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Mishra N, Kant R, Kandhari K, Ammar DA, Tewari-Singh N, Pantcheva MB, Petrash JM, Agarwal C, Agarwal R. Nitrogen Mustard-Induced Ex Vivo Human Cornea Injury Model and Therapeutic Intervention by Dexamethasone. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2024; 388:484-494. [PMID: 37474260 PMCID: PMC10801761 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.123.001760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 06/30/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Sulfur mustard (SM), a vesicating agent first used during World War I, remains a potent threat as a chemical weapon to cause intentional/accidental chemical emergencies. Eyes are extremely susceptible to SM toxicity. Nitrogen mustard (NM), a bifunctional alkylating agent and potent analog of SM, is used in laboratories to study mustard vesicant-induced ocular toxicity. Previously, we showed that SM-/NM-induced injuries (in vivo and ex vivo rabbit corneas) are reversed upon treatment with dexamethasone (DEX), a US Food and Drug Administration-approved, steroidal anti-inflammatory drug. Here, we optimized NM injuries in ex vivo human corneas and assessed DEX efficacy. For injury optimization, one cornea (randomly selected from paired eyes) was exposed to NM: 100 nmoles for 2 hours or 4 hours, and 200 nmoles for 2 hours, and the other cornea served as a control. Injuries were assessed 24 hours post NM-exposure. NM 100 nmoles exposure for 2 hours was found to cause optimal corneal injury (epithelial thinning [∼69%]; epithelial-stromal separation [6-fold increase]). In protein arrays studies, 24 proteins displayed ≥40% change in their expression in NM exposed corneas compared with controls. DEX administration initiated 2 hours post NM exposure and every 8 hours thereafter until 24 hours post-exposure reversed NM-induced corneal epithelial-stromal separation [2-fold decrease]). Of the 24 proteins dysregulated upon NM exposure, six proteins (delta-like canonical Notch ligand 1, FGFbasic, CD54, CCL7, endostatin, receptor tyrosine-protein kinase erbB-4) associated with angiogenesis, immune/inflammatory responses, and cell differentiation/proliferation, showed significant reversal upon DEX treatment (Student's t test; P ≤ 0.05). Complementing our animal model studies, DEX was shown to mitigate vesicant-induced toxicities in ex vivo human corneas. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Nitrogen mustard (NM) exposure-induced injuries were optimized in an ex vivo human cornea culture model and studies were carried out at 24 h post 100 nmoles NM exposure. Dexamethasone (DEX) administration (started 2 h post NM exposure and every 8 h thereafter) reversed NM-induced corneal injuries. Molecular mediators of DEX action were associated with angiogenesis, immune/inflammatory responses, and cell differentiation/proliferation, indicating DEX aids wound healing via reversing vesicant-induced neovascularization (delta-like canonical Notch ligand 1 and FGF basic) and leukocyte infiltration (CD54 and CCL7).
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Affiliation(s)
- Neha Mishra
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences (N.M., R.K., K.K., C.A., R.A.) and Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine (M.B.P., J.M.P.) University of Colorado-Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; Lions Eye Institute for Transplant and Research, Tampa, Florida (D.A.A.); and Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan (N.T.-S.)
| | - Rama Kant
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences (N.M., R.K., K.K., C.A., R.A.) and Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine (M.B.P., J.M.P.) University of Colorado-Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; Lions Eye Institute for Transplant and Research, Tampa, Florida (D.A.A.); and Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan (N.T.-S.)
| | - Kushal Kandhari
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences (N.M., R.K., K.K., C.A., R.A.) and Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine (M.B.P., J.M.P.) University of Colorado-Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; Lions Eye Institute for Transplant and Research, Tampa, Florida (D.A.A.); and Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan (N.T.-S.)
| | - David A Ammar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences (N.M., R.K., K.K., C.A., R.A.) and Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine (M.B.P., J.M.P.) University of Colorado-Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; Lions Eye Institute for Transplant and Research, Tampa, Florida (D.A.A.); and Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan (N.T.-S.)
| | - Neera Tewari-Singh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences (N.M., R.K., K.K., C.A., R.A.) and Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine (M.B.P., J.M.P.) University of Colorado-Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; Lions Eye Institute for Transplant and Research, Tampa, Florida (D.A.A.); and Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan (N.T.-S.)
| | - Mina B Pantcheva
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences (N.M., R.K., K.K., C.A., R.A.) and Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine (M.B.P., J.M.P.) University of Colorado-Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; Lions Eye Institute for Transplant and Research, Tampa, Florida (D.A.A.); and Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan (N.T.-S.)
| | - J Mark Petrash
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences (N.M., R.K., K.K., C.A., R.A.) and Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine (M.B.P., J.M.P.) University of Colorado-Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; Lions Eye Institute for Transplant and Research, Tampa, Florida (D.A.A.); and Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan (N.T.-S.)
| | - Chapla Agarwal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences (N.M., R.K., K.K., C.A., R.A.) and Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine (M.B.P., J.M.P.) University of Colorado-Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; Lions Eye Institute for Transplant and Research, Tampa, Florida (D.A.A.); and Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan (N.T.-S.)
| | - Rajesh Agarwal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences (N.M., R.K., K.K., C.A., R.A.) and Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine (M.B.P., J.M.P.) University of Colorado-Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; Lions Eye Institute for Transplant and Research, Tampa, Florida (D.A.A.); and Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan (N.T.-S.)
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Mishra N, Kant R, Kandhari K, Tewari-Singh N, Anantharam P, Croutch CR, Pantcheva MB, Petrash JM, Araj H, Agarwal C, Agarwal R. Establishing a Dexamethasone Treatment Regimen To Alleviate Sulfur Mustard-Induced Corneal Injuries in a Rabbit Model. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2024; 388:469-483. [PMID: 37316330 PMCID: PMC10801779 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.123.001680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Sulfur mustard (SM) is an ominous chemical warfare agent. Eyes are extremely susceptible to SM toxicity; injuries include inflammation, fibrosis, neovascularization (NV), and vision impairment/blindness, depending on the exposure dosage. Effective countermeasures against ocular SM toxicity remain elusive and are warranted during conflicts/terrorist activities and accidental exposures. We previously determined that dexamethasone (DEX) effectively counters corneal nitrogen mustard toxicity and that the 2-hour postexposure therapeutic window is most beneficial. Here, the efficacy of two DEX dosing frequencies [i.e., every 8 or 12 hours (initiated, as previously established, 2 hours after exposure)] until 28 days after SM exposure was assessed. Furthermore, sustained effects of DEX treatments were observed up to day 56 after SM exposure. Corneal clinical assessments (thickness, opacity, ulceration, and NV) were performed at the day 14, 28, 42, and 56 post-SM exposure time points. Histopathological assessments of corneal injuries (corneal thickness, epithelial degradation, epithelial-stromal separation, inflammatory cell, and blood vessel counts) using H&E staining and molecular assessments (COX-2, MMP-9, VEGF, and SPARC expressions) were performed at days 28, 42, and 56 after SM exposure. Statistical significance was assessed using two-way ANOVA, with Holm-Sidak post hoc pairwise multiple comparisons; significance was established if P < 0.05 (data represented as the mean ± S.E.M.). DEX administration every 8 hours was more potent than every 12 hours in reversing ocular SM injury, with the most pronounced effects observed at days 28 and 42 after SM exposure. These comprehensive results are novel and provide a comprehensive DEX treatment regimen (therapeutic-window and dosing-frequency) for counteracting SM-induced corneal injuries. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The study aims to establish a dexamethasone (DEX) treatment regimen by comparing the efficacy of DEX administration at 12 versus 8 hours initiated 2 hours after exposure. DEX administration every 8 hours was more effective in reversing sulfur mustard (SM)-induced corneal injuries. SM injury reversal during DEX administration (initial 28 days after exposure) and sustained [further 28 days after cessation of DEX administration (i.e., up to 56 days after exposure)] effects were assessed using clinical, pathophysiological, and molecular biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neha Mishra
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences (N.M., R.K., K.K., N.T.-S., C.A., R.A.) and Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine (M.B.P., J.M.P.), University of Colorado-Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; MRIGlobal, Kansas City, Missouri (P.A., C.R.C.); and Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health National Eye Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (H.A.)
| | - Rama Kant
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences (N.M., R.K., K.K., N.T.-S., C.A., R.A.) and Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine (M.B.P., J.M.P.), University of Colorado-Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; MRIGlobal, Kansas City, Missouri (P.A., C.R.C.); and Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health National Eye Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (H.A.)
| | - Kushal Kandhari
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences (N.M., R.K., K.K., N.T.-S., C.A., R.A.) and Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine (M.B.P., J.M.P.), University of Colorado-Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; MRIGlobal, Kansas City, Missouri (P.A., C.R.C.); and Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health National Eye Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (H.A.)
| | - Neera Tewari-Singh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences (N.M., R.K., K.K., N.T.-S., C.A., R.A.) and Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine (M.B.P., J.M.P.), University of Colorado-Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; MRIGlobal, Kansas City, Missouri (P.A., C.R.C.); and Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health National Eye Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (H.A.)
| | - Poojya Anantharam
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences (N.M., R.K., K.K., N.T.-S., C.A., R.A.) and Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine (M.B.P., J.M.P.), University of Colorado-Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; MRIGlobal, Kansas City, Missouri (P.A., C.R.C.); and Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health National Eye Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (H.A.)
| | - Claire R Croutch
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences (N.M., R.K., K.K., N.T.-S., C.A., R.A.) and Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine (M.B.P., J.M.P.), University of Colorado-Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; MRIGlobal, Kansas City, Missouri (P.A., C.R.C.); and Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health National Eye Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (H.A.)
| | - Mina B Pantcheva
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences (N.M., R.K., K.K., N.T.-S., C.A., R.A.) and Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine (M.B.P., J.M.P.), University of Colorado-Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; MRIGlobal, Kansas City, Missouri (P.A., C.R.C.); and Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health National Eye Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (H.A.)
| | - J Mark Petrash
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences (N.M., R.K., K.K., N.T.-S., C.A., R.A.) and Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine (M.B.P., J.M.P.), University of Colorado-Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; MRIGlobal, Kansas City, Missouri (P.A., C.R.C.); and Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health National Eye Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (H.A.)
| | - Houmam Araj
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences (N.M., R.K., K.K., N.T.-S., C.A., R.A.) and Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine (M.B.P., J.M.P.), University of Colorado-Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; MRIGlobal, Kansas City, Missouri (P.A., C.R.C.); and Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health National Eye Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (H.A.)
| | - Chapla Agarwal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences (N.M., R.K., K.K., N.T.-S., C.A., R.A.) and Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine (M.B.P., J.M.P.), University of Colorado-Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; MRIGlobal, Kansas City, Missouri (P.A., C.R.C.); and Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health National Eye Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (H.A.)
| | - Rajesh Agarwal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences (N.M., R.K., K.K., N.T.-S., C.A., R.A.) and Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine (M.B.P., J.M.P.), University of Colorado-Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; MRIGlobal, Kansas City, Missouri (P.A., C.R.C.); and Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health National Eye Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (H.A.)
