Occurrence of new psychoactive substances in wastewater of major Chinese cities

Toxicity of butylone and its enantiomers to Daphnia magna and its degradation/toxicity potential using advanced oxidation technologies

Butylone (BTL) is a chiral synthetic cathinone available as a racemate and reported as contaminant in wastewater effluents. However, there are no studies on its impact on ecosystems and possible enantioselectivity in ecotoxicity. This work aimed to evaluate: (i) the possible ecotoxicity of BTL as racemate or its isolated (R)- and (S)- enantiomers using Daphnia magna; and (ii) the efficiency of advanced oxidation technologies (AOTs) in the removal of BTL and reduction of toxic effects caused by wastewaters. Enantiomers of BTL were obtained by liquid chromatography (LC) using a chiral semi-preparative column. Enantiomeric purity of each enantiomer was > 97 %. For toxicity assessment, a 9-day sub-chronic assay was performed with the racemate (at 0.10, 1.0 or 10 μg L-1) or each enantiomer (at 0.10 or 1.0 μg L-1). Changes in morphophysiological, behavioural, biochemical and reproductive endpoints were observed, which were dependent on the form of the substance and life stage of the organism (juvenile or adult). Removal rates of BTL in spiked wastewater (10 μg L-1) treated with different AOTs (ultraviolet, UV; ozonation, O3; and UV/O3) were similar and lower than 29 %. The 48 h D. magna acute toxicity assays demonstrated a reduction in the toxicity of the treated spiked effluents, but no differences were found amongst AOTs treatments. These results warn for the contamination and negative impact of BTL on ecosystems and highlight the need for efficient removal processes.

Simultaneous determination of 28 illegal drugs in sewage by high throughput online SPE-ISTD-UHPLC-MS/MS

This study developed an online solid-phase extraction ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (Online-SPE-UHPLC-MS/MS) method for the analysis of 28 illegal drugs in sewage. To achieve this, 28 isotope internal standards (ISTDs) were added to 3 mL sewage samples, the pH was adjusted to 7-8 using hydrochloric acid or 20% ammonia water, followed by centrifugation, filtration, and analysis using UHPLC-MS/MS. The results indicated an excellent linearity of 1-300 ng L-1, and cotinine in the concentration range of 20-6000 ng L-1, linear correlation coefficient R2 > 0.995, with the limit of detection (LOD) of 0.01-6 ng L-1, and a limit of quantification (LOQ) of 0.1-20 ng L-1. The addition of three concentrates of low (2 ng L-1/40 ng L-1), medium (20 ng L-1/400 ng L-1), and high concentration (200 ng L-1/4000 ng L-1) demonstrated the matrix effect of the target compound between ± 22.0%. The extraction recovery was 70.0-119.4%, and a percent accuracy of 75.7-118.1%. Similarly, the intra- and inter-day precisions were 1.8-20.0% and 1.5-18.9%, respectively. The results cemented the sensitivity, accuracy, reliability, strong specificity, and reproducibility, which can be used to screen 28 illegal drugs in sewage for trace analysis.

Fluorinated-Squaramide Covalent Organic Frameworks for High-Performance and Interference-Free Extraction of Synthetic Cannabinoids

Synthetic cannabinoids (SCs), one of the largest groups of new psychoactive substances (NPSs), have emerged as a significant public health threat in different regions worldwide. Analyzing SCs in water samples is critical to estimate their consumption and control. However, due to their low background concentration and the coexistence of complex matrix, the selective and effective enrichment of SCs is still challenging. In this study, a series of fluorinated-squaramide-based covalent organic frameworks (COF: FSQ-2, FSQ-3, and FSQ-4) are synthesized, and the as-prepared FSQ-4 exhibits strong affinity to different SCs. The proper pore size (1.4 nm) and pre-located functional groups (hydrogen-bond donors, hydrogen-bond acceptors, and fluorophilic segments) work synergistically for efficient SCs capture. Remarkably, when coupled FSQ-4 with solid-phase microextraction (SPME), trace-level (part per trillion, 10-9 ) determination of 13 SCs can be easily achieved, representing one of the best results among NPS analyses, and the excellent extraction performance can be maintained under various interfering conditions.

Wastewater analysis for new psychoactive substances and cocaine and cannabis in a Northern Ireland Prison

The global drug market has been significantly impacted by the emergence of new psychoactive substances, leading to challenges in creating effective legislative controls and their use within recreational drug consumption. This research explores the prevalence of new psychoactive substances and non-medicinal and medicinal compounds within a prison facility in Northern Ireland. Wastewater samples collected from seven different manholes within the prison were analysed for 37 target compounds including the two most found illicit substances: benzoylecgonine (primary metabolite of cocaine) and cannabis. Using solid phase extraction with Oasis HLB and liquid-chromatography-time-of-flight-mass spectrometry across a gradient of 9 min, our analysis revealed that benzoylecgonine was the sole compound consistently present in all collected samples. Following this finding, our target compound selection was broadened to encompass medicinal compounds and employing qualitative analysis we re-evaluated the samples and discovered the presence of buprenorphine, benzodiazepines, methadone, morphine, and codeine. Finally, the study explored the application of enzymatic beta-glucuronidase hydrolysis to the samples. This final phase yielded significant findings, indicating the presence of codeine and nordiazepam at higher peak intensities, thereby shedding light on the potential implications of this enzymatic process.

