Research Note: First report on the detection of necrotic enteritis (NE) B-like toxin in biological samples from NE-afflicted chickens using capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

Valine and isoleucine deficiency in necrotic enteritis challenge impact growth performance, intestinal health, and muscle growth in broilers

Necrotic enteritis (NE), an enteric disease caused by Clostridium perfringens, and antagonistic effects due to dietary branched-chain amino acid (BCAA) imbalance are key factors that negatively affect chicken growth. The current study was conducted to investigate the effects of valine and isoleucine deficiency in NE challenged broilers. A total of 336 seven-d-old male Cobb 500 were allotted to four treatments with six replicates. The four treatments were as follows: (1) non-challenged control (NC; leucine:lysine = 1.31, valine:lysine = 0.73, and isoleucine:lysine = 0.63), (2) NE-challenged group (NE), (3) NE-challenged with 85 % valine deficiency group (NE-VAL; valine:lysine = 0.62), and (4) NE-challenged with 85 % isoleucine deficiency group (NE-ILE; isoleucine:lysine = 0.54). E. maxima and C. perfringens were administered on d 14 and 18, respectively, and the experiment lasted until d 21. The NE-VAL group had the lowest growth performance measurements compared to the other groups (P < 0.001). All NE-challenged groups had significantly reduced overall growth performance measurements compared to the NC group (P < 0.001). The NE-ILE group showed no difference in any of the measurements compared to the NE group. On d 21, the NE group had significantly increased intestinal permeability, jejunal lesion scores, C. perfringens colony counts, and jejunal chemokine and cytokine gene expression levels, along with decreased intestinal morphology compared to the NC group (P < 0.05). The NE-VAL group had significantly decreased breast muscle yield, reduced lean and total tissue weight, and increased expression levels of mechanistic target of rapamycin pathway and BCAA catabolism-related genes compared to the NE group (P < 0.05). This may explain why the NE-VAL group had the lowest growth performance, as the two negative effects of NE infection and valine deficiency are separated. In conclusion, the negative effects of NE challenge and valine deficiency were independent; valine deficiency showed a similar response to that exhibited by high leucine levels, despite reduced feed intake caused by NE challenge.

Vaccination with formulations targeting Eimeria maxima and Clostridium perfringens conferred comprehensive protection using a dual-infection challenge model of necrotic enteritis

With increasing regulations restricting antibiotic use in animal feed, the need for alternative strategies to prevent and manage necrotic enteritis (NE) has become imperative. As a result, developing effective vaccines has emerged as a top priority for broiler chicken health management. Coccidial infections are a well-established predisposing factor for NE, underscoring the importance of controlling coccidiosis to help mitigate NE outbreaks. This research aimed to investigate the protective efficacy of vaccine preparations containing Eimeria maxima elongation factor-1α and a multicomponent antigen cocktail of Clostridium perfringens, including a single collagen adhesion protein (CpCna) and two chimeric proteins: CpNA (NetB-Alpha-toxin) and CpFZ (Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate aldolase-Zinc metalloprotease). Two vaccine preparations-recombinant subunit vaccines and DNA vaccines-were developed to assess their immunoprotective effects, determined by relative body weight gain rate, lesion scores, survival rates, and antigen-specific IgY levels using a dual-infection NE challenge model involving E. maxima and C. perfringens. Broilers were administered two subcutaneous immunizations with either adjuvanted proteins or eukaryotic expression plasmids on Days 7 and 17. Chickens vaccinated with the five antigens exhibited significantly higher serum antigen-specific IgY levels, improved weight gains, zero mortality, and reduced lesion scores following the lethal dual-infection challenge. These results indicated that vaccine preparations targeting both C. perfringens and E. maxima represent a promising approach for controlling and preventing coccidiosis-induced NE in chickens.

The effect of gut microbiota-derived carnosine on mucosal integrity and immunity in broiler chickens challenged with Eimeria maxima

