Simultaneous heterotrophic and FeS2-based ferrous autotrophic denitrification process for low-C/N ratio wastewater treatment: Nitrate removal performance and microbial community analysis

Organic sulfur-driven denitrification pretreatment for enhancing autotrophic nitrogen removals from thiourea-containing wastewater: performance and microbial mechanisms

Thiourea (CH4N2S) is a widely used industrial reagent and is frequently detected in both sewage and industrial wastewater. However, treating thiourea-containing wastewater remains challenging due to its toxicity, high ammonium concentration, and low C/N ratio. In this study, a novel integrated autotrophic-heterotrophic denitrification (IAHD)- completely autotrophic nitrogen removal over nitrite (CANON) process was developed. The degradation pathway of toxic compounds, nitrogen, and sulfur release and transformation, as well as variations in functional genes were comprehensively examined. The results show that by incorporating an IAHD unit, prior to CANON, toxic thiourea was effectively degraded by the recycled nitrate from CANON. The released sulfur and organic carbon served as electron donors facilitating efficient NO3--N reduction. The optimal thiourea/NO3--N ratio for IAHD operation was determined to be 4:1 (m:m), achieving NO3- and thiourea removal efficiencies of 90 % and 99 %, respectively. Additionally, NH4+-N and SO42--S concentrations increased by 199.9 mg/L and 201.9 mg/L, respectively. Approximately 53.3 % of thiourea was converted into high-molecular-weight biological metabolites in the IAHD unit, which were subsequently and completely degraded in the CANON unit, where a robust nitrite-shunt and anammox process occurred. 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing revealed that Thiobacillus (with a relative abundance of 39.9 %) was the dominant genera in the IAHD unit, followed by Arenimonas (10.8 %) and norank_o_1013-28-CG33 (12.4 %), indicating that sulfur autotrophic denitrification was the primary pathway for thiourea degradation. Metagenomic analysis further confirmed that thiourea, acting as an electron donor, stimulated the expression of key functional genes involved in denitrification, sulfur oxidation, dissimilatory nitrate reduction, hydrolytic oxidation, and amino acid synthesis and transport pathways. These processes contributed to the active biological transformation of carbon, nitrogen and sulfur in the IAHD unit. This study demonstrates that implementing a prior autotrophic-heterotrophic denitrification unit effectively degrades toxic thiourea, thereby ensuring the subsequent nitrogen removal performance of CANON. This approach offers a new paradigm for the treatment of thiourea-containing wastewater, promoting a more efficient and low-carbon process.

Enhanced and sustainable advanced nitrogen removal in mixotrophic systems using pyrite and solid carbon source

Utilizing widespread minerals/solid wastes as electron donors for denitrification is conducive to sustainable wastewater treatment. The current denitrification technologies based on single pyrite/solid carbon sources have problems of limited removal efficiency or unstable carbon release. In this study, two continuous biofilters, pyrite-corncob mixotrophic system (RPCM) and pyrite-polybutylene succinate mixotrophic system (RPPM), were conducted and operated steadily for a long period (>326 d). The mixotrophic systems achieved advanced removal of NO3--N (18 mg L-1) and a small amount of NH4+-N (2.5 mg L-1), with stabilized effluent TIN less than 2 mg L-1 at HRT of 4 h. Additionally, the systems demonstrated several distinct advantages, including no additional alkalinity requirement and a low risk of secondary contamination. RPCM could achieve advanced nitrogen removal at a higher nitrogen loading rate (93.6 mg L-1 d-1) but demanded periodic replenishment of corncob. In contrast, the organic matter release and nitrogen removal performance of RPPM exhibited stability throughout the operation. The increased abundance of functional microorganisms related to C, N, S, and Fe metabolism was essential for advanced nitrogen removal through synergistic effects. This study will provide implications for developing novel wastewater treatment processes emphasizing both nitrogen removal and waste valorization.