Electrochemical Rapid Detection of Methamphetamine from Confiscated Samples Using a Graphene-Based Printed Platform

Methamphetamine (MAP) is a highly addictive and illegal stimulant drug that has a significant impact on the central nervous system. Its detection in biological and street samples is crucial for various organizations involved in forensic medicine, anti-drug efforts, and clinical diagnosis. In recent years, nanotechnology and nanomaterials have played a significant role in the development of analytical sensors for MAP detection. In this study, a fast, simple, and cost-effective electrochemical sensor is presented that is used for the sensitive detection of MAP in confiscated street samples with a complex matrix. The optimized screen-printed sensor based on a carbon working electrode modified with graphene demonstrated an excellent limit of detection, good sensitivity, and a wide dynamic range (1-500 μM) for the target illicit drug both for standard solutions and real samples (seized samples, tap water, and wastewater samples). It can detect MAP at concentrations as low as 300 nM in real samples. This limit of detection is suitable for the rapid preliminary screening of suspicious samples in customs, ports, airports, and on the street. Furthermore, the sensor exhibits a good recovery rate, indicating its reliability and repeatability. This quality is crucial for ensuring consistent and accurate results during screening processes.

Supercritical Fluid Chromatography Coupled to High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry Reveals Persistent Mobile Organic Compounds with Unknown Toxicity in Wastewater Effluents

Broad screening approaches for monitoring wastewater are normally based on reversed-phase liquid chromatography (LC) coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). This method is not sufficient for the very polar micropollutants, neglected in the past due to a lack of suitable analytical methods. In this study, we used supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) to detect very polar and yet-undetected micropollutants in wastewater effluents. We tentatively identified 85 compounds, whereas 18 have only rarely been detected and 11 have not previously been detected in wastewater effluents such as 17α-hydroxypregnenolone, a likely transformation product (TP) of steroids, and 1H-indole-3-carboxamide, a likely TP from new synthetic cannabinoids. Suspect screening of 25 effluent wastewater samples from 8 wastewater treatment plants revealed several distinct potential pollution sources such as a pharmaceutical company and a golf court. The analysis of the same samples with LC-HRMS showed clearly how SFC increases the ionization efficiency for low-molecular-weight micropollutants (m/z < 300 Da) by a factor 2 to 87 times, which significantly improved the mass spectra for identifying very polar compounds. In order to assess which micropollutants might be of environmental concern, literature and toxicological databases were screened. There was a lack of available hazard and bio-activity data for regulatory-relevant in vitro and in vivo assays for >50% of the micropollutants. Especially, 70% of the data were lacking for the whole organism (in vivo) tests.

Target and suspect screening of (new) psychoactive substances in South Korean wastewater by LC-HRMS

New psychoactive substances (NPS) are a type of abused drug designed to mimic the effects of the currently known illicit drugs, whose structures are constantly changing to escape surveillance. The quick identification of NPS use in the community therefore demands immediate action. This study aimed to develop a target and suspect screening method using LC-HRMS to identify NPS in wastewater samples. An in-house database of 95 traditional and NPS was built using the reference standards, and an analytical method was developed. Wastewater samples were collected from 29 wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) across South Korea, representing 50 % of the total population. The psychoactive substances in waste water samples were screened using in-house database and developed analytical methods. A total of 14 substances were detected in the target analysis, including three NPS (N-methyl-2-AI, 25E-NBOMe, and 25D-NBOMe) and 11 traditional psychoactive substances and their metabolites (zolpidem phenyl-4-COOH, ephedrine, ritalinic acid, tramadol, phenmetrazine, phendimetrazine, phentermine, methamphetamine, codeine, morphine, and ketamine). Out of these, N-methyl-2-AI, zolpidem phenyl-4-COOH, ephedrine, ritalinic acid, tramadol, phenmetrazine, and phendimetrazine were detected with a detection frequency of over 50 %. Primarily, N-methyl-2-Al was detected in all the wastewater samples. Additionally, four NPSs (amphetamine-N-propyl, benzydamine, isoethcathinone, methoxyphenamine) were tentatively identified at level 2b in a suspect screening analysis. This is the most comprehensive study to investigate NPS using target and suspect analysis methods at the national level. This study raises a need for continuous monitoring of NPS in South Korea.

Application of the metal ions as potential population biomarkers for wastewater-based epidemiology: estimating tobacco consumption in Southern China

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is an objective approach for the estimation of population-level exposure to a wide range of substances, in which the use of a population biomarker (PB) could significantly reduce back-calculation errors. Although some endogenous or exogenous compounds such as cotinine and other hormones have been developed as PBs, more PBs still need to be identified and evaluated. This study aimed to propose a novel method to estimate population parameters from the mass load of metal ion biomarkers in wastewater, and estimate the consumption of tobacco in 24 cities in Southern China using the developed method. Daily wastewater samples were collected from 234 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in 24 cities in Southern China. Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) was applied to determine the concentrations of common health-related metal ions in wastewater, including sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), and zinc (Zn), and compared them with the daily mass load of cotinine corresponding to catchment populations. The concentrations of cotinine in wastewater samples were measured using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. There were clear and strong correlations between the target metal ion equivalent population and census data. The correlation coefficients (R) were R_K = 0.78, R_Na = 0.66, R_Ca = 0.81, R_Mg = 0.77, and R_Fe = 0.69, at p < 0.01 and R² > 0.6. Subsequently, the combination of WBE and metal ion PBs was used to estimate tobacco consumption. Daily consumption of nicotine was estimated to be approximately 1.76 ± 1.19 mg/d/capita, equivalent to an average of 13.0 ± 8.75 cigarettes/d being consumed by smokers. The data on tobacco consumption in this study were consistent with those in traditional surveys in Southern China. The metal ion potassium is an appropriate PB for reflecting the real-time population and could be used to evaluate the tobacco consumption in WBE study.