In the first study, an in vitro culture system was developed to investigate the effects of carnosine on macrophage proinflammatory cytokine response using an established chicken macrophage cell line (CMC), gut integrity using a chicken intestinal epithelial cell line (IEC), muscle differentiation in quail muscle cells (QMCs) and primary chicken embryonic muscle cells (PMCs), and direct anti-parasitic effect against Eimeria maxima sporozoites. Cells to be tested were seeded in 24-well plates and treated with carnosine at 4 different concentrations (0.1, 1.0, and 10.0 µg). After 18 h of incubation, cells were harvested to measure gene expression of proinflammatory cytokines in CMC, tight junction (TJ) proteins in IECs, and muscle cell growth markers in QMCs and PMCs. In vivo trials were conducted to investigate the effect of dietary carnosine on disease parameters in broiler chickens challenged with E. maxima. One hundred and twenty male broiler chickens (0-day-old) were allocated into 4 treatment groups: 1) basal diet without infection (NC), 2) basal diet with E. maxima infection (PC), 3) carnosine at 10.0 mg/kg feed with PC (HCS), and 4) carnosine at 1.0 mg/kg feed with PC (LCS). All groups except NC were orally infected with E. maxima on d 14. Jejunal samples were collected for lesion scoring and jejunum gut tissues were used for transcriptomic analysis of cytokines and TJ proteins. In vitro, carnosine treatment significantly decreased IL-1β gene expression in CMC following LPS stimulation. In vivo feeding studies showed that dietary carnosine increased BW and ADG of chickens in E. maxima-infected groups and reduced the jejunal lesion score and fecal oocyst shedding in HCS group. Jejunal IL-1β, IL-8, and IFN-γ expression were suppressed in the HCS group compared to PC. The expression levels of claudin-1 and occludin in IECs were also increased in HCS following carnosine treatment. In conclusion, these findings highlight the beneficial effects of dietary carnosine supplementation on intestinal immune responses and gut barrier function in broiler chickens exposed to E. maxima infection.

Research Note: Clostridium perfringens NetB and CnaA neutralizing nanobodies in feed reduce the incidence of poultry necrotic enteritis

Necrotic enteritis is a devastating disease to poultry caused by the bacterium Clostridium perfringens. As a novel approach to combating poultry necrotic enteritis, we identified and characterized several hundred single domain antibody fragments (or nanobodies) capable of binding either the NetB toxin or the collagen-binding adhesin (CnaA) of C. perfringens. Many of the nanobodies could neutralize the in vitro functions of NetB or CnaA with inhibitory concentrations in the nanomolar range. The nanobodies were also screened for proteolytic stability in an extract derived from gastrointestinal tract fluids of chickens. A collection of 6 nanobodies (4 targeting NetB and 2 targeting CnaA) with high neutralizing activity and high gastrointestinal tract extract stability were expressed and secreted by Pichia pastoris or Bacillus subtilis. Chickens were given a feed with 1 of the 2 nanobody-containing groups: 1) nanobody-containing P. pastoris supernatants that were semi-purified, lyophilized, and enterically coated, or 2) B. subtilis spores from strains containing the nanobody genes. Compared to untreated chickens (23.75% mortality), mortality of chickens receiving feed modified with the P. pastoris and B. subtilis products decreased to 11.25 and 7.5%, respectively. These results offer a new opportunity to improve the control of poultry necrotic enteritis by incorporating highly specific nanobodies or bacteria expressing these nanobodies directly into chicken feed.

Effects of Eimeria maxima infection doses on growth performance and gut health in dual-infection model of necrotic enteritis in broiler chickens

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of the different doses of Eimeria maxima (EM) oocysts on growth performance and intestinal health in broiler chickens challenged with a dual infection model of necrotic enteritis (NE) using EM and NetB+ Clostridium perfringens (CP). A total of 432 fourteen-d-old male Cobb 500 broiler chickens were divided into 6 groups with 6 replicates each. The six different groups were as follows: Control, non-challenged; T0+, challenged with CP at 1 × 109 colony forming unit; T5K+, T0+ + 5,000 EM oocysts; T10K+, T0+ + 10,000 EM oocysts; T20K+; T0+ + 20,000 EM oocysts; and T40K+; T0+ + 40,000 EM oocysts. The challenge groups were orally inoculated with EM strain 41A on d 14, followed by NetB+ CP strain Del-1 on 4 days post inoculation (dpi). Increasing EM oocysts decreased d 21 body weight, body weight gain, feed intake (linear and quadratic, p < 0.001), and feed efficiency (linear, p < 0.001) from 0 to 7 dpi. Increasing EM oocysts increased jejunal NE lesion score and intestinal permeability on 5, 6, and 7 dpi (linear, p < 0.05). On 7 dpi, increasing the infection doses of EM oocysts increased jejunal CP colony counts (linear, p < 0.05) and increased fecal EM oocyst output (linear and quadratic, p < 0.001). Furthermore, increasing the infection doses of EM oocysts decreased the villus height to crypt depth ratios and the goblet cell counts (linear, p < 0.05) on 6 dpi. Increasing EM oocysts downregulated the expression of MUC2, B0AT, B0,+AT, PepT1, GLUT2, AvBD3 and 9, LEAP2, and TLR4, while upregulating CLDN1, CATHL3, IL-1β, IFN-γ, TNFSF15, TNF-α, IL-10, and Gam56 and 82 on 6 dpi (linear, p < 0.05). Additionally, increasing EM oocysts decreased Pielou's evenness and Shannon's entropy (linear, p < 0.01). In conclusion, increasing the infection doses of EM significantly aggravated the severity of NE and exerted negative impact on intestinal health from 5 to 7 dpi.