Study on the Synchronous Removal of Nitrogen and Phosphorus by Autotrophic/Heterotrophic Denitrification in the Presence of Pyrite

Pollution caused by N and P is a significant contributor to water eutrophication. While traditional biological treatment processes can remove some N and P elements from water, the effluent quality often fails to meet the stringent requirements of sensitive areas. The autotrophic denitrification's simultaneous nitrogen and phosphorus removal pro-cess, known for its low operating cost and minimal sludge production, has garnered considerable attention from researchers. In this study, natural pyrite was used for the removal of nitrogen and phosphorus in a denitrification system, and the underlying mechanisms were elucidated. The results indicate that the N and P removal efficiency was influenced by empty bed contact time (EBCT) and the pH value. The highest NO3--N removal rate of 90.24% was achieved at an EBCT of 8 h, while the PO43--P removal rate reached 81.58% at an EBCT of 12 h. The addition of a carbon source enhanced the synergistic autotrophic/heterotrophic denitrification, significantly improving phosphorus removal with an increasing C/N ratio. Microbial characteristics analysis revealed that, at the phylum level, Chlorobiota, Bacteroidota, and Chloroflexota played a crucial role in heterotrophic autotrophic denitrification. At the genus level, Thauera, Aridibacter, and Gemmatimonas were key players in heterotrophic denitrification, while Thiobacillus, Rhodoplanes, and Geobacter were associated with autotrophic denitrification.

Sulfur-based mixotrophic denitrification: A promising approach for nitrogen removal from low C/N ratio wastewater

Sulfur-based mixotrophic denitrification has significant potential as a promising denitrification technology for treating low ratio of carbon-to‑nitrogen (C/N) wastewater. This paper provided an in-depth and comprehensive overview of the sulfur-based mixotrophic denitrification process and discussed the underlying mechanisms and functional microorganisms. Possible electron transfer pathways involved in the sulfur-based mixotrophic denitrification process are also analyzed in detail. This review focused on the various sulfur-based electron donors used in the sulfur-based mixotrophic denitrification process, including S0, S2-, S2O32-, and pyrite (FeS2), and their performances when combined with various carbon sources (such as methanol, ethanol, glucose, and woodchips) were also explored. The analysis of the contribution proportion between autotrophic and heterotrophic denitrification suggested an appropriate C/N ratio can emphasize the dominance of autotrophs, thus exerting synergistic effects and reducing the consumption of carbon sources. Additionally, three strategies, including developing new composites, new bioreactors, and new sulfur sources, were proposed to improve the performance and stability of the sulfur-based mixotrophic denitrification process. Finally, the applications (such as secondary effluent, groundwater, and agricultural/urban storm water runoff), challenges, and perspectives of the sulfur-based mixotrophic denitrification were highlighted. This review provided an in-depth insight into the coupling mechanism of sulfur-based autotrophic and heterotrophic denitrification and guidance for the future implementation of the sulfur-based mixotrophic denitrification process.

Nitrate removal by a novel aerobic denitrifying Pelomonas puraquae WJ1 in oligotrophic condition: Performance and carbon source metabolism

Reducing nitrate contamination in drinking water has become a critical issue in urban water resource management. Here a novel oligotrophic aerobic denitrifying bacterium, Pelomonas puraquae WJ1, was isolated and purified from artificial lake sediments. For the first time, excellent aerobic denitrification capabilities were demonstrated. At a carbon-to‑nitrogen ratio of 5.0, strain WJ1 achieved 100.0 % nitrate removal and 84.92 % total nitrogen removal within 24 h, with no nitrite accumulation. PCR amplification and sequencing confirmed the presence of the denitrification genes napA, nirS, and nosZ in the strain. The nitrogen balance demonstrated that approximately 74.95 % of the initial nitrogen was eliminated as gaseous products under aerobic conditions. Furthermore, carbon balance analysis showed that most electron donors from strain WJ1 were directed towards oxygen, with limited availability for nitrate reduction. A combination of bio-ECO analysis and network modeling indicated that strain WJ1 has robust metabolic capabilities for diverse carbon sources and exhibits high adaptability to complex carbon environments. Overall, Pelomonas puraquae WJ1 removed approximately 45.89 % of the nitrates in raw water, demonstrating significant potential for practical applications in oligotrophic denitrification.

