Mycotoxin analyses in some home produced eggs in Belgium reveal small contribution to the total daily intake

Simultaneous determination of 17 regulated and non-regulated Fusarium mycotoxins co-occurring in foodstuffs by UPLC-MS/MS with solid-phase extraction

Fusarium species produce numerous mycotoxins known to co-occur in food. While some of these mycotoxins (e.g., deoxynivalenol, fumonisins) are regulated in several countries, others are non-regulated (e.g., nivalenol, beauvericin). In this study, UPLC-MS/MS with solid-phase extraction cleanup was used to determine 17 Fusarium mycotoxins (FTs) simultaneously. The method showed excellent performance in terms of linearity (R2 > 0.99), LOD (<1.2 μg/kg), LOQ (<3.6 μg/kg), accuracy (70.0-116.3 %), repeatability (<15.7 %), reproducibility (<25.3 %), and expanded uncertainty (<41.7 %). The validated method was successfully applied to 198 marketed food samples collected in South Korea. Of the tested samples, 79 % were contaminated with at least one FT. Job's tears showed the highest prevalence of 14 FTs, and sorghum had the highest total FTs level (3.03 mg/kg). The results suggest that this method can be used for the simultaneous analysis of 17 FTs in food samples, which would serve as crucial information for risk management.

Effects of wheat varieties, fungicides and application time on Fusarium head blight and deoxynivalenol contamination control in wheat

BACKGROUND

Yield loss and toxin contamination caused by wheat Fusarium head blight (FHB) have always been a worldwide concern. Cultivating disease-resistant varieties and fungicide application are effective measures to control FHB. The comprehensive control technology system for FHB and toxin contamination of wheat in Anhui Province needs further improvement. This study compared the control efficacy of different wheat varieties, fungicides and application times on wheat FHB and deoxynivalenol (DON) contamination, and the dynamic change of DON accumulation after application.

RESULTS

Among the 93 main wheat varieties in Anhui Province, the disease-resistant and low-toxic wheat variety "Ningmai 26" was more suitable for planting in the central part of Anhui Province. At the same time, "Yangmai 22" was used for subsequent experiments. The field efficacy trials of different fungicides showed that 30% prothioconazole oil dispersion (OD) had the highest control efficacy on FHB and DON contamination, reaching 94.33 and 77.49%, respectively. The study on the optimum application time of prothioconazole showed that the 0-20% flowering stage was the key point of DON control. The survey of the dynamic changes of DON accumulation showed that prothioconazole could significantly reduce the level of DON accumulation while inhibiting the accumulation rate of DON. At the same time, the control fungicide carbendazim increased the level of DON contamination.

CONCLUSION

This study will provide excellent germplasm resources for cultivating disease-resistant and low-toxic wheat varieties, and provide a theoretical reference for establishing a collaborative prevention and control system of disease control and toxin reduction. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effect of novel botanical synergist on the effectiveness and residue behavior of prothioconazole in wheat field

Fusarium head blight (FHB) is a critical fungal disease causes serious grain yield losses and mycotoxin contaminations. Currently, utilization of chemical fungicides is the main control method which has led to serious resistance. Development of novel synergist is an important strategy to reduce the usage of chemical fungicides and postpone the development of resistance, while natural components are interesting resources. In this study, the synergistic effect of Taxodium 'zhongshansha' essential oil (TZEO) was determined and the best synergistic ratio (SR) of 3.96 in laboratory which was observed when the weight ratio of TZEO and prothioconazole was 1 : 1 with the corresponding EC50 (half maximal effective concentration) value of Fusarium graminearum was 0.280 mg L-1. Subsequently, an increase of 6.31% on the control effect to FHB index in field test was observed when compared to the treatment with prothioconazole alone, though there was no significant difference between these treatments. Furthermore, we established an effective method to detect the mycotoxin contaminations in wheat grain with the limits of quantifications (LOQs) value of 5 µg kg-1 (DON, ZEN, 3-DON, and 15-DON) and 1 µg kg-1 (OTA) and the contents were less to the maximum residue limit (MRL) values. It was also shown that the application of 20% TZEO EW led to a 20% reduction in the use of prothioconazole, which was calculated based on the control effect values of 86.41% and 90.20% between the treatments of 30% prothioconazole OD (225 g a.i ha-1, recommend dosage) and 30% prothioconazole OD (180 g a.i ha-1) + 20% TZEO EW (225 mL ha-1), significantly. The initial residue of prothioconazole and prothioconazole-desthio was increased in the treatment with TZEO, which may play an important role in the synergistic effect on FHB. Moreover, none of the treatments posed a prothioconazole residue risk in the wheat grain and the environment. In addition, the essential oil has no any negative influence on wheat growth, which was revealed by a study of the chlorophyll content. These results provide an important botanical synergist for use with prothioconazole to control Fusarium head blight, and in-depth study to the synergistic mechanism of this oil is necessary in our future research.