Monitoring of changes in illicit drugs, alcohol, and nicotine consumption during Ramadan via wastewater analysis

Illicit drug use is a global problem imposing social, economic, and health burdens on society. Wastewater-based epidemiology is an approach based on calculating the consumption of substances in the target population by analyzing the concentrations of human metabolic excretion products of licit and illicit substances in wastewater. This study estimated the changes in illicit drugs (cocaine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, ecstasy (3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine), heroin, and marijuana (THC)), alcohol, and nicotine consumption in Adana Province during Ramadan compared to normal periods using wastewater-based epidemiology. An overall decrease was observed during the Ramadan Period, most strongly for ecstasy (29%) followed by heroin (19%). For cocaine, the variation was the slightest (8.6%). The differences were statistically significant for ecstasy, heroin, nicotine, and alcohol but not for cocaine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, and marijuana. This study is the first to show changes in the use of illicit drugs, alcohol, and nicotine under the influence of religious beliefs. In addition, there is limited data about illicit drugs, alcohol and nicotine abusers/users in Ramadan. This study provides information on the literature on this subject.

Exploring antibiotic consumption between urban and sub-urban catchments using both parent drugs and related metabolites in wastewater-based epidemiology

Consumption of antibiotics leads to the dissemination of antimicrobial resistance worldwide. Better knowledge of temporal and spatial consumption of antibiotics helps public health authorities to control their usage and combat antimicrobial resistance. However, measuring antibiotic consumption with population surveys, sales data, and production statistics remains challenging due to the complexity of prescription preference, patient compliance, and direct disposal of unused drugs. With the approach of wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE), this study aims to evaluate the consumption of eight commonly-used antibiotics between developed urban and developing sub-urban catchments in China and to characterise the ratios of parent drugs to metabolites in studying the consumption. Seven parent antibiotics were detected in all the wastewater samples (n = 56), whereas some metabolites were detected sporadically. The ratios of parent chemicals to metabolites varied among locations and were often higher than the ratios in pharmacokinetic studies. Estimated consumption of antibiotics ranged from 3.2 ± 2.0 mg/day/1000 inhabitants for trimethoprim to 28,400 ± 7800 mg/day/1000 inhabitants for roxithromycin in the studied catchments. Higher consumption of sulfapyridine, sulfadiazine and roxithromycin was observed in urban than suburban catchments, while consumption of sulfamethoxazole, norfloxacin, and trimethoprim was higher in suburban than in urban catchments. Using the literature data, we found more than 95% reduction of antibiotic use in an urban catchment. Our study revealed the geographical pattern in antibiotic use across different urban and suburban catchments via WBE, and the potential of monitoring parent-to-metabolite ratios for WBE in estimating antibiotic use. These results provide a basis for health authorities to plan different drug-specific control policies between urban and suburban catchments, and for future WBE studies to be aware of other sources, such as animal husbandry and disposals of unused drugs, that can influence the estimated consumption.

Current perspective on veterinary drug and chemical residues in food of animal origin

The marked increase in the demand for animal protein of high quality necessitates protecting animals from infectious diseases. This requires increasing the use of veterinary therapeutics. The overuse and misuse of veterinary products can cause a risk to human health either as short-term or long-term health problems. However, the biggest problem is the emergence of resistant strains of bacteria or parasites. This is in addition to economic losses due to the discarding of polluted milk or condemnation of affected carcasses. This paper discusses three key points: possible sources of drug and chemical residues, human health problems, and the possible method of control and prevention of veterinary drug residues in animal products.

A state of the art overview of carbon-based composites applications for detecting and eliminating pharmaceuticals containing wastewater

The growing prevalence of new toxins in the environment continues to cause widespread concerns. Pharmaceuticals, organic pollutants, heavy metal ions, endocrine-disrupting substances, microorganisms, and others are examples of persistent organic chemicals whose effects are unknown because they have recently entered the environment and are displaying up in wastewater treatment facilities. Pharmaceutical pollutants in discharged wastewater have become a danger to animals, marine species, humans, and the environment. Although their presence in drinking water has generated significant concerns, little is known about their destiny and environmental effects. As a result, there is a rising need for selective, sensitive, quick, easy-to-handle, and low-cost early monitoring detection systems. This study aims to deliver an overview of a low-cost carbon-based composite to detect and remove pharmaceutical components from wastewater using the literature reviews and bibliometric analysis technique from 1970 to 2021 based on the web of science (WoS) database. Various pollutants in water and soil were reviewed, and different methods were introduced to detect pharmaceutical pollutants. The advantages and drawbacks of varying carbon-based materials for sensing and removing pharmaceutical wastes were also introduced. Finally, the available techniques for wastewater treatment, challenges and future perspectives on the recent progress were highlighted. The suggestions in this article will facilitate the development of novel on-site methods for removing emerging pollutants from pharmaceutical effluents and commercial enterprises.

Cocaine esterase occurrence in global wastewater microbiomes and potential for biotransformation of novel psychoactive substances

The analysis of drugs in wastewater for forensic purposes has been constantly increasing and the investigation of the potential interaction between drugs or metabolites and sewage microbiota is important. The results demonstrated that cocaine esterase genes were widely distributed in 1142 global wastewater samples collected from 64 countries and linked to several bacterial species. In addition, in silico predictions indicated that carfentanil, 4F-MDMB-BINACA, 5F-MDMB-PICA, MDMB-4en-PINACA and mitragynine might also undergo microbial hydrolysis, in a similar fashion of cocaine degradation by cocaine esterase. In conclusion, it was demonstrated the microbial potential to hydrolyze drugs of abuse in wastewater environments, contributing to the critical evaluation of potential metabolites as biomarkers for microbial and human transformation of drugs in wastewater.