Microbial communities and denitrification mechanisms of pyrite autotrophic denitrification coupled with three-dimensional biofilm electrode reactor

Denitrification is of great significance for low C/N wastewater treatment. In this study, pyrite autotrophic denitrification (PAD) was coupled with a three-dimensional biofilm electrode reactor (BER) to enhance denitrification. The effect of current on denitrification was extensively studied. The nitrate removal of the PAD-BER increased by 14.90% and 74.64% compared to the BER and the PAD, respectively. In addition, the electron utilization, extracellular polymeric substances secretion, and denitrification enzyme activity (NaR and NiR) were enhanced in the PAD-BER. The microbial communities study displayed that Dokdonella, Hydrogenophaga, Nitrospira, and Terrimonas became the main genera for denitrification. Compared with the PAD and the BER, the abundance of the key denitrification genes narG, nirK, nirS, and nosZ were all boosted in the PAD-BER. This study indicated that the enhanced autotrophic denitrifiers and denitrification genes were responsible for the improved denitrification in the PAD-BER. PRACTITIONER POINTS: PAD-BER displayed higher nitrate removal, EPS, NAR, and NIR activity. The three types of denitrification (HD, HAD, and PAD) and their contribution percentage in the PAD-BER were analyzed. HAD was dominant among the three denitrification processes in PAD-BER. Microbial community composition and key denitrification genes were tested to reveal the denitrification mechanisms.

Elucidating distinct roles of chemical reduction and autotrophic denitrification driven by three iron-based materials in nitrate removal from low carbon-to-nitrogen ratio wastewater

Effective nitrate removal is a key challenge when treating low carbon-to-nitrogen ratio wastewater. How to select an effective inorganic electron donor to improve the autotrophic denitrification of nitrate nitrogen has become an area of intense research. In this study, the nitrate removal mechanism of three iron-based materials in the presence and absence of microorganisms was investigated with Fe2+/Fe0 as an electron donor and nitrate as an electron acceptor, and the relationship between the iron materials and denitrifying microorganisms was explored. The results indicated that the nitrogen removal efficiency of each iron-based material coupled sludge systems was higher than that of iron-based material. Furthermore, compared with the sponge iron coupled sludge system (60.6%-70.4%) and magnetite coupled sludge (56.1%-65.3%), the pyrite coupled sludge system had the highest removal efficiency of TN, and the removal efficiency increased from 62.5% to 82.1% with time. The test results of scanning electron microscope, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction indicated that iron-based materials promoted the attachment of microorganisms and the chemical reduction of nitrate in three iron-based material coupled sludge systems. Furthermore, the pyrite coupled sludge system had the highest nitrite reductase activity and can induce microorganisms to secrete more extracellular polymer substances. Combined with high-throughput sequencing and PICRUSt2 functional predictive analysis software, the total relative abundance of the dominant bacterial in pyrite coupled sludge system was the highest (72.06%) compared with the other iron-based material systems, and the abundance of Blastocatellaceae was relatively high. Overall, these results suggest that the pyrite coupled sludge system was more conducive to long-term stable nitrate removal.

Cooperation between autotrophic and heterotrophic denitrifiers under low C/N ratios revealed by individual-based modelling

Denitrifying biofilms, in which autotrophic denitrifiers (AD) and heterotrophic denitrifiers (HD) coexist, play a crucial role in removing nitrate from water or wastewater. However, it is difficult to elucidate the interactions between HD and AD through sequencing-based experimental methods. Here, we developed an individual-based model to describe the interspecies dynamics and priority effects between sulfur-based AD (Thiobacillus denitrificans) and HD (Thauera phenylcarboxya) under different C/N ratios. In test I (coexistence simulation), AD and HD were initially inoculated at a ratio of 1:1. The simulation results showed excellent denitrification performance and a coaggregation pattern of denitrifiers, indicating that cooperation was the predominant interaction at a C/N ratio of 0.25 to 1.5. In test II (invasion simulation), in which only one type of denitrifier was initially inoculated and the other was added at the invasion time, denitrifiers exhibited a stratification pattern in biofilms. When HD invaded AD, the final HD abundance decreased with increasing invasion time, indicating an enhanced priority effect. When AD invaded HD, insufficient organic carbon sources weakened the priority effect by limiting the growth of HD populations. This study reveals the interaction between autotrophic and heterotrophic denitrifiers, providing guidance for optimizing wastewater treatment process.