Assessment of mycotoxins (deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, aflatoxin B1 and fumonisin B1) in hen's eggs in Jordan

The present study was carried out to evaluate the prevalence of mycotoxins (Deoxynivalenol (DON), Zearalenone (ZEA), Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) and Fumonisin B₁ (FB₁)) in local hen's table eggs (white and yolk) as well as their stability upon refrigeration. Two hundred and fifty of fresh table eggs samples collected from Jordan governorates were analyzed using Liquid Chromatography- Mass Spectrophotometry (LC– MS/MS) More than half (67%) of the tested samples were positive for mycotoxins. The mean concentration of AFB_1, FB₁ and ZEA was 0.5 ± 0.4, 0.5 ± 0.2 and 3.2 ± 1.5 μg/kg, respectively. The overall prevalence of AFB₁, ZEA, FB₁ was 56.8, 16.0 and 7.6%, respectively. DON was not found in any of the samples. The highest prevalence was observed in Amman (85.7%) followed by Mafraq (78.6%), Karak (75.0%) and Zarqa'a (66.6%). None of the investigated mycotoxins were detected in egg whites. However, the prevalence of AFB₁, ZEA, FB₁ in egg yolk was 21.3, 16 and 7.6%, respectively. Refrigeration up to 4 weeks did not decrease the mycotoxin concentration significantly. Mycotoxin concentration in all investigated samples in this study were well below both the International and Jordanian acceptable limits. However, continuous exposure may lead to bioaccumulation over a long term and pose a threat to health.

A global systematic review and meta-analysis of concentration and prevalence of mycotoxins in birds' egg

In the current study, the concentration and prevalence of birds' egg's mycotoxins among 11 articles (66 studies) based on countries, part of eggs, and type of mycotoxins subgroups were meta-analyses using a random-effect model. The order of mycotoxin according to concentration of mycotoxin was Deoxynivalenol (20.083 μg/kg) > Zearalenone (2.065 μg/kg) > Enniatin (1.120 μg/kg) > Total aflatoxin (0.371 μg/kg) > Beauvericin (0.223 μg/kg) > Ochratoxins (0.087 μg/kg) > Citrinin (0.010 μg/kg). Further, the mycotoxins' concentration in the yolk part (2.070 μg/kg) was higher than the mixed eggs (0.283 μg/kg). The rank order of mycotoxin based on country was China (14.990 μg/kg) > Cameroon (7.594 μg/kg) > Thailand (1.870 μg/kg) > Finland (0.920 μg/kg) > Iran (0.312 μg/kg) > Jordan (0.202 μg/kg) > Belgium (0.183 μg/kg) > Spain (<Lod μg/kg) > South Korea (<Lod μg/kg). The rank order of mycotoxins based on prevalence was BEA (99.73%) > DON (85.00%) > AFT (20.15%) > OT (16.00%). The overall prevalence of mycotoxin was equal to 29.65%. Also, the concentration of mycotoxins in China and Cameroon was higher than in other countries. Therefore, the monitoring programs to reduce mycotoxins in bird eggs consumed in some countries such as China and Cameroon should be considered.