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Wilczynski W, Brzeziński T, Maszczyk P, Ludew A, Czub MJ, Dziedzic D, Nawala J, Popiel S, Beldowski J, Sanderson H, Radlinska M. Acute toxicity of organoarsenic chemical warfare agents to Danio rerio embryos. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 262:115116. [PMID: 37315364 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.115116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2023] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
During the 20th century, thousands of tons of munitions containing organoarsenic chemical warfare agents (CWAs) were dumped into oceans, seas and inland waters around the world. As a result, organoarsenic CWAs continue to leak from corroding munitions into sediments and their environmental concentrations are expected to peak over the next few decades. There remains, however, a lack of knowledge about their potential toxicity to aquatic vertebrates, such as fish. The aim of this study was to fill in this gap in research, by investigating the acute toxicity of organoarsenic CWAs on fish embryos, using the model species, Danio rerio. To estimate the acute toxicity thresholds of organoarsenic CWAs (Clark I, Adamsite, PDCA), a CWA-related compound (TPA), as well as four organoarsenic CWA degradation products (Clark I[ox], Adamsite[ox], PDCA[ox], TPA[ox]), standardized tests were performed following the OECD no. 236 Fish Embryo Acute Toxicity Test guidelines. Additionally, the detoxification response in D. rerio embryos was investigated by analysing the mRNA expression of five genes encoding antioxidant enzymes (CAT, SOD, GPx, GR and GST). During the 96 h of exposure, organoarsenic CWAs induced lethal effects in D. rerio embryos at very low concentrations (classified as 1st category pollutants according to GHS categorization), and were therefore deemed to be serious environmental hazards. Although TPA and the four CWA degradation products caused no acute toxicity even at their maximum solubility, the transcription of antioxidant-related genes was altered upon exposure to these compounds, indicating the need for further testing for chronic toxicity. Incorporating the results of this study into ecological risk assessments will provide a more accurate prediction of the environmental hazards posed by CWA-related organoarsenicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wojciech Wilczynski
- Department of Environmental Microbiology and Biotechnology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Poland; Department of Hydrobiology, Institute of Functional Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Tomasz Brzeziński
- Department of Hydrobiology, Institute of Functional Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Poland
| | - Piotr Maszczyk
- Department of Hydrobiology, Institute of Functional Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Poland
| | | | - Michał J Czub
- Department of Hydrobiology, Institute of Functional Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Poland; Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Poland; Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Daniel Dziedzic
- Faculty of Advanced Technologies and Chemistry, Military University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Jakub Nawala
- Faculty of Advanced Technologies and Chemistry, Military University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Stanislaw Popiel
- Faculty of Advanced Technologies and Chemistry, Military University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland
| | | | - Hans Sanderson
- Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Monika Radlinska
- Department of Environmental Microbiology and Biotechnology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Poland
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Zalewska T, Grajewska A, Danowska B, Rybka-Murat M, Saniewski M, Iwaniak M. Warning system for potential releases of chemical warfare agents from dumped munition in the Baltic Sea. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2023; 191:114930. [PMID: 37071941 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.114930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Revised: 04/04/2023] [Accepted: 04/07/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The research aimed to determine the scale of the potential contamination of the southern Baltic by substances from dumped chemical weapons, in the context of applying a strategy for detecting the potential releases of toxic materials. The research included the analysis of total arsenic in sediments, macrophytobenthos, fish, and yperite with derivatives and arsenoorganic compounds in sediments and as an integral part of the warning system the threshold values for arsenic in these matrices were set. Arsenic concentrations in sediments ranged from 11 to 18 mg kg-1 with an increase to 30 mg kg-1 in layers dated to 1940-1960, what was accompanied by the detection of triphenylarsine (600 mg kg-1). The presence of yperite or arsenoorganic-related chemical warfare agents was not confirmed in other areas. Arsenic ranged from 0.14 to 1.46 mg kg-1 in fish and from 0.8 to 3 mg kg-1 in macrophytobenthos.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamara Zalewska
- Institute of Meteorology and Water Management - National Research Institute Waszyngtona 42, 81-342 Gdynia, Poland.
| | - Agnieszka Grajewska
- Institute of Meteorology and Water Management - National Research Institute Waszyngtona 42, 81-342 Gdynia, Poland
| | - Beata Danowska
- Institute of Meteorology and Water Management - National Research Institute Waszyngtona 42, 81-342 Gdynia, Poland
| | - Marta Rybka-Murat
- Institute of Meteorology and Water Management - National Research Institute Waszyngtona 42, 81-342 Gdynia, Poland
| | - Michał Saniewski
- Institute of Meteorology and Water Management - National Research Institute Waszyngtona 42, 81-342 Gdynia, Poland
| | - Michał Iwaniak
- Institute of Meteorology and Water Management - National Research Institute Waszyngtona 42, 81-342 Gdynia, Poland
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Barbosa J, Asselman J, Janssen CR. Synthesizing the impact of sea-dumped munition and related chemicals on humans and the environment. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2023; 187:114601. [PMID: 36652858 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.114601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Revised: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Marine environments are globally impacted by vast quantities of munition disposed following both World Wars. Dumped munitions contain conventional explosives, chemicals warfare agents as well as a variety of metals. Field monitoring studies around marine dumpsites report the presence of munition constituents in water and sediment samples. The growing interest and developments in the ocean as a new economic frontier underline the need to remediate existing dumpsites. Here, we provide a comprehensive assessment of the magnitude and potential risks associated with marine munition dumpsites. An overview of the global distribution of dumpsites identifying the most impacted areas is provided, followed by the currently available data on the detection of munition constituents in environmental samples and evidence of their toxic potential to human and environmental health. Finally, existing data gaps are identified and future research needs promoting better understanding of the impact of the dumped material on the marine environment suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Barbosa
- Laboratory for Environmental Toxicology and Aquatic Ecology, GhEnToxLab, Ghent University, Belgium; Blue Growth Research Lab, Ghent University, Bluebridge, Wetenschapspark 1, 8400 Ostend, Belgium.
| | - Jana Asselman
- Blue Growth Research Lab, Ghent University, Bluebridge, Wetenschapspark 1, 8400 Ostend, Belgium
| | - Colin R Janssen
- Laboratory for Environmental Toxicology and Aquatic Ecology, GhEnToxLab, Ghent University, Belgium; Blue Growth Research Lab, Ghent University, Bluebridge, Wetenschapspark 1, 8400 Ostend, Belgium
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Maser E, Bünning TH, Brenner M, Van Haelst S, De Rijcke M, Müller P, Wichert U, Strehse JS. Warship wrecks and their munition cargos as a threat to the marine environment and humans: The V 1302 "JOHN MAHN" from World War II. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 857:159324. [PMID: 36216058 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Revised: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
In addition to endangering sea traffic, cable routes, and wind farms, sunken warship wrecks with dangerous cargo, fuel, or munitions on board may emerge as point sources for environmental damage. Energetic compounds such as TNT (which could leak from these munitions) are known for their toxicity, mutagenicity, and carcinogenicity. These compounds may cause potential adverse effects on marine life via contamination of the marine ecosystem, and their entry into the marine and human food chain could directly affect human health. To ascertain the impending danger of an environmental catastrophe posed by sunken warships, the North Sea Wrecks (NSW) project (funded by the Interreg North Sea Region Program) was launched in 2018. Based on historical data (derived from military archives) including the calculated amount of munitions still on board, its known location and accessibility, the German World War II ship "Vorpostenboot 1302" (former civilian name - "JOHN MAHN") was selected as a case study to investigate the leakage and distribution of toxic explosives in the marine environment. The wreck site and surrounding areas were mapped in great detail by scientific divers and a multibeam echosounder. Water and sediment samples were taken in a cross-shaped pattern around the wreck. To assess a possible entry into the marine food chain, caged mussels were exposed at the wreck, and wild fish (pouting), a sedentary species that stays locally at the wreck, were caught. All samples were analyzed for the presence of TNT and derivatives thereof by GC-MS/MS analysis. As a result, we could provide evidence that sunken warship wrecks emerge as a point source of contamination with nitroaromatic energetic compounds leaking from corroding munitions cargo still on board. Not only did we find these explosive substances in bottom water and sediment samples around the wreck, but also in the caged mussels as well as in wild fish living at the wreck. Fortunately so far, the concentrations found in mussel meat and fish filet were only in the one-digit ng per gram range thus indicating no current concern for the human seafood consumer. However, in the future the situation may worsen as the corrosion continues. From our study, it is proposed that wrecks should not only be ranked according to critical infrastructure and human activities at sea, but also to the threats they pose to the environment and the human seafood consumer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmund Maser
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School Schleswig-Holstein, Brunswiker Str. 10, 24105 Kiel, Germany.