Coupling of polyhydroxybutyrate and zero-valent iron for enhanced treatment of nitrate pollution within the Permeable Reactive Barrier and its downgradient aquifer

Permeable Reactive Barriers (PRBs) have been utilized for mitigating nitrate pollution in groundwater systems through the use of solid carbon and iron fillers that release diverse nutrients to enhance denitrification efficiency. We conduct laboratory column tests to evaluate the effectiveness of PRBs in remediating nitrate pollution both within the PRB and in the downgradient aquifer. We use an iron-carbon hydrogel (ICH) as PRB filler, which has different weight ratios of polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) and microscale zero-valent iron (mZVI). Results reveal that denitrification in the downgradient aquifer accounts for at least 19.5 % to 32.5 % of the total nitrate removal. In the ICH, a higher ratio of PHB to mZVI leads to higher contribution of the downgradient aquifer to nitrate removal, while a lower ratio results in smaller contribution. Microbial community analysis further reveals that heterotrophic and mixotrophic bacteria dominate in the downgradient aquifer of the PRB, and their relative abundance increases with a higher ratio of PHB to mZVI in the ICH. Within the PRB, autotrophic and iron-reducing bacteria are more prevalent, and their abundance increases as the ratio of PHB to mZVI in the ICH decreases. These findings emphasize the downgradient aquifer's substantial role in nitrate removal, particularly driven by dissolved organic carbon provided by PHB. This research holds significant implications for nutrient waste management, including the prevention of secondary pollution, and the development of cost-effective PRBs.

Deciphering the influencing mechanism of hydraulic retention time on purification performance of a mixotrophic system from the perspective of reaction kinetics

At present, eutrophication is increasingly serious, so it is necessary to effectively reduce nitrogen and phosphorus in water bodies. In this study, a pyrite/polycaprolactone-based mixotrophic denitrification (PPMD) system using pyrite and polycaprolactone (PCL) as electron donors was developed and compared with pyrite-based autotrophic denitrification (PAD) system and PCL-based heterotrophic denitrification (PHD) system through continuous flow experiment. The removal efficiency of NO3--N (NRE) and PO43--P (PRE) and the contribution proportion of PAD in the PPMD system were significantly increased by prolonging hydraulic retention time (HRT, from 1 to 48 h). When HRT was equal to 24 h, the PPMD system conformed to the zero-order kinetic model, so NRE and PRE were mainly limited by the PAD process. When HRT was equal to 48 h, the PPMD system met the first-order kinetic model with NRE and PRE reaching 98.9 ± 1.1% and 91.8 ± 4.5%, respectively. When HRT = 48 h, the NRE and PRE by PAD system were 82.7 ± 9.1% and 88.5 ± 4.7%, respectively, but the effluent SO42- concentration was as high as 152.1 ± 13.7 mg/L (the influent SO42- concentration was 49.2 ± 3.3 mg/L); the NRE by PHD system was 98.5 ± 1.7%, but the PO43--P could not be removed ideally. The concentrations of NO3--N, total nitrogen, PO43--P, and SO42- in the PPMD system also showed distinct changes along the reactor column. In addition, the microbial diversity analysis showed that prolonging HRT (from 24 to 48 h) increased the abundance of autotrophic denitrifying microorganisms in the PPMD system, ultimately increasing the contribution proportion of PAD.

Indigenous mixotrophic aerobic denitrifiers stimulated by oxygen micro/nanobubble-loaded microporous biochar

The prevalence of hypoxia in surface sediment inhibits the growth of aerobic denitrifiers in natural waters. A novel oxygen micro/nanobubble-loaded microporous biochar (OMB) was developed to activate indigenous aerobic denitrifiers in this study. The results indicate a thin-layer OMB capping mitigates hypoxia effectively. Following a 30-day microcosm-based incubation, a 60 % decrease in total nitrogen concentration was observed, and the oxygen penetration depth in the sediment was increased from <4.0 mm to 38.4 mm. High-throughput sequencing revealed the stimulation of indigenous mixotrophic aerobic denitrifiers, including autotrophic denitrifiers such as Hydrogenophaga and Thiobacillus, heterotrophic denitrifiers like Limnobacter and unclassified_f_Methylophilaceae, and heterotrophic nitrification aerobic denitrification bacteria, including Shinella and Acidovorax, with total relative abundance reaching up to 38.1 %. Further analysis showed OMB enhanced the overall collaborative relationships among microorganisms and promoted the expression of nitrification- and denitrification-related genes. This study introduces an innovative strategy for stimulating indigenous aerobic denitrifiers in aquatic ecosystems.