Environmental occurrence and ecological risks of psychoactive substances

Psychoactive substances are ubiquitous in the environment at low concentrations, and tobacco, cannabis, etc. are all widely-existing examples. Given their potent biological activity, psychoactive substances are suspected to be harmful to the environment, and reports of their ecological risks are gradually increasing. Since the 1990s, the investigations into psychoactive substances have made remarkable progress, yet some research fields still need to be modernised. For example, the unification of standardised analytical methods as well as the supplementation of occurrence literature. In addition, a relatively lagging risk evaluation system caused by a lack of toxicity data is particularly in need of improvement. The purpose of this article is to develop a review of current research on psychoactive substances, including analytical methods, distribution in environmental compartments, and ecological risk assessment, as well as to point out deficiencies and development prospects and to offer motivation for enhancing the research level in this field.

Identification and monitoring of fentanyls-related substances in east China sewage water samples by LC-MS for drug enforcement

Fentanyls abuse is a persistent international concern. New fentanyl derivatives are constantly appearing, circumventing national and international laws. In this study, laboratory degradation experiment with different conditions such as pH, light, temperature and oxygen availability were compared to improve the understanding of the fentanyls degradation pathways. Twelve major degradants of sufentanil and alfentanil were detected and identified together using UHPLC-QTOF-MS. A total of thirty nine fentanyls including twelve typical fentanyl new psychoactive substances, eighteen manufacturing process-related substances and nine key degradants of sufentanil and alfentanil were screened in 120 sewage water samples collected from 20 sewage water treatment plants chosen among 6 urban cities in east China from July to August in 2020 using a validated UHPLC-MS/MS method. Three fentanyls (fentanyl, sufentanil, alfentanil), seven degradants and six manufacturing process-related substances were found in the test samples. The study could provide a useful tool for the monitoring of the abuses, illegal manufacturing or pharmaceuticals related pollutions of fentanyls and their analogs.

Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists and their human metabolites in sewage water: Stability assessment and identification of transformation products

Since their first appearance in 2008, synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) remain the most popular new psychoactive substances (NPS) in the EU. Following consumption, these drugs and their metabolites are urinary excreted and enter the sewage system enabling the application of wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE). Knowing the fate of target analytes in sewage water is essential for successful application of WBE. This study investigates the stability of several chemically diverse SCRAs and selected human metabolites under sewage conditions utilizing a combination of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). Target analytes included SCRAs with indole (5F-PB-22, PB-22 pentanoic acid), indazole (AMB-FUBINACA, 5F-ADB, 5F-ADB dimethylbutanoic acid), carbazole (MDMB-CHMCZCA, EG-018), and γ-carboline (Cumyl-PeGaClone) chemical core structures representing most of the basic core structures that have occurred up to now. Stability tests were performed using wastewater effluent containing 5% activated sludge as inoculum to monitor degradation processes and formation of transformation products (TPs). The majority of investigated SCRAs, excluding the selected human metabolites, was recalcitrant to microbial degradation in sewage systems over a period of 29 days. Their stability was rather controlled by physico-chemical processes like sorption and hydrolysis. Considering a typical hydraulic in-sewer retention time of 24 h, the concentration of AMB-FUBINACA decreased by 90% thus representing the most unstable SCRA investigated in this study. Among the 10 newly identified TPs, three could be considered as relevant markers and should be included into future WBE studies to gain further insight into use and prevalence of SCRAs on the drug market.

New psychoactive substances in several European populations assessed by wastewater-based epidemiology

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) can be a useful tool to face some of the existing challenges in monitoring the use of new psychoactive substances (NPS), as it can provide objective and updated information. This Europe-wide study aimed to verify the suitability of WBE for investigating the use of NPS. Selected NPS were monitored in urban wastewater by high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). The main classical illicit drugs were monitored in the same samples to compare their levels with those of NPS. Raw composite wastewater samples were collected in 2016 and 2017 in 14 European countries (22 cities) following best practice sampling protocols. Methcathinone was most frequent (>65% of the cities), followed by mephedrone (>25% of the cities), and only mephedrone, methcathinone and methylone were found in both years. This study depicts the use of NPS in Europe, confirming that it is much lower than the use of classical drugs. WBE proved able to assess the qualitative and quantitative spatial and temporal profiles of NPS use. The results show the changeable nature of the NPS market and the importance of large WBE monitoring campaigns for selected priority NPS. WBE is valuable for complementing epidemiological studies to follow rapidly changing profiles of use of drugs.

Evaluating environmental impact of STP effluents on receiving water in Beijing by the joint use of chemical analysis and biomonitoring

To evaluate the environmental impact of receiving water from the Qinghe River sewage treatment plant (STP) effluents in Beijing, we collected sediments and Bellamya aeruginosa (Up-site, Discharge-site, and Down-site) both in 2017 and 2018 and analyzed the samples via chemical analysis, biological responses and transcriptomics. In two years of data, our biological results showed that AChE activities presented different degrees of influence on B. aeruginosa captured at sampling points of the STP compared to control sites (P < 0.05). Additionally, indicators of the antioxidant system (e.g., SOD, CAT, GST, EROD activity) and MDA content were significantly increased in the whole tissue at the Up-site of the STP. Integration of the assessed biomarkers using the integrated biomarker response (IBR) index ranked the environmental impact at sites as Up-site > Discharge-site > Down-site. In terms of the transcriptome data, B. aeruginosa collected from the Discharge-site of the STP showed greater transcriptomic response than it did from all other sites. KEGG pathway analysis revealed that sewage significantly altered the expression of genes involved in xenobiotics by cytochrome P450, drug metabolism-cytochrome P450, glutathione metabolism, oxidative phosphorylation, citrate (TCA) cycle, glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, apoptotic and Parkinson's disease. The concentrations of 34 organic pollutants (17 PAHs, 10 PAEs, 7 EDCs) were measured. The chemical concentrations of pollutants decreased from Up-site to Down-site and were well correlated with enzyme activity, IBR, and transcriptomic results. Our results demonstrated that the combined use of chemical analysis, biological responses and transcriptome data is necessary to validate the efficacy of a battery of biomarkers chosen to detect environmental stress due to pollution.