| | - Tobias H Bünning
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School Schleswig-Holstein, Brunswiker Str. 10, 24105 Kiel, Germany
| | - Matthias Brenner
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Sven Van Haelst
- Flanders Marine Institute (VLIZ), Wandelaarkaai 7, 8400 Oostende, Belgium
| | - Maarten De Rijcke
- Flanders Marine Institute (VLIZ), Wandelaarkaai 7, 8400 Oostende, Belgium
| | - Patrick Müller
- 3D Artist Freelancer, Auf dem Steinchen 6, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - Uwe Wichert
- Consultant BLANO, MEKUN and HELCOM SUBMERGED, Eichenweg 6, 24351 Damp, Germany
| | - Jennifer S Strehse
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School Schleswig-Holstein, Brunswiker Str. 10, 24105 Kiel, Germany
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Dziedzic D, Nawała J, Gordon D, Dawidziuk B, Popiel S. Nanostructured polyaniline SPME fiber coating for chemical warfare agents analysis. Anal Chim Acta 2022; 1202:339649. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2022.339649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Revised: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Niemikoski H, Lehtonen KK, Ahvo A, Heiskanen I, Vanninen P. Metabolism and cytotoxicity of diphenylarsinic acid, a degradation product of sea-dumped chemical warfare agents, in a rainbow trout liver cell line RTL-W1. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2021; 241:105993. [PMID: 34688139 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2021.105993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Revised: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Recent studies have found primary degradation products of phenylarsenic chemical warfare agents (CWAs) accumulating in fish tissues, while the potential effects of these dumped phenylarsenic CWAs, such as Clark I and II, in the Baltic Sea biota are poorly understood. In this study, the metabolism and cytotoxicity of diphenylarsinic acid (DPA), a primary degradation product of phenylarsenic CWA, was studied by incubating rainbow trout cell line RTL-W1 cells in media with 100 mg/L DPA. Previously undescribed metabolites were identified by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (UPHLCHRMS). Moreover, the cytotoxicity of diphenylarsine glutathione conjugate (DPA-SG), the major metabolite of DPA, was studied. Cytotoxicity of the compounds was evaluated using the Neutral Red retention test (NRR), showing an IC50 value of 278 mg/L for DPA and 1.30 mg/L for DPA-SG, indicating that the glutathione (GSH) conjugate of DPA is more than two orders of magnitude toxic than DPA itself, suggesting that toxic properties of DPA are increased after conjugation with intracellular GSH leading enhanced toxicity after uptake. Results gained in this study give more detailed information for elucidating biological effects of dumped chemical munitions in marine environment. Moreover, the results help in assessing the environmental and health risks posed by marine munition continued presence and deterioration in the sea bottom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Niemikoski
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention (VERIFIN), Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki University, Helsinki, Finland; Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), Laboratory Centre, Mustialankatu 7, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Kari K Lehtonen
- Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), Marine Research Centre, Agnes Sjöbergin katu 2, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Aino Ahvo
- Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), Marine Research Centre, Agnes Sjöbergin katu 2, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ilse Heiskanen
- Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), Laboratory Centre, Mustialankatu 7, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Paula Vanninen
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention (VERIFIN), Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki University, Helsinki, Finland
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9
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Pažusienė J, Valskienė R, Grygiel W, Stankevičiūtė M, Butrimavičienė L, Baršienė J. Cytogenetic damage in native Baltic Sea fish species: environmental risks associated with chemical munition dumping in the Gotland Basin of the Baltic Sea. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:62200-62215. [PMID: 34189697 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-14827-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
This study represents the first attempt to assess genotoxicity and cytotoxicity effects in herring (Clupea harengus membras), flounder (Platichthys flesus), and cod (Gadus morhua callarias) caught at 47 study stations, located close to chemical munition dumpsites in the Gotland Basin, the Baltic Sea. Herring sampled from stations located in the center of chemical munition dumpsites exhibited the highest levels of micronuclei (MN) and total genotoxicity (ΣGentox), which is defined as the sum of frequencies of such nuclear abnormalities as micronuclei, nuclear buds, nuclear buds on the filament, and bi-nucleated erythrocytes with nucleoplasmic bridges. Exceptionally high and high ΣGentox risks were determined for flounder (89.47%), herring (79.31%), and cod (50%) caught at the stations located close to the chemical munition dumpsites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janina Pažusienė
- Nature Research Centre, Akademijos St. 2, LT-08412, Vilnius, Lithuania.
| | - Roberta Valskienė
- Nature Research Centre, Akademijos St. 2, LT-08412, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Włodzimierz Grygiel
- National Marine Fisheries Research Institute, 1 Kołłątaja Street, 81-332, Gdynia, Poland
| | | | | | - Janina Baršienė
- Nature Research Centre, Akademijos St. 2, LT-08412, Vilnius, Lithuania
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10
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Gilardoni M, Léonço D, Caffin F, Gros-Désormeaux F, Eldin C, Béal D, Ouzia S, Junot C, Fenaille F, Piérard C, Douki T. Evidence for the systemic diffusion of (2-chloroethyl)-ethyl-sulfide, a sulfur mustard analog, and its deleterious effects in brain. Toxicology 2021; 462:152950. [PMID: 34534560 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2021.152950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Sulfur mustard, a chemical warfare agent known to be a vesicant of skin, readily diffuses in the blood stream and reaches internal organs. In the present study, we used the analog (2-chloroethyl)-ethyl-sulfide (CEES) to provide novel data on the systemic diffusion of vesicants and on their ability to induce brain damage, which result in neurological disorders. SKH-1 hairless mice were topically exposed to CEES and sacrificed at different time until 14 days after exposure. A plasma metabolomics study showed a strong systemic impact following a self-protection mechanism to alleviate the injury of CEES exposure. This result was confirmed by the quantification of specific biomarkers in plasma. Those were the conjugates of CEES with glutathione (GSH-CEES), cysteine (Cys-CEES) and N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC-CEES), as well as the guanine adduct (N7Gua-CEES). In brain, N7Gua-CEES could be detected both in DNA and in organ extracts. Similarly, GSH-CEES, Cys-CEES and NAC-CEES were present in the extracts until day14. Altogether, these results, based on novel exposure markers, confirm the ability of vesicants to induce internal damage following dermal exposure. The observation of alkylation damage to glutathione and DNA in brain provides an additional mechanism to the neurological insult of SM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Gilardoni
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, IRIG, SyMMES, F-38000, Grenoble, France
| | - Daniel Léonço
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), MetaboHUB, F-91191, Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Fanny Caffin
- Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées (IRBA), Place Général Valérie André, BP 73, 91223, Brétigny-sur-Orge Cedex, France
| | - Fanny Gros-Désormeaux
- Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées (IRBA), Place Général Valérie André, BP 73, 91223, Brétigny-sur-Orge Cedex, France
| | - Camille Eldin
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, IRIG, SyMMES, F-38000, Grenoble, France
| | - David Béal
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, IRIG, SyMMES, F-38000, Grenoble, France
| | - Sadia Ouzia
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), MetaboHUB, F-91191, Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Christophe Junot
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), MetaboHUB, F-91191, Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - François Fenaille
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), MetaboHUB, F-91191, Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Christophe Piérard
- Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées (IRBA), Place Général Valérie André, BP 73, 91223, Brétigny-sur-Orge Cedex, France
| | - Thierry Douki
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, IRIG, SyMMES, F-38000, Grenoble, France.
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11
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Prihed H, Shifrovich A, Shamai Yamin T, Madmon M, Smolkin B, Chen R, Blanca M, Weissberg A. A novel approach for the detection and identification of sulfur mustard using liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry based on its selective oxidation to sulfur mustard monoxide with N-iodosuccinimide. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2021; 56:e4721. [PMID: 33848030 DOI: 10.1002/jms.4721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Revised: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
A new derivatization strategy for the detection and identification of sulfur mustard (HD) via liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS) is developed. The method incorporates selective oxidation of the sulfide group by the electrophilic iodine reagent N-iodosuccinimide (NIS) to produce sulfur mustard monoxide (HDSO). The derivatization reaction efficiencies were evaluated with acetonitrile extracts of soil, asphalt, cloth, Formica, and linoleum spiked with HD at concentrations of 50-5000 pg/ml and found to be similar to that with pure acetonitrile. The current derivatization approach is the first to preserve the identity of chloride groups and support HD regulation and evidentiary findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hagit Prihed
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Israel Institute for Biological Research (IIBR), Ness Ziona, Israel
| | - Avital Shifrovich
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Israel Institute for Biological Research (IIBR), Ness Ziona, Israel
| | - Tamar Shamai Yamin
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Israel Institute for Biological Research (IIBR), Ness Ziona, Israel
| | - Moran Madmon
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Israel Institute for Biological Research (IIBR), Ness Ziona, Israel
| | - Boris Smolkin
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Israel Institute for Biological Research (IIBR), Ness Ziona, Israel
| | - Ravit Chen
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Israel Institute for Biological Research (IIBR), Ness Ziona, Israel
| | - Merav Blanca
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Israel Institute for Biological Research (IIBR), Ness Ziona, Israel
| | - Avi Weissberg
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Israel Institute for Biological Research (IIBR), Ness Ziona, Israel
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12
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Czub M, Nawała J, Popiel S, Brzeziński T, Maszczyk P, Sanderson H, Maser E, Gordon D, Dziedzic D, Dawidziuk B, Pijanowska J, Fabisiak J, Szubska M, Lang T, Vanninen P, Niemikoski H, Missiaen T, Lehtonen KK, Bełdowski J, Kotwicki L. Acute aquatic toxicity of arsenic-based chemical warfare agents to Daphnia magna. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2021; 230:105693. [PMID: 33310671 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2020.105693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2020] [Revised: 11/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/15/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Sea dumping of chemical warfare (CW) took place worldwide during the 20th century. Submerged CW included metal bombs and casings that have been exposed for 50-100 years of corrosion and are now known to be leaking. Therefore, the arsenic-based chemical warfare agents (CWAs), pose a potential threat to the marine ecosystems. The aim of this research was to support a need for real-data measurements for accurate risk assessments and categorization of threats originating from submerged CWAs. This has been achieved by providing a broad insight into arsenic-based CWAs acute toxicity in aquatic ecosystems. Standard tests were performed to provide a solid foundation for acute aquatic toxicity threshold estimations of CWA: Lewisite, Adamsite, Clark I, phenyldichloroarsine (PDCA), CWA-related compounds: TPA, arsenic trichloride and four arsenic-based CWA degradation products. Despite their low solubility, during the 48 h exposure, all CWA caused highly negative effects on Daphnia magna. PDCA was very toxic with 48 h D. magna LC50 at 0.36 μg × L-1 and Lewisite with EC50 at 3.2 μg × L-1. Concentrations at which no immobilization effects were observed were slightly above the analytical Limits of Detection (LOD) and Quantification (LOQ). More water-soluble CWA degradation products showed no effects at concentrations up to 100 mg × L-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michał Czub
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sopot, Poland.
| | - Jakub Nawała
- Military University of Technology in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
| | | | - Tomasz Brzeziński
- Department of Hydrobiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Piotr Maszczyk
- Department of Hydrobiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Hans Sanderson
- Aarhus University, Department of Environmental Science, Roskilde, Denmark.
| | - Edmund Maser
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany.
| | - Diana Gordon
- Military University of Technology in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Daniel Dziedzic
- Military University of Technology in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
| | | | - Joanna Pijanowska
- Department of Hydrobiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
| | | | - Marta Szubska
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sopot, Poland.
| | - Thomas Lang
- Thünen Institute of Fisheries Ecology, Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | - Paula Vanninen
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Hanna Niemikoski
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
| | | | | | - Jacek Bełdowski
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sopot, Poland.
| | - Lech Kotwicki
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sopot, Poland.