Contamination With Fumonisin B and Deoxynivalenol Is a Threat to Egg Safety and Contributes to Gizzard Ulcerations of Newborn Chickens

Fumonisin B (FB) and other fumonisins, deoxynivalenol (DON), and zearalenone (ZEN) are mycotoxins (secondary metabolites of fungi) present at high levels of contamination in poultry diets and threatening the sustainability of the poultry industry and egg safety for consumers. However, residual mycotoxins in breeder eggs and their effects on chicken progeny and gizzard ulcerations remain unclear. To unveil mycotoxin contaminations from daily diets to breeder eggs, 293 poultry feed samples were collected from three large-scale poultry provinces across Northern China to Southern China. Average levels of 1,628 ± 4.36 μg/kg of FB₁, 593 ± 11.16 μg/kg of DON, 69 ± 9.21 μg/kg of ZEN, 52 ± 7.33 μg/kg of OTA, and 24 ± 5.85 μg/kg of AFB₁ were found in feedstuffs and poultry diets using commercial ELISA kits. In terms of residual mycotoxins in breeder eggs, FB₁ and DON contaminations dominated residues in egg albumen and yolk samples. Out of 221 breeder eggs, the average residual of FB₁ in albumen were 320.6 ± 10.12 μg/kg (Hebei), 420.2 ± 10.98 μg/kg (Guangdong), and 549.4 ± 10.27 (Guangxi). Moreover, higher residual of DONs were determined in Guangdong and Guangxi provinces compared to Hebei province. ZEN, ochratoxins A (OTA), and aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) contamination at low levels were found in the above samples collected from afronmentioned three provinces. Based on residual mycotoxins in breeder eggs, SPF embryonated eggs aged 11 days were inoculated into albumen with different doses of FB₁, FB₂ or DON, or a combination of FB₁ and DON, or a combination of FB₁ with FB₂ and FB₃. A lower hatching rate was observed in the chicken progenies with the combination of 24 μg of FB₁ and 0.1 μg of DON compared to other treatments. Moreover, typical gizzard ulcerations with hemorrhagic lungs were observed in the progeny of breeder eggs post-inoculation of 24 μg of FB₁ and synergetic inoculation of FB₁ and DON. Finally, residual FB mycotoxins were detected in the gizzards and in the lungs of the progenies. Based on the above evidence, feed-borne FB₁ and DON are dominant mycotoxins in breeder eggs and threatening food security using breeder eggs as a Trojan horse. More importantly, the residual of FB₁ alone and in combination with of DON contamination are associated with low hatching rate and gizzard ulcerations in chicken progenies, hampering sustainable development perspectives of the poultry industry.

Carry-over of some Fusarium mycotoxins in tissues and eggs of chickens fed experimentally mycotoxin-contaminated diets

Fusarium mycotoxins are fungal contaminants found in different crops intended for human and animal consumption. Due to the co-occurrence of several of mycotoxins, the present study aimed at examining the transfer of these toxins into tissues of broiler chickens and eggs of laying hens fed contaminated diets. After an adaptation period, the chickens were fed contaminated diets containing mg/kg levels of deoxynivalenol (DON), enniatins (ENN A, A₁, B, B₁) and beauvericin (BEA) and high μg/kg levels of HT-2 toxin (HT-2), T-2 toxin (T-2) and zearalenone (ZEN) during a repletion period of two weeks, followed by a depletion period of two weeks. DON, ZEN, T-2 and HT-2 were not carried out into the skin and the liver of broiler chickens. ENN B (20.5 ± 6.6 μg/kg) and BEA (162 ± 55 μg/kg) were found in the liver, while in the skin their respective concentrations were 50 ± 17 μg/kg and 120 ± 16 μg/kg during the first week of the repletion period. Carry-over rates into liver and skin were higher for BEA (1.6% and 1.2%, respectively) than for ENNs (0.1 and 0.4%, respectively). During the depletion period, ENNs and BEA were eliminated from the skin and the liver. ENN B, ENN B₁ and BEA were carried over into eggs at 0.1%, 0.05% and 0.44% upon 2-3 days of feeding the contaminated diet, respectively. These transfers were fully eliminated 9-10 days after feeding the control diet again. These results indicate the transfer of ENN B, ENN B₁ and BEA from feed to chicken offal, meat products and eggs at a very low degree, thus marginally contribute to the total dietary intake of these fusariotoxins for consumers. Nevertheless, taking precautionary measures in the field, harvest, transport and storage of the raw materials is required to keep the mycotoxin concentration in feed below the safe levels.