Perspectives and challenges associated with the determination of new psychoactive substances in urine and wastewater - A tutorial

New psychoactive substances (NPS), often designed as (legal) substitutes to conventional illicit drugs, are constantly emerging in the drug market and being commercialized in different ways and forms. Their use continues to cause public health problems and is therefore of major concern in many countries. Monitoring NPS use, however, is arduous and different sources of information are required to get more insight of the prevalence and diffusion of NPS use. The determination of NPS in pooled urine and wastewater has shown great potential, adding a different and complementary light on this issue. However, it also presents analytical challenges and limitations that must be taken into account such as the complexity of the matrices, the high sensitivity and selectivity required in the analytical methods as a consequence of the low analyte concentrations as well as the rapid transience of NPS on the drug market creating a scenario with constantly moving analytical targets. Analytical investigation of NPS in pooled urine and wastewater is based on liquid chromatography hyphenated to mass spectrometry and can follow different strategies: target, suspect and non-target analysis. This work aims to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the different data acquisition workflows and data exploration approaches in mass spectrometry, but also pays attention to new developments such as ion mobility and the use of in-silico prediction tools to improve the identification capabilities in high-complex samples. This tutorial gives an insight into this emerging topic of current concern, and describes the experience gathered within different collaborations and projects supported by key research articles and illustrative practical examples.

Wastewater-based epidemiology to assess the occurrence of new psychoactive substances and alcohol consumption in Slovakia

Consumption of alcohol and new psychoactive substances (NPS) in a population or during special events (music festivals) is usually monitored through individual questionnaires, forensic and toxicological data, and drug seizures. However, consumption estimates have some biases due mostly to the unknown composition of drug pills for NPS and stockpiling for alcohol. The aim of this study was to evaluate for the first time the real use of alcohol and the occurrence of NPS in Slovakia by wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE). Urban wastewater samples were collected from nine Slovak cities over two years (2017-2018) and during three music festivals. The study included about 20% of the Slovak population and 50 000 festival attendees. The urinary alcohol biomarker ethyl sulfate (EtS) and thirty NPS were analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC - MS/MS). EtS concentrations were used for estimating the per capita alcohol consumption in each city. The average alcohol consumption in the selected cities and festivals in 2017-2018 ranged between 7 and 126 L/day/1000 inhabitants and increased during the weekends and music festivals. Five NPS belonging to the classes of synthetic cathinones (mephedrone, methcathinone, buphedrone and pentedrone) and phenethylamines (25-iP-NBoMe) were found in the low ng/L range. Methcathinone was the most frequently detected NPS, while the highest normalized mass load corresponded to mephedrone (3.1 mg/day/1000 inhabitants). Wastewater-based epidemiology can provide timely information on alcohol consumption and NPS occurrence at the community level that is complementary to epidemiology-based monitoring techniques (e.g. population surveys, police seizures, sales statistics).

Nanomaterial-based aptamer sensors for analysis of illicit drugs and evaluation of drugs consumption for wastewater-based epidemiology

The abuse of illicit drugs usually associated with dramatic crimes may cause significant problems for the whole society. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has been demonstrated to be a novel and cost-effective way to evaluate the abuse of illicit drugs at the community level, and has been used as a routine method for monitoring and played a significant role for combating the crimes in some countries, e.g. China. The method can also provide temporal and spatial variation of drugs of abuse. The detection methods mainly remain on the conventional liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry, which is extremely sensitive and selective, however needs advanced facility and well-trained personals, thus limit it in the lab. As an alternative, sensors have emerged to be a powerful analytical tool for a wide spectrum of analytes, in particular aptamer sensors (aptasensors) have attracted increasing attention and could act as an efficient tool in this field due to the excellent characteristics of selectivity, sensitivity, low cost, miniaturization, easy-to-use, and automation. In this review, we will briefly introduce the context, specific assessment process and applications of WBE and the recent progress of illicit drug aptasensors, in particular focusing on optical and electrochemical sensors. We then highlight several recent aptasensors for illicit drugs in new technology integration and discuss the feasibility of these aptasensor for WBE. We will summarize the challenges and propose our insights and opportunity on aptasensor for WBE to evaluate community-wide drug use trends and public health.