Development of a new immunodiagnostic tool for poultry coccidiosis using an antigen-capture sandwich assay based on monoclonal antibodies detecting an immunodominant antigen of Eimeria

This study was conducted to develop an antigen-capture ELISA that detects an immunodominant antigen of Eimeria, 3-1E which is present in all Eimeria species, using a set of 3-1E-specific mouse monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). Highly sensitive 3-1E-specific antigen-capture ELISA was established using compatible mAb pairs (#318 and #320) selected from 6 mAbs (#312, #317, #318, #319, #320, and #323) with high binding activity against recombinant 3-1E protein. These anti-3-1E mAbs specifically recognized E. tenella sporozoites and a higher level of 3-1E was detected in the lysate of sporozoites than in sporocysts. Immunofluorescence assay (IFA) using 2 mAbs (#318 and #320) showed specific staining around the membrane of E. tenella sporozoites. In order to measure the changes in the 3-1E level during in coccidiosis, serum, feces, jejunal, and cecal contents were individually collected daily for 7-days postinfection (dpi) with E. maxima and E. tenella. The new ELISA was sensitive and specific for 3-1E detection in all samples collected daily from E. maxima- and E. tenella-infected chickens for a week, and the detection sensitivity ranges were 2 to 5 ng/mL and 1 to 5 ng/mL in serum, 4 to 25 ng/mL and 4 to 30 ng/mL in feces, 1 to 3 ng/mL and 1 to 10 ng/mL in cecal contents, and 3 to 65 ng/mL and 4 to 22 ng/mL in jejunal contents. Following coccidiosis, the overall 3-1E levels started to increase from 4 dpi, and the highest production was shown on 5 dpi. Among the samples collected from Eimeria-infected chickens, the highest detection level was found in the jejunal contents of E. maxima-infected chickens. Furthermore, the level of IFN-γ in serum was significantly (P < 0.05) increased from 3 dpi and peaked on 5 dpi post E. maxima infection. Post E. tenella infection, the level of IFN-γ in serum gradually (P < 0.05) increased from 2 to 5 dpi and plateaued at 7 dpi. The level of TNF-α in serum was rapidly (P < 0.05) increased from 4 dpi and those levels were kept until 7 dpi post both Eimeria infections (E. maxima and E. tenella). More importantly, the daily changes in the 3-1E levels in different samples from E. maxima- and E. tenella-infected chickens were effectively monitored with this new antigen-capture ELISA. Therefore, this new immunoassay is a sensitive diagnostic tool to monitor coccidiosis in a large field population in the commercial poultry farms before clinical symptoms develop using serum, feces, and gut samples during the entire period of infection cycle starting from 1 d after infection.

Collagen adhesin protein and necrotic enteritis B-like toxin as biomarkers for early diagnosis of necrotic enteritis in commercial broiler chickens

Mouse monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) reactive with Clostridium perfringens collagen adhesin protein (CNA) and necrotic enteritis B-like toxin (NetB) were developed. The best capture/detection mAb pairs for CNA and NetB were selected based on their affinity and specificity to develop sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) to detect CNA and NetB proteins, respectively, in jejunal digesta samples from commercial broiler farms in the United States. Prior to the analysis of samples from commercial broiler flocks, the specificity and sensitivity of the CNA and NetB ELISAs were validated using sera, jejunal digesta, and fecal samples from chickens coinfected with Eimeria maxima and CNA+/NetB+C. perfringens in an animal model of necrotic enteritis (NE). Subsequently, a total of 251 field samples were collected from 74 commercial poultry farms. Among these, 18 samples were from 6 broiler farms that used certified organics (CO), and 155 samples were from 42 farms with nonantibiotics (NA). In jejunal digesta samples, CNA levels ranged from 0.02 to 0.59 ng/mL and NetB levels ranged from 0.09 to 1.91 ng/mL. CNA and NetB levels showed a positive correlation with each other (Pearson correlation coefficient r = 0.772, P < 0.001). CNA and NetB levels in jejunal digesta were significantly decreased in CO farms compared with those from NA farms (P < 0.001). In conclusion, these new C. perfringens antigen-specific sandwich ELISAs offer a sensitive and specific means to detect C. perfringens CNA and NetB proteins as biomarkers of early NE occurrence in field samples from commercial broiler chickens.