Mixotrophic denitrification process driven by lime sulfur and butanediol: Denitrification performance and metagenomic analysis

Heterotrophic sulfur-based autotrophic denitrification is a promising biological denitrification technology for low COD/TN (C/N) wastewater due to its high efficiency and low cost. Compared to the conventional autotrophic denitrification process driven by elemental sulfur, the presence of polysulfide in the system can promote high-speed nitrogen removal. However, autotrophic denitrification mediated by polysulfide has not been reported. This study investigated the denitrification performance and microbial metabolic mechanism of heterotrophic denitrification, sulfur-based autotrophic denitrification, and mixotrophic denitrification using lime sulfur and butanediol as electron donors. When the influent C/N was 1, the total nitrogen removal efficiency of the mixotrophic denitrification process was 1.67 and 1.14 times higher than that of the heterotrophic and sulfur-based autotrophic denitrification processes, respectively. Microbial community alpha diversity and principal component analysis indicated different electron donors lead to different evolutionary directions in microbial communities. Metagenomic analysis showed the enriched denitrifying bacteria (Thauera, Pseudomonas, and Pseudoxanthomonas), dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonia bacteria (Hydrogenophaga), and sulfur oxidizing bacteria (Thiobacillus) can stably support nitrate reduction. Analysis of metabolic pathways revealed that complete denitrification, dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonia, and sulfur disproportionation are the main pathways of the N and S cycle. This study demonstrates the feasibility of a mixotrophic denitrification process driven by a combination of lime sulfur and butanediol as a cost-effective solution for treating nitrogen pollution in low C/N wastewater and elucidates the N and S metabolic pathways involved.

The performance, mechanism and greenhouse gas emission potential of nitrogen removal technology for low carbon source wastewater

Excessive nitrogen can lead to eutrophication of water bodies. However, the removal of nitrogen from low carbon source wastewater has always been challenging due to the limited availability of carbon sources as electron donors. Biological nitrogen removal technology can be classified into three categories: heterotrophic biological technology (HBT) that utilizes organic matter as electron donors, autotrophic biological technology (ABT) that relies on inorganic electrons as electron donors, and heterotrophic-autotrophic coupling technology (CBT) that combines multiple electron donors. This work reviews the research progress, microbial mechanism, greenhouse gas emission potential, and challenges of the three technologies. In summary, compared to HBT and ABT, CBT shows greater application potential, although pilot-scale implementation is yet to be achieved. The composition of nitrogen removal microorganisms is different, mainly driven by electron donors. ABT and CBT exhibit the lowest potential for greenhouse gas emissions compared to HBT. N2O, CH4, and CO2 emissions can be controlled by optimizing conditions and adding constructed wetlands. Furthermore, these technologies need further improvement to meet increasingly stringent emission standards and address emerging pollutants. Common measures include bioaugmentation in HBT, the development of novel materials to promote mass transfer efficiency of ABT, and the construction of BES-enhanced multi-electron donor systems to achieve pollutant prevention and removal. This work serves as a valuable reference for the development of clean and sustainable low carbon source wastewater treatment technology, as well as for addressing the challenges posed by global warming.

The enrichment of more functional microbes induced by the increasing hydraulic retention time accounts for the increment of autotrophic denitrification performance

With pyrite (FeS2) and polycaprolactone (PCL) as electron donors, three denitrification systems, namely FeS2-based autotrophic denitrification (PAD) system, PCL-supported heterotrophic denitrification (PHD) system and split-mixotrophic denitrification (PPMD) system, were constructed and operated under varying hydraulic retention times (HRT, 1-48 h). Compared with PAD or PHD, the PPMD system could achieve higher removals of NO3--N and PO43--P, and the effluent SO42- concentration was greatly reduced to 7.28 mg/L. Similarly, the abundance of the dominant genera involved in the PAD (Thiobacillus, Sulfurimonas, and Ferritrophicum, etc.) or PHD (Syntrophomonas, Desulfomicrobium, and Desulfovibrio, etc.) process all increased in the PPMD system. Gene prediction completed by PICRUSt2 showed that the abundance of the functional genes involved in denitrification and sulfur oxidation all increased with the increase of HRT. This also accounted for the increased contribution of autotrophic denitrification to total nitrogen removal in the PPMD system. In addition, the analysis of metabolic pathways disclosed the specific conversion mechanisms of nitrogen and sulfur inside the reactor.