Occurrence and Mass Loading of Synthetic Opioids, Synthetic Cathinones, and Synthetic Cannabinoids in Wastewater Treatment Plants in Four U.S. Communities

A few new psychoactive substances (NPS) that mimic the effects of controlled neuropsychiatric and illicit drugs have been forensically identified in the U.S. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) can provide a comprehensive and more cost- and time-effective method of determining the prevalence of NPSs in communities. In this study, an analytical method capable of simultaneous determination of trace-level 40 NPS residues (synthetic opioids, synthetic cannabinoids, synthetic cathinones, piperazines, indole, and amphetamine) in wastewater was developed and validated. The developed analytical method was utilized to determine the occurrence of NPSs in four rural communities in southern Illinois. Nine NPSs (carfentanil, furanyl fentanyl, methoxyacetyl fentanyl, MAB-CHMINACA, methcathinone, 4-methyl pentedrone, 2-methyl-4'-(methylthio)-2-morpholinopropiophenone (MMMP), 1-(3-chlorophenyl) piperazine (mCPP), and 5-(2-Aminopropyl) Indole (5IT) were quantified. Methcathinone was the most frequently detected NPS (detection frequency, df = 100%) followed closely by the MMMP and mCPP (df = 91%). The mass loading of methcathinone, mCPP, and 5-IT using ammoniacal nitrogen-based population were up to 21.1 ± 1.3 mg/d/1000 people, 15.0 ± 0.5 mg/d/1000 people, and 9.75 ± 2.72 mg/d/1000 people, respectively. This is the first study to determine the occurrence of NPSs including synthetic opioids, synthetic cannabinoids, synthetic cathinones, and piperazines in the U.S. communities.

Occurrence and risk assessment of psychoactive substances in tap water from China

Psychoactive substances are becoming a new concern in aquatic environment along with the increase in use of these substances. In this study, 23 psychoactive substances were investigated in the tap water collected in 63 sites in China. Eighteen out of 23 psychoactive substances were detected at the range of < method detection limits (MDLs) to 24.9 ng L-1. It was found that diazepam and temazepam were the major psychoactive substances in the tap water with the median concentration of 1.0 and 0.06 ng L^-1, respectively. The high exposure dose for each psychoactive substance was calculated from 0.6 to 855 pg kg^-1 bw d^-1 and showed an order of men ≥ boys ≥ girls ≥ women. Risk assessment revealed there was little risk of psychoactive substances on human health at current residual levels.

Interpol review of controlled substances 2016-2019

This review paper covers the forensic-relevant literature in controlled substances from 2016 to 2019 as a part of the 19th Interpol International Forensic Science Managers Symposium. The review papers are also available at the Interpol website at: https://www.interpol.int/content/download/14458/file/Interpol%20Review%20Papers%202019.pdf.

Monitoring Consumption of Common Illicit Drugs in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, by Wastewater-Cased Epidemiology

Southeast Asian countries including Malaysia play a major role in global drug trade and abuse. Use of amphetamine-type stimulants has increased in the past decade in Malaysia. This study aimed to apply wastewater-based epidemiology for the first time in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, to estimate the consumption of common illicit drugs in urban population. Influent wastewater samples were collected from two wastewater treatment plants in Kuala Lumpur in the summer of 2017. Concentrations of twenty-four drug biomarkers were analyzed for estimating drug consumption. Fourteen drug residues were detected with concentrations of up to 1640 ng/L. Among the monitored illicit drugs, 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA) or ecstasy had the highest estimated per capita consumptions. Consumption and dose of amphetamine-type stimulants (methamphetamine and MDMA) were both an order of magnitude higher than those of opioids (heroin and codeine, methadone and tramadol). Amphetamine-type stimulants were the most prevalent drugs, replacing opioids in the drug market. The prevalence trend measured by wastewater-based epidemiology data reflected the shift to amphetamine-type stimulants as reported by the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Narcotics Cooperation Center. Most of the undetected drug residues were new psychoactive substances (NPSs), suggesting a low prevalence of NPSs in the drug market.

Monitoring consumption of methadone and heroin in major Chinese cities by wastewater-based epidemiology

BACKGROUND

Methadone maintenance treatment (MMT) services have been used in China for treatment of heroin dependence. But no study has been conducted to assess the appropriateness of MMT distribution and the potential abuse of methadone in China. This study aims to do that through a nationwide estimation of methadone consumption in China via wastewater-based epidemiology and subsequently compare it with MMT data and level of heroin abuse.

METHODS

Wastewater samples were collected from 53 wastewater treatment plants in 27 major cities that cover all geographic regions of China. Methadone and pure heroin consumptions were estimated based on influent concentrations of methadone, 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine (EDDP), morphine and codeine.

RESULTS

Drug residues were detected in most samples. The ratio of EDDP/methadone was around 2 in influents and methadone and EDDP loads were strongly correlated, indicating that they originated from human consumption. Both influent methadone and EDDP loads in Southwest and Northwest China were significantly higher than those in other regions. The highest estimated consumptions of methadone and heroin in China were 22.0 ± 2.1 mg/1000 in./d and 263.9 ± 115.9 mg/1000 in./d, respectively. There was a significant positive correlation between methadone and heroin consumptions.

CONCLUSIONS

Consumption of methadone in China was primarily from MMT services. The use of methadone and heroin displayed a clear geographical pattern: it is higher in the western inland regions than in the eastern regions. This study has shown that the distribution of MMT services is reflective of the level of heroin abuse in different regions of China.

Rapid duplexed detection of illicit drugs in wastewater using gold nanoparticle conjugated aptamer sensors

The abuse of illicit drug addiction is a worldwide public health and social problem. In this paper, we reported on a simple and rapid colorimetric biosensor for duplexed detection of methamphetamine (METH) and cocaine in a single assay. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and Au@Ag NPs were synthesized and functionalized with DNA reporter probes (RPs) for METH and cocaine, respectively. The magnetic beads (MBs) were conjugated with two capture probes (CPs) respective to METH and cocaine. The respective RPs and CPs were designed to hybridize with each illicit drug-binding DNA aptamers through DNA-DNA hybridization, forming a sandwich structure. This MBs-based sandwich structure could be removed with an external magnetic field. However, due to the higher affinity of DNA aptamers with illicit drugs, the sandwich structure was disassembled when illicit drugs are introduced into the solution, leading to the colour changes of the supernatant. Utilizing a non-negative matrix factorization (NMF) algorithm to process the data, we demonstrated the ability of our biosensor for the simultaneous quantification of two illicit drugs. Under the optimal condition, our sensors were able to detect both METH and cocaine at the nM level with a wide dynamic range. This sensing platform provides a huge potential on drug consumption evaluation at the community level for wastewater-based epidemiology.

