (CD14 + CD16 +), or non-classical (CD14dim CD16 +) in a cohort of 349 healthy adult volunteers grouped into categories based on their age: young adults (18–33 y, n = 123), middle adults (34–49 y, n = 115), and older adults (50–66 y, n = 111).

Results

Following 12-h fast total monocyte counts inversely correlated with subject age. Older adults had significantly fewer circulating monocytes along with elevated levels of TGs, cholesterol, glucose, IL-6, IL-8, TNF, neopterin, and CCL2 compared with young adults. Circulating monocyte pools in older adults consisted of smaller proportions of classical but larger proportions of intermediate and non-classical monocytes. Proportions of classical monocytes were inversely correlated with plasma TNF, IL-8, and neopterin while intermediate monocytes were positively correlated with plasma IL-6, TNF, and neopterin. Three hours after consuming a fat-containing meal postprandial monocyte counts increased in all age groups. Despite age-dependent differences in monocyte subsets at fasting, consumption of a meal induced similar changes in the proportions of classical and non-classical monocytes across age groups. Within the circulating postprandial monocyte pool, percentages of classical monocytes decreased while non-classical monocytes increased. However no change in precursory intermediate monocytes were detected. Our study confirms that ageing is associated with changes in monocyte frequencies and subsets and shows that consuming a fat-containing meal induces temporal changes in monocyte frequency and subsets independently of subject age.

Clinical trial

Registered on ClincialTrials.gov (Identifier: NCT02367287)

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12979-022-00297-6.

SNPs in apolipoproteins contribute to sex-dependent differences in blood lipids before and after a high-fat dietary challenge in healthy U.S. adults

Background

The effect of genetic polymorphisms on fasting blood lipid levels have been widely studied but the effects of these within the context of a high-fat meal challenge remain less characterized. The current study aimed to investigate the association of SNPs in lipoprotein-related genes with blood lipid profiles in healthy adults in the U.S.

Methods

Subjects (n = 393) between 18–66 years of age with BMIs ranging from 18.5–45 kg/m² were enrolled the cross-sectional Nutritional Phenotyping Study. Among them, 349 subjects (men: 48%; women: 52%) gave consent for genotyping. SNPs in APOA5, APOB, APOC3, APOE, and LDLR were assessed. The association between lipid markers and genotypes was tested separately for each SNP with analysis of variance (ANOVA), adjusted for sex, age, and BMI. We also examined two-factor interactions between SNPs and sex, age, or BMI.

Results

Women carrying the C allele of rs3135506 in APOA5 or men carrying the C allele of rs429358 in APOE had reduced HDL-cholesterol levels during fasting and postprandially. The C allele in APOE was also correlated to increased LDL-C levels. The TT genotype of rs2854116 in APOC3 was associated with elevated total cholesterol. Additive effect of the risk alleles of APOA5 and APOE or APOC3 and APOE was detected. Nevertheless, the tested SNPs had little impact on the postprandial triglyceride responses to the high-fat challenge meal. We found no significant effects of SNPs in APOB (rs1042034) or LDLR (rs2228671) on triglycerides, cholesterol, or free fatty acid levels.

Conclusions

In healthy adults, fasting and postprandial cholesterol levels are strongly correlated with the tested APOA5, APOE, and APOC3 genotypes. Sex contributes to the genetic impact of the tested SNPs on lipid profiles.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02367287. Registered February 20, 2015, https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02367287.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40795-022-00592-x.