Research progress of novel bio-denitrification technology in deep wastewater treatment

Excessive nitrogen emissions are a major contributor to water pollution, posing a threat not only to the environment but also to human health. Therefore, achieving deep denitrification of wastewater is of significant importance. Traditional biological denitrification methods have some drawbacks, including long processing times, substantial land requirements, high energy consumption, and high investment and operational costs. In contrast, the novel bio-denitrification technology reduces the traditional processing time and lowers operational and maintenance costs while improving denitrification efficiency. This technology falls within the category of environmentally friendly, low-energy deep denitrification methods. This paper introduces several innovative bio-denitrification technologies and their combinations, conducts a comparative analysis of their denitrification efficiency across various wastewater types, and concludes by outlining the future prospects for the development of these novel bio-denitrification technologies.

Coupled pyrite and sulfur autotrophic denitrification for simultaneous removal of nitrogen and phosphorus from secondary effluent: feasibility, performance and mechanisms

The discharge standards of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) have become increasingly strict to reduce water eutrophication. Further reducing N and P in effluent from municipal WWTPs need to be achieved effectively and eco-friendly. In this study, a carbon independent pyrite and sulfur autotrophic denitrification (PSAD) system using pyrite and sulfur as electron donor was developed and compared with pyrite autotrophic denitrification (PAD) and sulfur autotrophic denitrification (SAD) systems through batch and continuous flow biofilter experiments. Compare to PAD and SAD, PSAD was more effective in simultaneous removal in N and P. At hydraulic retention time (HRT) 3 h, average effluent concentrations of total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphate (TP) of 1.40 ± 0.03 and 0.19 ± 0.02 mg/L were achieved when treating real secondary effluent with 20.65 ± 0.24 mg/L TN and 1.00 ± 0.24 mg/L TP. The improvement in simultaneous removal of N and P was attributed to the coupling of PAD and SAD in enhancing the transformation of sulfur and iron and enlarging the reaction zone in the pyrite and sulfur autotrophic denitrification biofilter (PSADB) system. Therefore, more biomass was accumulated and the microbial denitrification functional stability, including electrons transfer and consumption was enhanced on the surface of pyrite and sulfur particles in the PSADB system. Moreover, autotrophic denitrifiers (Thiobacillus and Ferritrophicum), sulfate-reducing bacteria (Desulfocapsa) and iron reducing bacteria (Geothrix), acting as contributors to microbial nitrogen, sulfur and iron cycle, were specially enriched. In addition, the leaching of iron ions was promoted, which facilitated the removal of phosphate in the form of Fe3(PO4)2·8H2O and Fe3PO4. PSADB has proven to be an efficient technology for simultaneous removal of N and P, which could meet increasingly stringent discharge standards effectively and eco-friendly.

Start-up phase optimization of pyrite-intensified hybrid sequencing batch biofilm reactor (PIHSBBR): Mixotrophic denitrification performance and mechanism

Pyrite-based autotrophic denitrification (PAD) is an emerging biological process to diminish nitrate pollution, but the relatively low NO₃^--N removal rate limits its practical application. In this research, a pyrite-intensified hybrid sequencing batch biofilm reactor (PIHSBBR) was designed to treat low C/N ratio domestic wastewater. The results showed that PIHSBBR could achieve optimal removal of COD, NH₄⁺-N, and TN under the aeration rate of 1.0 L/L∙min and the hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 8 h, with removal rates of 69.67 ± 4.37%, 77.04 ± 4.84%, and 63.92 ± 6.66%, respectively. The PAD efficiency in PIHSBBR during the stable operation was not high (13.05-31.01%), and the main nitrogen removal pathway in PIHSBBR, especially in the aerobic zone, was simultaneous nitrification and denitrification (SND). High-throughput sequencing analysis unraveled that Planctomycetota (3.65%) had a high abundance in the anoxic zone of PIHSBBR, implying that anaerobic ammonium oxidation (anammox) might have occurred in the anoxic zone. In addition, the nitrogen cycle function gene with the highest abundance was nirBD, indicating the possible presence of dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA) within the system (aerobic and anoxic zones). Our research can provide useful information for the improvement and future application of PIHSBBR.