Wide-scope target and suspect screening methodologies to investigate the occurrence of new psychoactive substances in influent wastewater from Athens

Almost all licit and illicit drugs consumed by the society end up either unchanged or as a mixture of metabolites in the sewage systems. The analysis of influent wastewater samples and the estimation of drug consumption is the field of wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE). A new trend of WBE is the estimation of the consumption of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS), which are legal replacements of established narcotic and psychotropic drugs with slightly modified chemical structures and similar or new effects. To investigate the occurrence of NPS, 30 composite daily influent wastewater samples from the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) of Athens (Greece) were collected in a four-year sampling campaign (2015-2018). A generic four-sorbent solid-phase extraction (SPE) sample preparation protocol able to retain compounds with wide physicochemical properties was used. Extracts were analyzed by liquid-chromatography coupled to quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS) using target screening for 278 NPS and suspect screening for 451 NPS. Target screening method was validated for a subset of 49 representative NPS and illicit drugs with similar structures with the NPS. 24 NPS and related compounds were detected by target screening and two compounds were tentatively identified based on mass accuracy, prediction of retention time using in-house QSRR prediction models, isotopic pattern and HRMS/MS fragmentation, whereas the excreted mass loads were also calculated. The results indicated an occasional and low occurrence of NPS in wastewater during the week and over the years, whereas the estimation of the exact sources and the evaluation of the patterns in wastewater were critically discussed.

Music festivals and drugs: Wastewater analysis

Drug consumption in individual cities, regions, and at various music events and festivals across the EU has generally been monitored via questionnaires, patients' medical data, and police reports. However, an overview of drug consumption obtained from these methods can be negatively affected by various subjective factors. We aimed to investigate an association between levels of target drugs in wastewater, music genres, and festival courses. The occurrence of illicit drugs, their metabolites, and psychoactive compounds was investigated in the influent of six wastewater treatment plants in the Czech and Slovak Republic during seven large-scale music festivals from different music genres: metal, rock, pop, country and folk, ethnic, multi-genre, dance, and trance. The total number of participants included >130,000 active festival attendees. The association between music genre and illicit drug and/or psychoactive pharmaceutical consumptions is discussed on the basis of the results obtained through wastewater analyses. The observed trend was similar to worldwide published data with a specific local phenomenon of methamphetamine prevalence that did not significantly change between music events. Increased specific loads of cocaine (measured as its metabolite benzoylecgonine) and Ecstasy, along with some cannabis, were mainly observed during pop/rock and dance music festivals. However, there was no significant increase observed in the specific loads of all monitored psychoactive pharmaceuticals. This study demonstrates that the abuse of some illicit drugs is closely associated with specific music preferences.

Medium to highly polar pesticides in seawater: Analysis and fate in coastal areas of Catalonia (NE Spain)

Pollution has been less investigated in marine and coastal environments than in inland waters. The low levels at which pollutants are expected to be present in seawater calls for the use of reliable and high sensitivity analytical methodologies. In this context, this work presents the optimization and validation of an analytical method to determine 26 medium to highly polar pesticides in seawater based on solid phase extraction and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry detection. The developed methodology was linear, accurate (relative recoveries within 80-120% for most analytes), repeatable (relative standard deviations <18% for most analytes), and sensitive (limits of determination <1 ng/L for 89% of the compounds). The use of isotopically labeled compounds as surrogate standards compensated for low analyte recoveries and matrix effects. The method was applied to the analysis of seawater samples collected along the coastline of Catalonia (NE Spain). Overall, total pesticide loads were higher inside the marinas than outside. The booster biocides diuron and irgarol used in antifouling paintings and different triazine pesticides were the most abundant compounds. Irgarol was present above the maximum allowable concentration set in European regulations in 70% of the samples collected inside the marinas. A different pesticide pollution pattern, with MCPA and bentazone presenting the highest concentrations, was observed at the Ebro Delta area due to the impact of the agricultural activities carried out there. To the authors' knowledge, 4 out of the 26 target pesticides, namely, chlorfenvinphos, fenthion oxon, fenthion sulfone, and fenthion sulfoxide, have not been previously investigated in seawater.

Wastewater-based epidemiology in low Human Development Index states: bias in consumption monitoring of illicit drugs

Wastewater-based epidemiology is a promising approach worldwide, and its application is currently being developed in non-advanced economies. This technology, based on known toxicokinetic data initially used to detect illicit drugs in well-managed and maintained local sewer networks, has been extended to assess other products such as pesticides, alcohol, flame retardants, nicotine, and other substances. This technology is also used in countries with non-advanced economies. The present review aims to support future wastewater-based epidemiology in such countries by providing toxicokinetic data for locally used narcotic drugs that are expected or known to be emerging in developed countries, outlining the excretion differences due to human polymorphism, and summarising the practical obstacles due to the coverage, maintenance efficiency, or type of local sewage network.Case study feedback from Martinique is presented as an example; the Martinique field study complies with the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development standards for health issues, but not with regard to population and urban dynamics.