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13
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Niemikoski H, Straumer K, Ahvo A, Turja R, Brenner M, Rautanen T, Lang T, Lehtonen KK, Vanninen P. Detection of chemical warfare agent related phenylarsenic compounds and multibiomarker responses in cod (Gadus morhua) from munition dumpsites. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 162:105160. [PMID: 33011584 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2020.105160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Revised: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/22/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Recently, sea-dumped chemical weapons (CWs) containing toxic chemical warfare agents (CWAs) have raised international attention. It is well known that CWAs are leaking from corroded munitions causing a risk to the surrounding marine environment, while the impact on marine biota is still unknown. In this study, cod (Gadus morhua) was used as a model species to study the possible bioaccumulation of phenylarsenic CWAs and their negative effects at multiple levels of biological organization on fish living in the vicinity of a major CWs dumpsite in the Bornholm Basin in the Baltic Sea. In total, 14% of the cod muscle samples collected close to the main dumpsite contained trace levels of phenylarsenic CWAs. However, most of the biomarkers measured did not show clear differences between this area compared with a lesser contaminated reference area. On the other hand, significant changes in some biomarkers were observed in individuals containing trace levels of CWA-related chemicals. The results gained in this study have significant importance for environmental risk assessment and for evaluating the risk of CWA contamination for human seafood consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Niemikoski
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention (VERIFIN), Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, A.I. Virtasen Aukio 1, FI-00014, University of Helsinki, Finland; Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), Laboratory Centre, Mustialankatu 3, FI-00790, Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Katharina Straumer
- Thünen Institute for Fisheries Ecology, Herwigstraße 31, 27572, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Aino Ahvo
- Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), Marine Research Centre, Agnes Sjöbergin Katu 2, FI-00790, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Raisa Turja
- Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), Marine Research Centre, Agnes Sjöbergin Katu 2, FI-00790, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Matthias Brenner
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research (AWI), Am Handelshafen 12, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Tomi Rautanen
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention (VERIFIN), Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, A.I. Virtasen Aukio 1, FI-00014, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Thomas Lang
- Thünen Institute for Fisheries Ecology, Herwigstraße 31, 27572, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Kari K Lehtonen
- Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), Marine Research Centre, Agnes Sjöbergin Katu 2, FI-00790, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Paula Vanninen
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention (VERIFIN), Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, A.I. Virtasen Aukio 1, FI-00014, University of Helsinki, Finland
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14
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Ahvo A, Lehtonen KK, Lastumäki A, Straumer K, Kraugerud M, Feist SW, Lang T, Tørnes JA. The use of Atlantic hagfish (Myxine glutinosa) as a bioindicator species for studies on effects of dumped chemical warfare agents in the Skagerrak. 2. Biochemical biomarkers. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 162:105097. [PMID: 32992222 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2020.105097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2020] [Revised: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The sea bottom of the Skagerrak Strait (North Sea) contains munitions loaded with chemical warfare agents (CWA), mostly stored in shipwrecks scuttled intentionally after the end of the World War II. The munition shells inside the wrecks are in different states of deterioration and corrosion and their environmental risk potential is unknown. The Atlantic hagfish (Myxine glutinosa), a sediment-dwelling chordate, was used as a model organism to study the potential impact of dumped CWA on the local ecosystem by using biochemical biomarkers. The hagfish were collected in 2017 and 2018 at three sampling sites: in the immediate vicinity of a wreck with CWA in the Skagerrak, a few kilometres from the wreck, and a reference site 21 km from the wreck, considered to be free of CWA. Significant differences were observed between the wreck site and the reference sites in the activities of glutathione reductase, superoxide dismutase and glutathione S-transferase, while the activity levels of catalase and acetylcholinesterase were identical at all sites. The recorded differences demonstrated negative biological effects in the hagfish sampled close to the dumped chemical munitions. Due to the limited knowledge of hagfish biology and of the extent of CWA contamination in Skagerrak, the results presented here warrant more research to further elucidate the potential environmental risks of the scuttled wrecks. The usefulness of the species as a bioindicator organism is further discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Ahvo
- Finnish Environment Institute, Marine Research Centre, Agnes Sjöbergin Katu 2, 00790, Helsinki, Finland.
| | - K K Lehtonen
- Finnish Environment Institute, Marine Research Centre, Agnes Sjöbergin Katu 2, 00790, Helsinki, Finland
| | - A Lastumäki
- Finnish Environment Institute, Marine Research Centre, Agnes Sjöbergin Katu 2, 00790, Helsinki, Finland
| | - K Straumer
- Thünen Institute of Fisheries Ecology, Herwigstrasse 31, 27527, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - M Kraugerud
- FishVet Group, Benchmark Norway AS, P. O. Box 1012, 0218, Oslo, Norway
| | - S W Feist
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Weymouth Laboratory, Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, UK
| | - T Lang
- Thünen Institute of Fisheries Ecology, Herwigstrasse 31, 27527, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - J A Tørnes
- Norwegian Defence Research Establishment, Instituttveien 20, 2007, Kjeller, Norway
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15
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Jakacki J, Andrzejewski J, Przyborska A, Muzyka M, Gordon D, Nawała J, Popiel S, Golenko M, Zhurbas V, Paka V. High resolution model for assessment of contamination by chemical warfare agents dumped in the Baltic Sea. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 161:105079. [PMID: 32877876 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2020.105079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2020] [Revised: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The leakage of any substances at the sea bottom consequently leads to contamination. The polluted area will strongly depend on the type of pollution which can be dissolved, material and the physical state of the bottom layers. Although the systems that monitor the particles or pollution on the sea surface already exists, there is no similar tool for the bottom area. This work aims at developing the High Resolution Dispersion Model (HRDM) that calculates transport of the pollution in case of potential leakage from chemical ammunition dumped into the Baltic Sea. The model has been embedded into existing operational system that covers the whole region of the Baltic Sea. Thus, it consists of the three main elements: operational atmospheric model that makes calculations every day, coupled ice-ocean model covering the whole Baltic Sea area and HRDM. The horizontal resolution of the atmospheric part is about 10 km, the coupled system is driven on 2.3 km grid and HRDM is implemented on 50 m horizontal resolution. The clients are able to make integration since 2014. Access to the system is granted via REpresentational State Transfer (REST) API that separates user interface from the server site. It is possible to make simulations for instantaneous and continuous type of leakage. The results are served in binary form (as a netcdf file) and as a georeferenced tiff picture. The temporal resolution of the output data is 1 h. The HRDM consists of half-life of sulfur mustard and the results for both - with and without half-life calculations are included in the output files. The HRDM has been created as a part of Decision Support System and is not (and will not be) available for public.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaromir Jakacki
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sopot, Poland.