The Effect of Necrotic Enteritis Challenge on Production Performance, Cecal Microbiome, and Cecal Tonsil Transcriptome in Broilers

The objective of this study was to identify the effects of experimental necrotic enteritis (NE) infection on the production performance, gut microbiome, and cecal tonsil transcriptome in broiler birds. A total of 192 chicks were not-induced (control) or induced with NE. NE was induced by inoculating Eimeria maxima at 14 d of age and Clostridium perfringens at 19, 20, and 21 d of age. NE challenge increased (p < 0.01) NE lesion score at 7 days post-E.maxima infection (dpi), decreased (p < 0.01) average weight gain and increased (p < 0.01) mortality at 7 and 14 dpi. NE challenge increased (p < 0.05) gut permeability at 5, 6, and 7 dpi and increased ileal C. perfringens load at 5 dpi. NE challenge increased (p < 0.01) Eimeria oocyst shedding at 5, 6, 7, 8 and 14 dpi. NE challenge decreased (p < 0.05) the relative abundance of Lactobacillaceae and increased (p < 0.05) the relative abundance of Campylobacteriaceae, Comamonadaceae, and Ruminococcaceae at 6 dpi. NE challenge upregulated (p < 0.05) genes related to immune response and downregulated (p < 0.05) genes related to lipid metabolism at 6 dpi. It can be concluded that NE infection decreased beneficial bacteria and increased gut permeability.

Role of Clostridium perfringens Necrotic Enteritis B-like Toxin in Disease Pathogenesis

Necrotic enteritis (NE) is a devastating enteric disease caused by Clostridium perfringens type A/G that impacts the global poultry industry by compromising the performance, health, and welfare of chickens. Coccidiosis is a major contributing factor to NE. Although NE pathogenesis was believed to be facilitated by α-toxin, a chromosome-encoded phospholipase C enzyme, recent studies have indicated that NE B-like (NetB) toxin, a plasmid-encoded pore-forming heptameric protein, is the primary virulence factor. Since the discovery of NetB toxin, the occurrence of NetB⁺ C. perfringens strains has been increasingly reported in NE-afflicted poultry flocks globally. It is generally accepted that NetB toxin is the primary virulent factor in NE pathogenesis although scientific evidence is emerging that suggests other toxins contribute to NE. Because of the complex nature of the host-pathogen interaction in NE pathogenesis, the interaction of NetB with other potential virulent factors of C. perfringens needs better characterization. This short review will summarize the primary virulence factors involved in NE pathogenesis with an emphasis on NetB toxin, and a new detection method for large-scale field screening of NetB toxin in biological samples from NE-afflicted commercial broiler flocks.

A Rapid and Simple Assay Correlates In Vitro NetB Activity with Clostridium perfringens Pathogenicity in Chickens

Necrotic enteritis is an important enteric disease in poultry, caused by NetB-producing Clostridium (C.) perfringens strains. As no straight-forward method to assess the NetB activity of C. perfringens was available, we aimed to develop an easy, high-throughput method to measure the NetB activity produced by C. perfringens. First, the appearance of C. perfringens on different avian blood agar plates was assessed. Based on the size of the haemolysis surrounding the C. perfringens colonies, NetB-positive strains could phenotypically be discriminated from NetB-negative strains on both chicken and duck blood agar. Additionally, strains producing the consensus NetB protein induced more pronounced haemolysis on chicken blood agar as compared to the weak outer haemolysis induced by A168T NetB-variant-producing C. perfringens strains. Next, a 96-well plate-based haemolysis assay to screen NetB activity in the C. perfringens culture supernatants was developed. Using this assay, a positive correlation between the in vitro NetB activity and virulence of the C. perfringens strains was shown. The developed activity assay allows us to screen novel C. perfringens isolates for their in vitro NetB activity, which could give valuable information on their disease-inducing potential, or identify molecules and (bacterial) metabolites that affect NetB expression and activity.