Effect of application method and formulation on prothioconazole residue behavior and mycotoxin contamination in wheat

In this study, efficient and sensitive analytical methods based on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry were established to evaluate the degradation behavior of prothioconazole and prothioconazole-desthio along with mycotoxin contamination in wheat samples. The mean recoveries of prothioconazole and prothioconazole-desthio ranged from 76.05% to 96.17% with intraday relative standard deviations (RSDs) of 0.84%-14.38%. Mean recoveries of the five mycotoxins were 85.82%-103.24% with RSDs of 1.82%-7.03%. The residue and degradation behavior of prothioconazole was studied in wheat plant and grain under field conditions with different spraying equipment and prothioconazole formulations. Both application method and formulation affected prothioconazole degradation, and the content of all mycotoxin was lower than the national standards. The proposed analytic methods can be used to systematically evaluate prothioconazole and prothioconazole-desthio along with mycotoxin contamination in food. These results suggest that prothioconazole is safe for the control Fusarium head blight in wheat.

Assessment of Ochratoxin A Exposure in Ornamental and Self-Consumption Backyard Chickens

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin that may be present in various food and feed of plant and animal origin, including chicken meat. In Italy, backyard poultry farming is rather widespread. Animals are raised for meat, eggs and for ornamental purpose, and they are often fed with home-made diets not subject to official controls. The purpose of this study was to evaluate exposure of ornamental and backyard chickens to OTA using biliary ochratoxin A as a biomarker. Therefore, bile samples, in addition to kidney, liver and muscle, were collected from 102 chickens reared in 16 farms located in 6 Italian regions. High-performance liquid chromatography method and fluorimetric detection (HPLC-FLD) analysis were carried out firstly on bile from all animals, and OTA was detected in 12 chickens (concentration range 3.83-170.42 µg/L). Subsequently, the kidneys of these chickens were also analysed, and the mycotoxin was not detected. The analytical detection limits (LODs) of OTA in bile and kidney were 2.1 µg/L and 0.1 µg/kg, respectively. In conclusion, these animals were exposed to OTA but their meat can be considered safe, given that this mycotoxin, if present, concentrates highest in kidneys. Biliary ochratoxin A confirms its use as a valid biomarker to assess exposure of poultry to OTA.

Occurrence and Quantitative Risk Assessment of Twelve Mycotoxins in Eggs and Chicken Tissues in China

Aflatoxins (AFs), deoxynivalenols (DONs), and zearalenones (ZENs) are common mycotoxins that contaminate feedstuff, causing contamination of poultry products. In our study, these mycotoxins were quantified in 152 egg samples collected from markets in Jiangsu (JS), Zhejiang (ZJ), and Shanghai (SH) and in 70 chicken tissue samples (liver, heart, and gizzard) from ZJ in China. The main mycotoxins observed in egg samples were DON, 15-AcDON, and ZEN, although only ZEN family mycotoxins (ZEN, α-ZEL, β-ZEL, and α-ZAL) were detected in chicken tissues. Furthermore, for the first time, we assessed the health risks of exposure of three populations (children, adults, and elder adults) to DONs (DON, 3-AcDON, and 15-AcDON) and ZEN in eggs (from three different areas) and to ZEN in chicken tissues. We show that the mean dietary intake (DI) values and the 97.5th percentile DI values of DON and ZEN through egg ingestion were lower than the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) (1 μg/kg body weight (BW)/day) for the three populations in the three geographical areas studied. However, eggs contaminated with high levels of DONs and ZEN contributed to a large proportion of the PMTDI of these mycotoxins, especially in children and elder adults. Although ZEN was highly detected in the chicken tissues, no significant health risk was observed.