New and Emerging Illicit Psychoactive Substances

Several novel psychoactive substances have emerged in recent years. Users are typically young men who use other substances. In the category of stimulants, cathinones ("bath salts") have predominated and can lead to agitation, psychosis, hyperthermia, and death. Synthetic cannabinoids ("spice") are more potent than marijuana and can lead to agitation, psychosis, seizures, and death. There are no rapid tests to identify these substances and general treatment includes benzodiazepines for agitation and supportive therapy. Many Synthetic opioids are potent analogues of fentanyl and carry a high risk of overdose. In addition, there are several designer benzodiazepines that have emerged.

Development and application of the diffusive gradients in thin films technique for simultaneous measurement of methcathinone and ephedrine in surface river water

In this study, a passive sampling technique, diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT) was developed to simultaneously measure two drugs, methcathinone (MC) and ephedrine (EPH) in surface water. Four types of binding gels and four types of filter membranes were tested for the optimal configuration. XAD18 agarose binding gel and agarose diffusive gel, together with polyethersulfone filter membrane were used for measuring MC and EPH in the DGT device. 5% NH₃ in acetonitrile was used as the elution solvent, with the elution efficiency for MC and EPH higher than 71%. At 25°C, the diffusion coefficients of MC and EPH in the diffusive gel were 7.60×10^-6cm²s^-1 and 6.62×10^-6cm²s^-1, respectively. The DGT was effective in a wide range of pH (4-11) and ionic strength (NaCl: 0.001-0.5M). The DGT device was deployed in Beijing urban surface water for successive 7days to measure the time-weighted concentrations of MC and EPH. Results showed that EPH was detected in all samples, while MC was below its detection limit. DGT concentrations were comparable to the concentrations determined by SPE. This study demonstrated that the developed DGT method was effective to monitor the two drugs in surface water in situ.

Estimating heroin abuse in major Chinese cities through wastewater-based epidemiology

Heroin consumption in major cities across China was estimated for the first time via wastewater-based epidemiology. Influent and effluent wastewater samples were collected from 49 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in 24 major cities that cover all the geographic regions of the country. Concentrations of morphine, 6-acetylmorphine, and codeine were measured. Near complete removal of morphine by wastewater treatment processes was observed, whereas removal rates of codeine were slightly lower. Morphine loads were much higher than codeine loads at most WWTPs in China, a trend opposite to that in many European countries. In addition, morphine and codeine loads were strongly correlated at most WWTPs, indicating morphine and codeine in wastewater were predominantly from the same source, street heroin. At WWTPs in Guangzhou and Shenzhen, codeine loads were considerably higher than morphine loads, consistent with previous reports of codeine abuse (e.g., as cough syrup) among middle and high school students in Guangdong province. Heroin consumption was derived based on morphine loads and taking into account therapeutic use of morphine and codeine, as well as contribution of codeine and acetylcodeine in street heroin. Highest heroin consumption was observed in northwestern and southwestern China. The average heroin consumption of the sampled cities was 64.6±78.7mg/1000inh/d. The nation-wide average heroin consumption was much lower than that of methamphetamine, consistent with seizure data and numbers of registered heroin and methamphetamine users in China.

Occurrence of diazepam and its metabolites in wastewater and surface waters in Beijing

Occurrence of diazepam and its metabolites, nordiazepam, temazepam, and oxazepam in the water environment in Beijing was investigated. Samples were collected from four rivers flowing through the city and from all the thirteen sewage treatment plants in the urban area. Average influent concentrations of diazepman, temazepam, and oxazepam in 2013 summer ranged from 0.9 to 7.1, 1.5 to 3.4, and 2.9 to 12.4 ng L^-1, respectively, whereas nordiazepam concentrations were below quantification limit on the majority of sampling dates. No significant seasonal variation in influent concentrations was observed. Removal during treatment was low for diazepman (<50%), temazepam (<20%), and oxazepam (<20%), consistent with previous findings reported in the literature. Wastewater-based epidemiology approach was applied to back-calculate population size-normalized diazepam consumption (using temazepam as biomarker) in Beijing, which was found to be at least 3.8 times more of the national average. Diazepam, temazepam, and oxazepam were widely detected in surface waters, with concentrations greater than concentrations in sewage influents at many sampling points, strongly indicating direct discharge of wastewater of high diazepam concentrations into the surface waters in the city.

Drugs of abuse and their metabolites in the urban rivers of Beijing, China: Occurrence, distribution, and potential environmental risk

The occurrence and distribution of five drugs of abuse and their metabolites, namely, methamphetamine (METH), amphetamine (AMP), ketamine (KET), ephedrine (EPH), and hydroxylimine (HY), were investigated in the surface water in urban rivers in Beijing, China. A total of 117 surface water samples were collected from the seven rivers in the Beijing urban areas during four different seasons. Laboratory analyses revealed that EPH and METH were the most predominant drugs, with detection frequency ranging from 94% to 100% and from 65% to 100%, respectively. High levels of METH and KET were observed in the center part of the urban areas, which was likely associated with the drug abuse and the entertainment activities. Seasonal variation of the drug occurrence showed that the highest concentration of drugs of abuse was found during winter, which was likely due to the high consumption, low temperature, and low water flows during the cold weather. By contrast, the concentration and detection frequency of AMP and HY were relatively low. Risk assessment by the risk quotient method indicated that the five drugs of abuse and their metabolites were not likely to exert biological effects on the aquatic ecosystems at current levels in the surface water. However, the potential adverse effect of drugs of abuse and their metabolites on ecosystem functioning and human health should not be neglected.