| | - Jan Andrzejewski
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sopot, Poland
| | - Anna Przyborska
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sopot, Poland
| | - Maciej Muzyka
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sopot, Poland
| | - Diana Gordon
- Military University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Jakub Nawała
- Military University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland
| | | | - Maria Golenko
- Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Victor Zhurbas
- Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Vadim Paka
- Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation
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16
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Lastumäki A, Turja R, Brenner M, Vanninen P, Niemikoski H, Butrimavičienė L, Stankevičiūtė M, Lehtonen KK. Biological effects of dumped chemical weapons in the Baltic Sea: A multi-biomarker study using caged mussels at the Bornholm main dumping site. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 161:105036. [PMID: 32829123 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2020.105036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Revised: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
After World War II, thousands of tons of highly toxic chemical warfare agents (CWA) were deposited in the Baltic Sea, the main dumping site locating in the Bornholm Basin. In the present study, Baltic mussels (Mytilus trossulus) were transplanted in the area in cages at two hotspot sites and a reference site at the depths of 35 and 65 m for 2.5 months to study bioaccumulation and biological effects of CWA possibly leaking from the corroding warfare materials. No traces of degradation products of the measured phenylarsenic CWA could be detected in the tissues of mussels. Nevertheless, several biochemical and histochemical biomarkers, geno- and cytotoxicity indicators, and bioenergetic parameters showed significant responses. The Integrated Biomarker Index calculated from the single biomarkers also showed a higher total response at the two hotspot areas compared to the reference site. Although no direct evidence could be obtained confirming the responses being caused specifically by exposure to CWA, the field exposure experiment showed unambiguously that organisms in this sea area are confronting environmental stress affecting negatively their health and this is likely related to chemical contamination, which is possibly connected to the sea-dumped CWA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anu Lastumäki
- Finnish Environment Institute, Marine Research Centre, Agnes Sjöbergin katu 2, FI-00790, Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Raisa Turja
- Finnish Environment Institute, Marine Research Centre, Agnes Sjöbergin katu 2, FI-00790, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Matthias Brenner
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, D-27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Paula Vanninen
- VERIFIN, Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention, Department of Chemistry, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Hanna Niemikoski
- VERIFIN, Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention, Department of Chemistry, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | | | | | - Kari K Lehtonen
- Finnish Environment Institute, Marine Research Centre, Agnes Sjöbergin katu 2, FI-00790, Helsinki, Finland
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17
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Straumer K, Kraugerud M, Feist SW, Ahvo A, Lehtonen K, Lastumäki A, Ljønes M, Tørnes JA, Lang T. The use of Atlantic hagfish (Myxine glutinosa) as a bioindicator species for studies on effects of dumped chemical warfare agents in the Skagerrak. 1: Liver histopathology. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 161:105046. [PMID: 33070929 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2020.105046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Within the framework of the international project DAIMON (Decision Aid for Marine Munitions), the impact of dumped chemical munitions on fish health was investigated. The Skagerrak Straight (North Sea, at 600 m depth) contains munitions with chemical warfare agents (CWA), scuttled after the end of World War II. Studies of liver histopathology in Atlantic hagfish (Myxine glutinosa) were carried out at three sampling sites: at a wreck with CWA in the Skagerrak (n = 82), a Skagerrak reference site considered to be free of CWA (n = 14) and at a reference site in the northern North Sea outside the Skagerrak (n = 17). Liver lesions were diagnosed and categorized according to standardized ICES and BEQUALM protocols and OSPAR guidelines. Non-specific liver lesions were found in 87.6% of 113 hagfish examined. The prevalence of pre-neoplastic lesions was 7.1% and of neoplastic lesions 6.2%. There was no statistically significant difference in prevalence between hagfish samples from the wreck site and from the reference site near the wrecks. However, at the reference site in the northern North Sea, the prevalence of non-specific lesions was low and neither pre-neoplastic nor neoplastic lesions were observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Straumer
- Thünen Institute of Fisheries Ecology, Herwigstr. 31, 27527, Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | - M Kraugerud
- FishVet Group, Benchmark Norway AS, P. O. Box 1012, 0218, Oslo, Norway
| | - S W Feist
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Weymouth Laboratory, Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, UK
| | - A Ahvo
- Finnish Environment Institute, P.O. Box 2, FI-00561, Helsinki, Finland
| | - K Lehtonen
- Finnish Environment Institute, P.O. Box 2, FI-00561, Helsinki, Finland
| | - A Lastumäki
- Finnish Environment Institute, P.O. Box 2, FI-00561, Helsinki, Finland
| | - M Ljønes
- Norwegian Defence Research Establishment, Instituttveien 20, 2007, Kjeller, Norway
| | - J Aa Tørnes
- Norwegian Defence Research Establishment, Instituttveien 20, 2007, Kjeller, Norway
| | - T Lang
- Thünen Institute of Fisheries Ecology, Herwigstr. 31, 27527, Bremerhaven, Germany
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18
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Vanninen P, Östin A, Bełdowski J, Pedersen EA, Söderström M, Szubska M, Grabowski M, Siedlewicz G, Czub M, Popiel S, Nawała J, Dziedzic D, Jakacki J, Pączek B. Exposure status of sea-dumped chemical warfare agents in the Baltic Sea. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 161:105112. [PMID: 32861968 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2020.105112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
About 50 000 tons of chemical weapons (CW) were dumped to the Baltic Sea after the Second World War. Munitions are located in the deep areas of the Baltic Sea, and there they act as a point source of contamination to the ecosystem. Corroded munitions release chemical warfare agents (CWAs) to nearby water and sediments. In this study we investigated known dumpsites (Bornholm, Gotland and Gdansk Deep) and dispersed chemical munitions, to evaluate the extent of contamination of nearby sediments, as well as to assess the degradation process of released CWA. It was found that CWA-related phenylarsenic chemicals (Clark I, Clark II and Adamsite) and sulfur mustard are released to the sediments and undergo environmental degradation to chemicals, of which some remain toxic. The extent of pollution of released CWAs and their corresponding degradation products reaches more than 250 m from the CW objects, and seem to follow a power curve decrease of concentration from the source. Bornholm Deep is characterised with the highest concentration of CWAs in sediments, but occasional concentration peaks are also observed in the Gdansk Deep and close to dispersed munitions. Detailed investigation of spreading pattern show that the range of pollution depends on bottom currents and topography.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Vanninen
- VERIFIN, Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, A.I. Virtasen Aukio 1, 00014, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Anders Östin
- FOI, CBRN-Defence & Security, The Swedish Defense Research Agency, Cementvägen 20, SE-901 82, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Jacek Bełdowski
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Ul. Powstańców Warszawy 55, 81-712, Sopot, Poland.
| | - Erik A Pedersen
- Military University of Technology, Ul. Gen. Sylwestra Kaliskiego 2, 00 - 908, Warsaw, Poland
| | | | - Marta Szubska
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Ul. Powstańców Warszawy 55, 81-712, Sopot, Poland
| | - Miłosz Grabowski
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Ul. Powstańców Warszawy 55, 81-712, Sopot, Poland
| | - Grzegorz Siedlewicz
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Ul. Powstańców Warszawy 55, 81-712, Sopot, Poland
| | - Michał Czub
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Ul. Powstańców Warszawy 55, 81-712, Sopot, Poland
| | - Stanisław Popiel
- Military University of Technology, Ul. Gen. Sylwestra Kaliskiego 2, 00 - 908, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Jakub Nawała
- Military University of Technology, Ul. Gen. Sylwestra Kaliskiego 2, 00 - 908, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Daniel Dziedzic
- Military University of Technology, Ul. Gen. Sylwestra Kaliskiego 2, 00 - 908, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Jaromir Jakacki
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Ul. Powstańców Warszawy 55, 81-712, Sopot, Poland
| | - Bartłomiej Pączek
- PNA, Polish Naval Academy, Ul. Śmidowicza 69, 81-127, Gdynia, Poland
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19
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Koske D, Goldenstein NI, Rosenberger T, Machulik U, Hanel R, Kammann U. Dumped munitions: New insights into the metabolization of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene in Baltic flatfish. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 160:104992. [PMID: 32907729 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2020.104992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2019] [Revised: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Livers from dab (Limanda limanda), plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) and flounder (Platichthys flesus) sampled from the Baltic Sea were used to determine the interaction of flatfish CYP1A enzymes with 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) in vitro. Competitive inhibition of 7-ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) and 7-methoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (MROD) could be demonstrated for all three flatfish species. The highest inhibition of CYP1A activities was measured in liver samples of flounder resulting in a half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 28.1 μM TNT. Due to their lower inhibition (EROD IC50 65.2 μM TNT, MROD IC50 40.3 μM TNT), dab liver samples were used to conduct in vitro metabolization experiments with TNT. The metabolization of TNT in fish was investigated with post-mitochondrial fractions (PMF) of dab liver as a model system after adding different cofactors. Rapid and time-dependent enzymatic degradation of TNT was observed. The concentrations of 4-amino-2,6-dinitrotoluene and 2-amino-4,6-dinitrotoluene increased in the samples over time. Additionally, 2,2,6,6-tetranitro-4,4-azoxytoluene was detected in one sample. The results of this study indicate that in vitro experiments are useful to investigate the xenobiotic metabolism of fish under controlled conditions prior to field studies. The metabolites found can serve as target compounds for marine monitoring of TNT contamination in munition dumpsites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Koske
- Thünen-Institute of Fisheries Ecology, Herwigstraße 31, 27572, Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | - Nadine I Goldenstein
- Thünen-Institute of Fisheries Ecology, Herwigstraße 31, 27572, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Timothy Rosenberger
- Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment, Carl-von-Ossietzky University, Carl-von-Ossietzky Straße 9-11, 26111, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Ulrike Machulik
- Thünen-Institute of Fisheries Ecology, Herwigstraße 31, 27572, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Reinhold Hanel
- Thünen-Institute of Fisheries Ecology, Herwigstraße 31, 27572, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Ulrike Kammann
- Thünen-Institute of Fisheries Ecology, Herwigstraße 31, 27572, Bremerhaven, Germany
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20
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Niemikoski H, Koske D, Kammann U, Lang T, Vanninen P. Studying the metabolism of toxic chemical warfare agent-related phenylarsenic chemicals in vitro in cod liver. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2020; 391:122221. [PMID: 32045807 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2019] [Revised: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/01/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Large quantities of chemical warfare agents (CWAs), such as phenylarsenic chemicals, were disposed by sea-dumping after World War II. Nowadays, the release of these toxic chemicals from munitions poses a potential threat to living organisms. This study investigates the fate of these chemicals in fish by exposing selected CWA-related phenylarsenic chemicals and their oxidation products to cod (Gadus morhua) liver S9 fraction in vitro. Clark I (DA), Adamsite (DM) and their corresponding oxidation products as well as triphenylarsine oxide (TPA[ox]) and phenylarsonic acid (PDCA[ox]) were used as chemicals in in vitro experiments. Glutathione (GSH) conjugates of DA, DM and PDCA-related chemicals were found to be the most dominant metabolites, and methylated metabolites were detected as well, suggesting that these compounds are metabolised in the presence of cod liver enzymes. TPA[ox] was the only compound tested that did not form a GSH conjugate or methylated metabolite, indicating a different biotransformation pathway for this compound. Furthermore, hydroxylated metabolites were detected for each tested chemical. Due to their reactive nature, GSH conjugates may be difficult to detect in fish samples from CWA dumpsites. In contrast, both methylated and hydroxylated metabolites of phenylarsenic chemicals are promising target chemicals for the detection of CWA-related contamination in fish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Niemikoski
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention (VERIFIN), Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Daniel Koske
- Thünen-Institute of Fisheries Ecology, Herwigstraße 31, 27572, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Ulrike Kammann
- Thünen-Institute of Fisheries Ecology, Herwigstraße 31, 27572, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Thomas Lang
- Thünen-Institute of Fisheries Ecology, Herwigstraße 31, 27572, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Paula Vanninen
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention (VERIFIN), Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
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21
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Strehse JS, Maser E. Marine bivalves as bioindicators for environmental pollutants with focus on dumped munitions in the sea: A review. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 158:105006. [PMID: 32501270 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2020.105006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2020] [Revised: 04/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The seas worldwide are threatened by a "new" source of pollution. Munitions dumped into the seas worldwide will corrode and start to leak. Their impacts on the environment and on human health are now more than ever subject of scientific research. Bivalves are a first choice bioindicator and their importance is demonstrated in numerous worldwide studies as well as their integration in important monitoring programs. In this review, the use of mussels in context with marine pollutants in recent years is pointed out in general but with a special focus on dumped conventional and chemical munitions. Monitoring experiments with mussels are able to generate large data sets, which should be mandatory included in decision support tools to increase their weight of evidence. The usefulness of mussels with regard to dumped munitions has clearly been documented in recent years and the further application of this important biomonitoring system is strongly recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer S Strehse
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Kiel, Brunswiker Str. 10, 24105, Kiel, Germany.
| | - Edmund Maser
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Kiel, Brunswiker Str. 10, 24105, Kiel, Germany.