Characterisation of the Mycobiota on the Shell Surface of Table Eggs Acquired from Different Egg-Laying Hen Breeding Systems

Microbial safety is an important factor contributing to the egg quality. During egg acquisition, there is significant risk of contamination of the eggshell surface with microscopic fungi. Mycelial hyphae may grow on the eggshell surface and penetrate into the egg content. However, there is no information on the populations of microscopic fungi on the eggshell surface and, consequently, on possible production of mycotoxins. Therefore, the aim of the study was to identify the species of microscopic fungi present on the eggshell surface acquired from different breeding systems and to measure the number of selected mycotoxins. The qualitative analysis resulted in the identification of 41 isolates on the surface of eggs. There were 7 isolates from the organic production system, 11 from the free-range production system, 14 from the deep litter indoor housing system and 9 from the cage farming production system. The research proved that the diversification in the population of mycobiota on the eggshells depended on the egg-laying hen breeding system. The microscopic fungi isolated from the eggshells included toxigenic and pathogenic species such as Fusarium culmorum and F. equiseti. As the egg storage time increased, fungi, including the pathogenic species, penetrated through the eggshells. In consequence, mycotoxins were identified in the egg whites. Type-A and type-B trichothecenes were found in the eggshell samples containing F. culmorum.

A simple sample pretreatment method for multi-mycotoxin determination in eggs by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry

In this study, a reliable and fast method using a quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS) extraction procedure without any clean-up step was developed for simultaneous extraction of 15 mycotoxins, i.e., aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin B2, aflatoxin G1, aflatoxin G2, aflatoxin M1, aflatoxin M2, deoxynivalenol, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol, de-epoxy-DON, zearalenone, α-zearalenol, β-zearalenol, α-zearalanol, and β-zearalanol, from eggs. High-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry was used to separate and detect all of the analytes. Electrospray ionization at both negative and positive modes and multiple reaction-monitoring mode were applied to detect these analytes. The main factors, such as extraction time, extraction solvent, evaporation temperature, and pH of the solvent, were carefully optimized to improve the extraction efficiency. The coefficients of determination of the calibration curves ranged from 0.9884 to 0.9998. The recoveries of most of the analytes were between 71.3% and 105.4% at three concentration levels, except for AFB1 that showed recovery rates of not more than 67.5% in all concentrations. The repeatability and intra-lab reproducibility of this method were both lower than 15% and 25%, respectively. The limit of quantification ranged from 0.2 μg/kg to 5 μg/kg. The matrix effect was evaluated and reduced by the use of matrix-matched calibration curves. The validated method was applied in a pilot study to analyze mycotoxin contamination in 12 eggs, and trace amounts of deoxynivalenol, 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol, aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin G2, zearalenone and β-zearalenol were detected in these samples.

Invited review: Diagnosis of zearalenone (ZEN) exposure of farm animals and transfer of its residues into edible tissues (carry over)

The aim of the review was to evaluate the opportunities for diagnosing the zearalenone (ZEN) exposure and intoxication of farm animals by analyzing biological specimens for ZEN residue levels. Metabolism is discussed to be important when evaluating species-specific consequences for the overall toxicity of ZEN. Besides these toxicological facts, analytics of ZEN residues in various animal-derived matrices requires sensitive, matrix-adapted multi-methods with low limits of quantification, which is more challenging than the ZEN analysis in feed. Based on dose-response experiments with farm animals, the principle usability of various specimens as bio-indicators for ZEN exposure is discussed with regard to individual variation and practicability for the veterinary practitioner. ZEN residue analysis in biological samples does not only enable evaluation of ZEN exposure but also allows the risk for the consumer arising from contaminated foodstuffs of animal origin to be assessed. It was compiled from literature that the tolerable daily intake of 0.25 μg ZEN/kg body weight and day is exploited to approximately 8%, when a daily basket of animal foodstuffs and associated carry over factors are assumed at reported ZEN contamination levels of complete feed.