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22
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Niemikoski H, Söderström M, Kiljunen H, Östin A, Vanninen P. Identification of Degradation Products of Sea-Dumped Chemical Warfare Agent-Related Phenylarsenic Chemicals in Marine Sediment. Anal Chem 2020; 92:4891-4899. [PMID: 32124603 PMCID: PMC7497621 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b04681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Previously unknown phenylarsenic chemicals that originated from chemical warfare agents (CWAs) have been detected and identified in sediment samples collected from the vicinity of chemical munition dumpsites. Nontargeted screening by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS) was used for detection of 14 unknown CWA-related phenylarsenic chemicals. Methylated forms of Clark I/II, Adamsite, and phenyldichloroarsine were detected in all analyzed sediment samples, and their identification was based on synthesized chemicals. In addition, other previously unknown CWA-related phenylarsenic chemicals were detected, and their structures were elucidated using MS/HRMS technique. On the basis of relative isotope ratios of protonated molecules and measures of exact masses of formed fragment ions, it could be concluded that some of these unknown chemicals contained a sulfur atom attached to an arsenic atom. In addition to that, some of the samples contained chemicals that had formed via addition of an OH group to the aromatic ring. However, it is not possible to say how these chemicals are formed, but the most plausible cause is activities of marine microbes in the sediment. To our knowledge, these chemicals have not been detected from sediment samples previously. Sensitive analytical methods are needed for these novel chemicals to assess the total CWA burden in marine sediments, and this information is essential for the risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Niemikoski
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention, VERIFIN, Department of Chemistry, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Martin Söderström
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention, VERIFIN, Department of Chemistry, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Harri Kiljunen
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention, VERIFIN, Department of Chemistry, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Anders Östin
- Swedish Defence Research Agency, FOI, SE-90182 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Paula Vanninen
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention, VERIFIN, Department of Chemistry, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014University of Helsinki, Finland
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23
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Beck AJ, van der Lee EM, Eggert A, Stamer B, Gledhill M, Schlosser C, Achterberg EP. In Situ Measurements of Explosive Compound Dissolution Fluxes from Exposed Munition Material in the Baltic Sea. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:5652-5660. [PMID: 30997802 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b06974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Underwater munitions containing millions of tons of toxic explosives are present worldwide in coastal marine waters as a result of unexploded ordnance and intentional dumping. The dissolution flux of solid explosives following corrosion of metal munition housings controls the exposure of biological receptors to toxic munition compounds (MC), including TNT: 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene, RDX: 1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazinane, and DNB: 1,3-dinitrobenzene. Very little is known about the dissolution behavior of MC in the marine environment. In this work, we exploit a unique marine study site in the Baltic Sea with exposed solid explosives to quantify in situ MC dissolution fluxes using dissolved MC gradients near the exposed explosive surface, as well as benthic chamber incubations. The gradient method gave dissolution fluxes that ranged between 0.001 and 3.2, between 0.0001 and 0.04, and between 0.003 and 1.7 mg cm-2 day-1 for TNT, RDX, and DNB, respectively. Benthic chamber incubations indicated dissolution fluxes of 0.0047-0.277, 0-0.11, and 0.00047-1.45 mg cm-2 day-1 for TNT, RDX, and DNB, respectively. In situ dissolution fluxes estimated in the current study were lower than most dissolution rates reported for laboratory experiments, but they clearly demonstrated that MC are released from underwater munitions to the water column in the Baltic Sea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron J Beck
- GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel , Wischhofstraße 1-3 , 24148 Kiel , Germany
| | - Eefke M van der Lee
- Leibniz-Institute for Baltic Sea Research Warnemünde , Seestraße 15 , 18119 Rostock , Germany
| | - Anja Eggert
- Leibniz-Institute for Baltic Sea Research Warnemünde , Seestraße 15 , 18119 Rostock , Germany
| | - Beate Stamer
- GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel , Wischhofstraße 1-3 , 24148 Kiel , Germany
| | - Martha Gledhill
- GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel , Wischhofstraße 1-3 , 24148 Kiel , Germany
| | - Christian Schlosser
- GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel , Wischhofstraße 1-3 , 24148 Kiel , Germany
| | - Eric P Achterberg
- GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel , Wischhofstraße 1-3 , 24148 Kiel , Germany
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24
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Höher N, Turja R, Brenner M, Nyholm JR, Östin A, Leffler P, Butrimavičienė L, Baršienė J, Halme M, Karjalainen M, Niemikoski H, Vanninen P, Broeg K, Lehtonen KK, Berglind R. Toxic effects of chemical warfare agent mixtures on the mussel Mytilus trossulus in the Baltic Sea: A laboratory exposure study. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2019; 145:112-122. [PMID: 30850117 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2019.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2018] [Revised: 01/24/2019] [Accepted: 02/01/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Baltic blue mussels (Mytilus trossulus) were implemented to assess potential toxicity, health impairments and bioaccumulation of dumped chemical warfare agents on marine benthic organisms. Mussels were collected from a pristine cultivation side and exposed under laboratory conditions to different mixtures of chemical warfare agents (CWAs) related phenyl arsenic compounds, Clark I and Adamsite as well as chloroacetophenone. Using a multi-biomarker approach, mussels were assessed thereafter for effects at different organisational levels ranging from geno-to cytotoxic effects, differences in enzyme kinetics and immunological responses. In an integrated approach, chemical analysis of water and tissue of the test organisms was performed in parallel. The results show clearly that exposed mussels bioaccumulate the oxidized forms of chemical warfare agents Clark I, Adamsite (DAox and DMox) and, to a certain extent, also chloroacetophenone into their tissues. Adverse effects in the test organisms at subcellular and functional level, including cytotoxic, immunotoxic and oxidative stress effects were visible. These acute effects occurred even at the lowest test concentration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Höher
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Raisa Turja
- Marine Research Centre, Finnish Environment Institute, Agnes Sjöbergin Katu 2, 00790, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Matthias Brenner
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | | | - Anders Östin
- Swedish Defence Research Agency, Cementvägen 20, 90182, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Per Leffler
- Swedish Defence Research Agency, Cementvägen 20, 90182, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Laura Butrimavičienė
- Institute of Ecology of Nature Research Centre, Akademijos Str. 2, 08412, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Janina Baršienė
- Institute of Ecology of Nature Research Centre, Akademijos Str. 2, 08412, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Mia Halme
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention (VERIFIN), Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, Yliopistonkatu 4, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Maaret Karjalainen
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention (VERIFIN), Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, Yliopistonkatu 4, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Hanna Niemikoski
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention (VERIFIN), Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, Yliopistonkatu 4, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Paula Vanninen
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention (VERIFIN), Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, Yliopistonkatu 4, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Katja Broeg
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Kari K Lehtonen
- Marine Research Centre, Finnish Environment Institute, Agnes Sjöbergin Katu 2, 00790, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Rune Berglind
- Swedish Defence Research Agency, Cementvägen 20, 90182, Umeå, Sweden
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25
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Timperley CM, Forman JE, Abdollahi M, Al-Amri AS, Alonso IP, Baulig A, Borrett V, Cariño FA, Curty C, Berrutti DG, Kovarik Z, Martínez-Álvarez R, Mikulak R, Mourão NMF, Ponnadurai R, Neffe S, Raza SK, Rubaylo V, Takeuchi K, Tang C, Trifirò F, van Straten FM, Vanninen PS, Zaitsev V, Waqar F, Zina MS, Blum MM, Gregg H, Fischer E, Sun S, Yang P. Advice on chemical weapons sample stability and storage provided by the Scientific Advisory Board of the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons to increase investigative capabilities worldwide. Talanta 2018; 188:808-832. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2018.04.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2018] [Revised: 04/03/2018] [Accepted: 04/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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26
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Valskienė R, Baršienė J, Butrimavičienė L, Grygiel W, Stunžėnas V, Jokšas K, Stankevičiūtė M. Environmental genotoxicity and cytotoxicity levels in herring (Clupea harengus), flounder (Platichthys flesus) and cod (Gadus morhua) inhabiting the Gdansk Basin of the Baltic Sea. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2018; 133:65-76. [PMID: 30041361 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2017] [Revised: 05/10/2018] [Accepted: 05/12/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Frequencies of eight nuclear abnormalities (NAs) reflecting environmental genotoxicity and cytotoxicity, were examined in 739 specimens of herring (Clupea harengus), flounder (Platichthys flesus) and cod (Gadus morhua) collected between 2009 and 2017 at 50 study stations located in the Gulf of Gdansk and the southern part of the Gdansk Deep (the Baltic Sea). The highest levels of geno-cytotoxicity were recorded in fish caught at stations located in close proximity to chemical and conventional munitions dumping sites or in zones polluted by Chemical Warfare Agents (CWAs). The values of NAs were significantly higher (up to 51-fold compared with the reference level) in herring caught at seven stations and in cod from one station located close to the munitions dumping sites. Exceptionally high total genotoxicity (∑Gtox) risk was found for flounder collected from 18 (72.0%) stations, herring caught at 12 (38.7%) stations and cod caught at four (17.4%) studied stations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Janina Baršienė
- Nature Research Centre, Akademijos 2, 08412 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | | | - Wlodzimierz Grygiel
- National Marine Fisheries Research Institute, 1 Kollataja Street, 81-332 Gdynia, Poland
| | | | - Kęstutis Jokšas
- Nature Research Centre, Akademijos 2, 08412 Vilnius, Lithuania
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27
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Jõul P, Vaher M, Kuhtinskaja M. Evaluation of carbon aerogel-based solid-phase extraction sorbent for the analysis of sulfur mustard degradation products in environmental water samples. CHEMOSPHERE 2018; 198:460-468. [PMID: 29425946 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.01.157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2017] [Revised: 01/19/2018] [Accepted: 01/28/2018] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
In this study, SPE method using a carbon aerogel(CA)-based sorbent was developed and evaluated for the simultaneous extraction of sulfur mustard (HD) degradation products from environmental water samples. Applied CAs proved to be very promising materials for use as SPE sorbents, due to their high porosity, very low density and a large specific surface area. 10 degradation products of HD, both aliphatic and cyclic (thiodiglycol (TDG), TDG sulfoxide, TDG sulfone, 3,5-dithia-1,7-heptanediol, 3,6-dithia-1,8-octanediol, 1,4-thioxane, 1,3-dithiolane, 1,4-dithiane, 1,2,5-trithiepane, and 1,4,5-oxadithiepane) were extracted on a CA-based SPE cartridge. The concentrations of target analytes in the eluate were determined by HPLC-DAD and CE-DAD. Several parameters affecting the extraction efficiency, including the kind and volume of the eluting solvent, sample loading flow rate, volume and ionic strength as well as the reusability of the cartridge, were investigated and optimized to achieve the best performance for the analytes. A series of quantitative parameters such as linear range, coefficient of determination, LOD, LOQ and precision were examined under the optimized conditions. High sensitivity (LODs 0.17-0.50 μM) and high precision (intraday RSD = 2.0-7.7% and interday RSD = 2.7-9.9%) for all the analytes were achieved. The performance of the CA-based sorbent was compared with that of commonly used SPE sorbents. Applied for the analysis of spiked pore water samples collected from the Bornholm Basin, one of the largest chemical warfare dumping sites in the Baltic Sea, the proposed method allowed high SPE recoveries of all the analytes ranging from 83.5 to 99.7% to be obtained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piia Jõul
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn, Estonia.