Physiologically-based toxicokinetic modeling of zearalenone and its metabolites: application to the Jersey girl study

Zearalenone (ZEA), a fungal mycotoxin, and its metabolite zeranol (ZAL) are known estrogen agonists in mammals, and are found as contaminants in food. Zeranol, which is more potent than ZEA and comparable in potency to estradiol, is also added as a growth additive in beef in the US and Canada. This article presents the development and application of a Physiologically-Based Toxicokinetic (PBTK) model for ZEA and ZAL and their primary metabolites, zearalenol, zearalanone, and their conjugated glucuronides, for rats and for human subjects. The PBTK modeling study explicitly simulates critical metabolic pathways in the gastrointestinal and hepatic systems. Metabolic events such as dehydrogenation and glucuronidation of the chemicals, which have direct effects on the accumulation and elimination of the toxic compounds, have been quantified. The PBTK model considers urinary and fecal excretion and biliary recirculation and compares the predicted biomarkers of blood, urinary and fecal concentrations with published in vivo measurements in rats and human subjects. Additionally, the toxicokinetic model has been coupled with a novel probabilistic dietary exposure model and applied to the Jersey Girl Study (JGS), which involved measurement of mycoestrogens as urinary biomarkers, in a cohort of young girls in New Jersey, USA. A probabilistic exposure characterization for the study population has been conducted and the predicted urinary concentrations have been compared to measurements considering inter-individual physiological and dietary variability. The in vivo measurements from the JGS fall within the high and low predicted distributions of biomarker values corresponding to dietary exposure estimates calculated by the probabilistic modeling system. The work described here is the first of its kind to present a comprehensive framework developing estimates of potential exposures to mycotoxins and linking them with biologically relevant doses and biomarker measurements, including a systematic characterization of uncertainties in exposure and dose estimation for a vulnerable population.

Cross-reactivity of some commercially available deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) immunoaffinity columns to DON- and ZEN-conjugated forms and metabolites

Seven commercially available deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) immunoaffinity columns (IACs) were tested for cross-reactivity to conjugated forms (3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol, 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol, DON-3-glucoside, DON-3-glucuronide, ZEN-glucosides, ZEN-glucuronide) and metabolites (de-epoxydeoxynivalenol, α-zearalenol, β-zearalenol) and nivalenol (NIV), using a semi-quantitative multi-mycotoxin ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method. The DON IACs showed cross-reactivity for nearly all DON derivatives tested. The ZEN IACs showed limited cross-reactivity to some of the ZEN derivatives. The IACs were evaluated for their potential use as sample clean-up for mycotoxins in serum.

Multi-mycotoxin analysis in eggs using a QuEChERS-based extraction procedure and ultra-high-pressure liquid chromatography coupled to triple quadrupole mass spectrometry

A reliable and rapid method has been developed for the determination of 10 mycotoxins (beauvericin, enniatin A, A1, B1, citrinin, aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2 and ochratoxin A) in eggs at trace levels. Ultra-high-pressure liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) has been used for the analysis of these compounds in less than 7 min. Mycotoxins have been extracted from egg samples using a QuEChERS-based extraction procedure (Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged and Safe) without applying any further clean-up step. Extraction, chromatographic and detection conditions were optimised in order to increase sample throughput and sensitivity. Matrix-matched calibration was used for quantification. Blank samples were fortified at 10, 25, 50 and 100 μg kg(-1), and recoveries ranged from 70% to 110%, except for ochratoxin A and aflatoxin G1 at 10 μg kg(-1), and aflatoxin G2 at 50 μg kg(-1). Relative standard deviations were lower than 25% in all the cases. Limits of detection ranged from 0.5 μg kg(-1) (for aflatoxins B1, B2 and G1) to 5 μg kg(-1) (for enniatin A, citrinin and ochratoxin A) and limits of quantification ranged from 1 μg kg(-1) (for aflatoxins B1, B2 and G1) to 10 μg kg(-1) (for enniatin A, citrinin and ochratoxin A). Seven samples were analyzed and aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2, and beauvericin were detected at trace levels.