| | - Merike Vaher
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn, Estonia
| | - Maria Kuhtinskaja
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn, Estonia
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28
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Czub M, Kotwicki L, Lang T, Sanderson H, Klusek Z, Grabowski M, Szubska M, Jakacki J, Andrzejewski J, Rak D, Bełdowski J. Deep sea habitats in the chemical warfare dumping areas of the Baltic Sea. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 616-617:1485-1497. [PMID: 29111251 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2017] [Revised: 10/16/2017] [Accepted: 10/16/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The Baltic Sea is a severely disturbed marine ecosystem that has previously been used as a dumping ground for Chemical Warfare Agents (CW). The presence of unexploded underwater ordnance is an additional risk factor for offshore activities and an environmental risk for the natural resources of the sea. In this paper, the focus is on descriptions of the marine habitat based on the observations arising from studies linked to the CHEMSEA, MODUM and DAIMON projects. Investigated areas of Bornholm, Gotland and Gdańsk Deeps are similarly affected by the Baltic Sea eutrophication, however, at depths greater than 70m several differences in local hydrological regimes and pore-water heavy metal concentrations between those basins were observed. During the lifespan of presented studies, we were able to observe the effects of Major Baltic Inflow, that started in December 2014, on local biota and their habitats, especially in the Bornholm Deep area. Reappearance of several meiofauna taxa and one macrofauna specimen was observed approximately one year after this phenomenon, however it's ecological effects already disappeared in March 2017. According to our findings and to the EUNIS Habitat Classification, the three reviewed areas should be characterized as Deep Sea Muddy Sands, while the presence of suspicious bomb-like objects both beneath and on top of the sediments confirms their CW dumpsite status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michał Czub
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Powstańców Warszawy 55, 81-712 Sopot, Poland.
| | - Lech Kotwicki
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Powstańców Warszawy 55, 81-712 Sopot, Poland
| | - Thomas Lang
- Thünen Institute of Fisheries Ecology, Deichstraße 12, 27472 Cuxhaven, Germany
| | - Hans Sanderson
- Aarhus University, Department of Environmental Science, 399 Frederiksborgvej, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Zygmunt Klusek
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Powstańców Warszawy 55, 81-712 Sopot, Poland
| | - Miłosz Grabowski
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Powstańców Warszawy 55, 81-712 Sopot, Poland
| | - Marta Szubska
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Powstańców Warszawy 55, 81-712 Sopot, Poland
| | - Jaromir Jakacki
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Powstańców Warszawy 55, 81-712 Sopot, Poland
| | - Jan Andrzejewski
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Powstańców Warszawy 55, 81-712 Sopot, Poland
| | - Daniel Rak
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Powstańców Warszawy 55, 81-712 Sopot, Poland
| | - Jacek Bełdowski
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Powstańców Warszawy 55, 81-712 Sopot, Poland
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Gorecki S, Nesslany F, Hubé D, Mullot JU, Vasseur P, Marchioni E, Camel V, Noël L, Le Bizec B, Guérin T, Feidt C, Archer X, Mahe A, Rivière G. Human health risks related to the consumption of foodstuffs of plant and animal origin produced on a site polluted by chemical munitions of the First World War. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2017; 599-600:314-323. [PMID: 28478360 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.04.213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2017] [Revised: 04/14/2017] [Accepted: 04/27/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Shells fired during World War I exhibited different explosive compounds and some of these weapons also contained a wide variety of chemical warfare agents. At the end of the war, for safety purposes, the large quantity of weapons remaining on the former front needed to be dismantled and destroyed. A large amount of the remaining shells was destroyed in specific sites which led to the contamination of the surroundings in Belgium and France. In the 1920s, 1.5 million chemical shells and 30,000 explosive shells were destroyed in a place close to the city of Verdun, in the East of France. In this paper, the risk for human health related to the consumption of foodstuffs produced on this site was assessed. To this end, food products of plant and animal origin were sampled in 2015-2016 and contaminant analyses were conducted. Human exposure was assessed using a specifically built methodology. The contaminants considered in this study were trace elements (TEs - primarily Zn, As, Pb and Cd), nitroaromatic explosives (trinitrotoluene, 2,4-dinitrotoluene, 2,6-dinitrotoluene, 2-amino-4,6-dinitroluene and 4-amino-2,6-dinitrotoluene), phenylarsenic compounds including diphenylarsinic acid and triphenylarsine, perchlorate, tetrabromoethane and vinyl bromide. Depending on the compound, different approaches were used to assess the risk for both adults and children. Exposure to these contaminants through the consumption of foodstuffs produced locally on the considered site was unlikely to be a health concern. However, as for inorganic arsenic, given the presence of highly contaminated zones, it was suggested that cereals should not be grown on certain plots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sébastien Gorecki
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, 14 rue Pierre & Marie Curie, F-94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Fabrice Nesslany
- Laboratoire de Toxicologie Génétique, Institut Pasteur de Lille, Lille, France
| | - Daniel Hubé
- BRGM, French Geological Survey, 6 avenue Claude Guillemin, 45000, Orléans, France
| | - Jean-Ulrich Mullot
- Navy Expert Lab of Toulon, BCRM Toulon, BN/LASEM, 83800 Toulon, Cedex 9, France
| | | | - Eric Marchioni
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, UMR 7178, F67037 Strasbourg, France
| | - Valérie Camel
- UMR Ingénierie Procédés Aliments, AgroParisTech, Inra, Université Paris-Saclay, 91300 Massy, France
| | - Laurent Noël
- The French Directorate General for Food, Ministry of Agriculture, Agro-16 Food and Forestry, Paris, France
| | - Bruno Le Bizec
- ONIRIS - LABERCA, Atlanpole - La Chantrerie, BP 40706, Nantes F-44307, France
| | - Thierry Guérin
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, 14 rue Pierre & Marie Curie, F-94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Cyril Feidt
- Université de Lorraine, INRA, 2 avenue de la forêt de Haye, TSA 40602, 54518 Vandoeuvre Cedex, France
| | - Xavier Archer
- Central Laboratory of Police Prefecture (LCPP), 39 bis rue de Dantzig, 75015, Paris, France
| | - Aurélie Mahe
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, 14 rue Pierre & Marie Curie, F-94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Gilles Rivière
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, 14 rue Pierre & Marie Curie, F-94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
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Niemikoski H, Söderström M, Vanninen P. Detection of Chemical Warfare Agent-Related Phenylarsenic Compounds in Marine Biota Samples by LC-HESI/MS/MS. Anal Chem 2017; 89:11129-11134. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.7b03429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Niemikoski
- VERIFIN, Finnish Institute for Verification
of The Chemical Weapons Convention, Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Martin Söderström
- VERIFIN, Finnish Institute for Verification
of The Chemical Weapons Convention, Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Paula Vanninen
- VERIFIN, Finnish Institute for Verification
of The Chemical Weapons Convention, Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
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31
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Lees H, Vaher M, Kaljurand M. Development and comparison of HPLC and MEKC methods for the analysis of cyclic sulfur mustard degradation products. Electrophoresis 2017; 38:1075-1082. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201600418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2016] [Revised: 12/05/2016] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Heidi Lees
- Department of Chemistry; Tallinn University of Technology; Tallinn Estonia
| | - Merike Vaher
- Department of Chemistry; Tallinn University of Technology; Tallinn Estonia
| | - Mihkel Kaljurand
- Department of Chemistry; Tallinn University of Technology; Tallinn Estonia
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Tornero V, Hanke G. Chemical contaminants entering the marine environment from sea-based sources: A review with a focus on European seas. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2016; 112:17-38. [PMID: 27444857 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.06.091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2016] [Revised: 06/22/2016] [Accepted: 06/27/2016] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Anthropogenic contaminants reach the marine environment mostly directly from land-based sources, but there are cases in which they are emitted or re-mobilized in the marine environment itself. This paper reviews the literature, with a predominant focus on the European environment, to compile a list of contaminants potentially released into the sea from sea-based sources and provide an overview of their consideration under existing EU regulatory frameworks. The resulting list contains 276 substances and for some of them (22 antifouling biocides, 32 aquaculture medicinal products and 34 warfare agents) concentrations and toxicity data are additionally provided. The EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive Descriptor 8, together with the Water Framework Directive and the Regional Sea Conventions, provides the provisions against pollution of marine waters by chemical substances. This literature review should inform about the current state of knowledge regarding marine contaminant sources and provide support for setting-up of monitoring approaches, including hotspots screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Tornero
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Institute for Environment and Sustainability (IES), Water Resources Unit, Enrico Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra, Italy.
| | - Georg Hanke
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Institute for Environment and Sustainability (IES), Water Resources Unit, Enrico Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra, Italy
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Development of the HS-SPME-GC-MS/MS method for analysis of chemical warfare agent and their degradation products in environmental samples. Anal Chim Acta 2016; 933:103-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2016.05.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2016] [Revised: 05/24/2016] [Accepted: 05/25/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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34
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Baršienė J, Butrimavičienė L, Grygiel W, Stunžėnas V, Valskienė R, Greiciūnaitė J, Stankevičiūtė M. Environmental genotoxicity assessment along the transport routes of chemical munitions leading to the dumping areas in the Baltic Sea. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2016; 103:45-53. [PMID: 26763319 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.12.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2015] [Revised: 12/22/2015] [Accepted: 12/23/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The frequencies of micronuclei (MN), nuclear buds (NB) and nuclear buds on filament (NBf) were examined in 660 specimens of herring (Clupea harengus) collected in 2009-2014 at 65 study stations located mainly along the chemical munition transport routes in the Baltic Sea. The frequency of nuclear abnormalities was strongly increased in herring caught at four stations located close to chemical munition dumping sites, or CWAs - substances (chemical warfare agents) in sediments. Significant increase of MN, NB and NBf was observed in fish caught November 2010-2013 compared to 2009. The most significantly increased genotoxicity responses were recorded in fish caught at stations along CW (chemical weapons) transport routes, close to the Bornholm CW dumping area, in zones with CWAs in sediments and with oil-gas platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janina Baršienė
- Nature Research Centre, Akademijos 2, 08412, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | | | - Włodzimierz Grygiel
- National Marine Fisheries Research Institute in Gdynia, 1 Kollataja Street, 81-332 Gdynia, Poland
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35
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Magnusson R, Nordlander T, Östin A. Development of a dynamic headspace gas chromatography–mass spectrometry method for on-site analysis of sulfur mustard degradation products in sediments. J Chromatogr A 2016; 1429:40-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2015.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2015] [Revised: 12/03/2015] [Accepted: 12/04/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Greenberg MI, Sexton KJ, Vearrier D. Sea-dumped chemical weapons: environmental risk, occupational hazard. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2015; 54:79-91. [PMID: 26692048 DOI: 10.3109/15563650.2015.1121272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Chemical weapons dumped into the ocean for disposal in the twentieth century pose a continuing environmental and human health risk. OBJECTIVE In this review we discuss locations, quantity, and types of sea-dumped chemical weapons, related environmental concerns, and human encounters with sea-dumped chemical weapons. METHODS We utilized the Ovid (http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com) and PubMed (http://www.pubmed.org) search engines to perform MEDLINE searches for the terms 'sea-dumped chemical weapons', 'chemical warfare agents', and 'chemical munitions'. The searches returned 5863 articles. Irrelevant and non-English articles were excluded. A review of the references for these articles yielded additional relevant sources, with a total of 64 peer-reviewed articles cited in this paper. History and geography of chemical weapons dumping at sea: Hundreds of thousands of tons of chemical munitions were disposed off at sea following World War II. European, Russian, Japanese, and United States coasts are the areas most affected worldwide. Several areas in the Baltic and North Seas suffered concentrated large levels of dumping, and these appear to be the world's most studied chemical warfare agent marine dumping areas. Chemical warfare agents: Sulfur mustard, Lewisite, and the nerve agents appear to be the chemical warfare agents most frequently disposed off at sea. Multiple other type of agents including organoarsenicals, blood agents, choking agents, and lacrimators were dumped at sea, although in lesser volumes. Environmental concerns: Numerous geohydrologic variables contribute to the rate of release of chemical agents from their original casings, leading to difficult and inexact modeling of risk of release into seawater. Sulfur mustard and the organoarsenicals are the most environmentally persistent dumped chemical agents. Sulfur mustard in particular has a propensity to form a solid or semi-solid lump with a polymer coating of breakdown products, and can persist in this state on the ocean floor for decades. Rates of solubility and hydrolysis and levels of innate toxicity of a chemical agent are used to predict the risk to the marine environments. The organoarsenicals eventually breakdown into arsenic, and thus present an indefinite timeline for contamination. Generally, studies assaying sediment and water levels of parent chemical agents and breakdown products at dumpsites have found minimal amounts of relevant chemicals, although arsenic levels are typically higher in dumpsites than reference areas. Studies of marine organisms have not shown concerning amounts of chemical agents or breakdown products in tissue, but have shown evidence of chronic toxicity. There is believed to be minimal risk posed by seafood consumption. Microbiota assays of dumpsites are significantly altered in species composition compared to reference sites, which may imply unseen but significant changes to ecosystems of dumpsites. Human health concerns: The major human health risk at this time appears to arise from acute exposure to an agent by either accidental recovery of a chemical weapon on a fishing vessel, or by munitions washed ashore onto beaches. CONCLUSIONS Improving technology continues to make the deep sea more accessible, thus increasing the risk of disturbing munitions lying on or buried in the seabed. Pipe laying, cable burying, drilling, scuba diving, trawling, and undersea scientific research are the activities posing the most risk. The long-term threat to the benthic habitat via increased arsenic concentrations, shifts in microbiota speciation, and chronic toxicity to vertebrates and invertebrates is not currently understood. The risk to the environment of massive release via disturbance remains a distinct possibility. Terrorist recovery and re-weaponization of chemical agents is a remote possibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- M I Greenberg
- a Department of Emergency Medicine , Drexel University College of Medicine , Philadelphia , PA , USA
| | - K J Sexton
- a Department of Emergency Medicine , Drexel University College of Medicine , Philadelphia , PA , USA
| | - D Vearrier
- a Department of Emergency Medicine , Drexel University College of Medicine , Philadelphia , PA , USA
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Halme M, Pesonen M, Hakala U, Pasanen M, Vähäkangas K, Vanninen P. Applying human and pig hepatic in vitro experiments for sulfur mustard study: screening and identification of metabolites by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2015; 29:1279-1287. [PMID: 26405789 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.7218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2015] [Revised: 04/23/2015] [Accepted: 04/26/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Sulfur mustard is a chemical warfare agent (CWA) with high toxicity and complex metabolism. This study aimed at identification of new metabolic biomarkers for sulfur mustard using in in vitro exposures and various mass spectrometric techniques. METHODS Human and pig liver subcellular fractions were used as biocatalysts. Metabolites were screened by liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) using positive electrospray ionization (ESI). For structural identification, product ion scans (MS/MS, MS(3) ) and accurate mass measurements using liquid chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC/TOFMS) were acquired. RESULTS Sulfur mustard is metabolized in vitro by S-oxidation and glutathione (GSH) conjugations. One S-oxidized metabolite, bis(2-chloroethyl) sulfoxide (m/z 175), was formed in both species only when liver microsomes were present in incubations, and it was the main metabolite if GSH was not added into the reaction mixture. However, conjugation with GSH was found to be a spontaneous reaction in physiological pH and buffered solution. Three GSH conjugates of sulfur mustard were detected and identified, among which two were novel; 2-((2-(S-glutathionyl)ethyl)thio)ethanol (m/z 412) and 2-((2-(S-glutathionyl)ethyl)thio)ethyl phosphate (m/z 492). CONCLUSIONS To our knowledge, this was the first time that S-oxidized metabolites and GSH conjugates of sulfur mustard have been detected and identified from human samples in vitro by LC/MS/MS. The usefulness of the GSH conjugates to serve as biomarkers for sulfur mustard exposure in human samples requires further studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mia Halme
- VERIFIN, Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention, Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014, Finland
| | - Maija Pesonen
- Research and Development, Centre for Military Medicine, Finnish Defence Forces, P.O. Box 50, FI-00301, Helsinki, Finland
- School of Pharmacy/Toxicology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Ullastiina Hakala
- VERIFIN, Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention, Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014, Finland
| | - Markku Pasanen
- School of Pharmacy/Toxicology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Kirsi Vähäkangas
- School of Pharmacy/Toxicology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Paula Vanninen
- VERIFIN, Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention, Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014, Finland
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38
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A novel approach for high sensitive determination of sulfur mustard by derivatization and isotope-dilution LC–MS/MS analysis. Talanta 2015; 132:245-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2014.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2014] [Revised: 09/06/2014] [Accepted: 09/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Pringle JK, Giubertoni M, Cassidy NJ, Wisniewski KD, Hansen JD, Linford NT, Daniels RM. The use of magnetic susceptibility as a forensic search tool. Forensic Sci Int 2015; 246:31-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.10.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2014] [Revised: 10/29/2014] [Accepted: 10/31/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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40
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Baršienė J, Butrimavičienė L, Grygiel W, Lang T, Michailovas A, Jackūnas T. Environmental genotoxicity and cytotoxicity in flounder (Platichthys flesus), herring (Clupea harengus) and Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) from chemical munitions dumping zones in the southern Baltic Sea. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2014; 96:56-67. [PMID: 24064039 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2013.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2013] [Revised: 08/16/2013] [Accepted: 08/21/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The data on environmental genotoxicity and cytotoxicity levels as well as on genotoxicity risk in flounder (Platichthys flesus), herring (Clupea harengus) and cod (Gadus morhua) collected in 2010-2012 at 42 stations located in chemical munitions dumping areas of the southern Baltic Sea are presented. The frequency of micronuclei, nuclear buds and nucleoplasmic bridges in erythrocytes was used as genotoxicity endpoint and the induction of fragmented-apoptotic, bi-nucleated and 8-shaped erythrocytes as cytotoxicity endpoint. The most significantly increased geno-cytotoxicity levels were determined in fish collected near known chemical munitions dumpsites. Extremely high genotoxicity risk for flounder were identified at 21 out of 24 stations, for herring at 29 out of 31 and for cod at 5 out of 10 stations studied. The reference level of genotoxicity was not recorded at any of the stations revealing that in the sampling area fish were affected generally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janina Baršienė
- Nature Research Centre, Institute of Ecology, Akademijos Str. 2, 08412 Vilnius, Lithuania.
| | - Laura Butrimavičienė
- Nature Research Centre, Institute of Ecology, Akademijos Str. 2, 08412 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Wlodzimierz Grygiel
- National Marine Fisheries Research Institute in Gdynia, 1 Kollataja Street, 81-332 Gdynia, Poland
| | - Thomas Lang
- Thünen Institute of Fisheries Ecology, Deichstraße 12, 27472 Cuxhaven, Germany
| | | | - Tomas Jackūnas
- Nature Research Centre, Institute of Ecology, Akademijos Str. 2, 08412 Vilnius, Lithuania
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41
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The 12 principles of green analytical chemistry and the SIGNIFICANCE mnemonic of green analytical practices. Trends Analyt Chem 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2013.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 866] [Impact Index Per Article: 78.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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42
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Halme M, Karjalainen M, Kiljunen H, Vanninen P. Development and validation of efficient stable isotope dilution LC–HESI–MS/MS method for the verification of β-lyase metabolites in human urine after sulfur mustard exposure. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2011; 879:908-14. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2011.02.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2010] [Revised: 02/22/2011] [Accepted: 02/25/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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