Zearalenone occurrence and human exposure

Among the mycotoxins zearalenone (ZEA) is of interest because of the oestrogenic effects that it, and certain of its metabolites possess. The fungi that produce ZEA are found worldwide, particularly in cereal grains and derived products. This has prompted many surveys to detect these compounds in commodities and foods. As a result, the widespread occurrence of ZEA in foods is well documented. Previous summaries including extensive reports by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), the European Commission's Scientific Cooperation on Questions Relating to Food (SCOOP), and others, have provided significant information on the occurrence of ZEA in commodities and foods. Publication of occurrence data has continued at a rapid pace, and certain of that data, as well as highlights from previous intake and exposure assessments, are summarised herein. Comparing estimates of intake (exposure) with previous estimates of tolerable daily intakes, suggests that, for many of the countries where exposure assessments have been done, the populations are exposed to levels that would be considered safe. The situation may be different in populations that consume large quantities of foods that are susceptible to contamination, or in instances where contamination is atypically high. For much of the world estimates of exposure have not been reported, meaning that for much of the world, the true extent of the relevance of ZEA to human health remains uncharacterised.

Ochratoxins in feed, a risk for animal and human health: control strategies

Ochratoxin A (OTA) has been shown to be a potent nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, and teratogenic compound. In farm animals, the intake of feed contaminated with OTA affects animal health and productivity, and may result in the presence of OTA in the animal products. Strategies for the control of OTA in food products require early identification and elimination of contaminated commodities from the food chain. However, current analytical protocols may fail to identify contaminated products, especially in animal feed. The present paper discusses the impact of OTA on human and animal health, with special emphasis on the potential risks of OTA residue in animal products, and control strategies applied in the feed industry.

PCDD/Fs and dioxin-like PCBs in home-produced eggs from Belgium: levels, contamination sources and health risks

This paper discusses the dioxin TEQ levels as determined by the chemically activated luciferase gene expression assay (CALUX) and by HRGC-HRMS in eggs, soils, faeces and kitchen waste samples obtained in the CONTEGG study. The samples were collected in each Belgian province at private homes and in small gardens where chickens are held. The CALUX levels for eggs sampled in autumn were higher than the levels in eggs obtained at the same locations in spring (median values of 5.86 and 4.08 pg CALUX TEQ/g fat, respectively). The total WHO-TEQ levels in eggs, determined by HRGC-HRMS, ranged from 3.29 to 95.35 pg TEQ/g fat in autumn and from 1.50 to 64.79 pg TEQ/g fat in spring. In the soils on which the chickens forage, levels of 2.51-11.35 pg I-TEQ/g in autumn and 2.00-7.86 pg I-TEQ/g in spring were found. The congener pattern of PCDD/Fs in the eggs, soils and faeces was dominated by OCDD, in addition to 1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HeptaCDD, OCDF and 1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HeptaCDF. The predominant dioxin-like PCBs were PCB118, PCB 105 and PCB 156. The dioxin-like PCBs contributed on average 47%, 14% and 20% to the total WHO-TEQ in eggs, soils and faeces, respectively. Kitchen waste samples were very low-contaminated with dioxin-like compounds. The present results showed a good agreement between egg and soil TEQ levels for PCDD/Fs but not for dioxin-like PCBs. This study showed that current soil levels found in some private gardens do not lead to egg levels below the current EU maximal level of 6 pg total TEQ/g fat for dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs. The consumers of the analysed eggs attained 5-79% of the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) of 14 pg TEQ/kg bw for dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs by exposure to their home-produced eggs only.

Assessment of the chemical contamination in home-produced eggs in Belgium: general overview of the CONTEGG study

This overview paper describes a study conducted for the Belgian Federal Public Service of Health, Food Chain Safety and Environment during 2006-2007. Home-produced eggs from Belgian private owners of hens were included in a large study aiming to determine concentration levels of various environmental contaminants. By means of the analyses of soil samples and of kitchen waste samples, obtained from the same locations, an investigation towards the possible sources of contaminants was possible. Eggs, soils, faeces and kitchen waste samples were checked for the presence of dioxins, PCBs (including dioxin-like PCBs), organochlorine pesticides, trace elements, PAHs, brominated flame retardants and mycotoxins. The study design, sampling methodology and primary conclusions of the study are given. It was found that in some cases dioxin-like compounds were present at levels that are of concern for the health of the egg consumers. Therefore, measures to limit their contamination in eggs, produced by hens of private owners, were proposed and deserve further attention.