A comprehensive review on mixotrophic denitrification processes for biological nitrogen removal

Biological denitrification is the most widely used method for nitrogen removal in water treatment. Compared with heterotrophic and autotrophic denitrification, mixotrophic denitrification is later studied and used. Because mixotrophic denitrification can overcome some shortcomings of heterotrophic and autotrophic denitrification, such as a high carbon source demand for heterotrophic denitrification and a long start-up time for autotrophic denitrification. It has attracted extensive attention of researchers and is increasingly used in biological nitrogen removal processes. However, so far, a comprehensive review is lacking. This paper aims to review the current research status of mixotrophic denitrification and provide guidance for future research in this field. It is shown that mixotrophic denitrification processes can be divided into three main kinds based on different kinds of electron donors, mainly including sulfur-, hydrogen-, and iron-based reducing substances. Among them, sulfur-based mixotrophic denitrification is the most widely studied. The most concerned influencing factors of mixotrophic denitrification processes are hydraulic retention times (HRT) and ratio of chemical oxygen demand (COD) to total inorganic nitrogen (C/N). The dominant functional bacteria of sulfur-based mixotrophic denitrification system are Thiobacillus, Azoarcus, Pseudomonas, and Thauera. At present, mixotrophic denitrification processes are mainly applied for nitrogen removal in drinking water, groundwater, and wastewater treatment. Finally, challenges and future research directions are discussed.

Biogenic ferrihydrite-humin coprecipitate as an electron donor for the enhancement of microbial denitrification by Pseudomonas stutzeri

Nitrate pollution of groundwater has become an increasingly serious environmental problem that poses a great threat to aquatic ecosystems and to human health. Previous studies have shown that solid-phase humin (HM) can act as an additional electron donor to support microbial denitrification in the bioremediation of nitrate-contaminated groundwater where electron donor is deficient. However, the electron-donating capacities of HMs vary widely. In this study, we introduced ferrihydrite and prepared ferrihydrite-humin (Fh-HM) coprecipitates via biotic means to strengthen their electron-donating capacities. The spectroscopic results showed that the crystal phase of Fh did not change after coprecipitation with HM in the presence of Shewanella oneidensis MR-1, and iron may have complexed with the organic groups of HM. The Fh-HM coprecipitate prepared with an optimal initial Fh-HM mass ratio of 14:1 enhanced the microbial denitrification of Pseudomonas stutzeri with an electron-donating capacity 2.4-fold higher than that of HM alone, and the enhancement was not caused by greater bacterial growth. The alginate bead embedding assay indicated that the oxidation pathway of Fh-HM coprecipitate was mainly through direct contact between P. stutzeri and the coprecipitate. Further analyses suggested that quinone and organic-complexed Fe were the main electron-donating fractions of the coprecipitate. The results of the column experiments demonstrated that the column filled with Fh-HM-coated quartz sand exhibited a higher denitrification rate than the one filled with quartz sand, indicating its potential for practical applications.

Effects mechanism of bio-carrier filling rate on rotating biofilms and the reactor performance optimization method

Benefited from the massive filling bio-carriers, the packed cage rotating biological contactors (RBCs) have better performance and application potentiality in wastewater treatment. Investigating the effects mechanism of bio-carrier filling rate is crucial for such reactors management. In this study, the pollutants removal performance, biofilms physical characteristics, and microbial communities of the biofilms under a series of bio-carrier filling rates were analyzed. The results shown, the pollutant removal rate and amount were quite different under different filling rates, and biofilms structure and microbial composition were the main factors affecting the pollutants removal performance. With the increasing filling rates, the biofilms were more mass increased (dry weight from 0.066 to 0.148 g/per carrier), thicker (from 340.30 to 850.84 μm) and lower dense (from 0.068 to 0.060 g/cm³). The microbial community composition of those biofilms was also quite different at the genus level. The effects mechanism of bio-carrier filling rate can be summarized: the filling rates affect the physical and biological characteristics of biofilms, which will further affect the microenvironment and microbial distribution in biofilms, and then determines the pollutant metabolic rate and metabolic pathway. This study will contribute to design better bio-carrier filling rate according to different wastewater treatment scenario, and promote the performance optimization of packed cage RBCs.

New insights on simultaneous nitrate and phosphorus removal in pyrite-involved mixotrophic denitrification biofilter for a long-term operation: Performance change and its underlying mechanism

Simultaneous nitrate and phosphorus removal can be completed by pyrite- and influent organics-involved mixotrophic denitrification and chemical phosphorus removal via iron precipitation. However, so far, how their removal performances change with iron precipitation accumulation remains unclear. In this study, the differences in nitrate and phosphorus removal from municipal tailwater between volcanic and pyrite supported biofilters (V-BF, P-BF) for a long-term operation were investigated, as well as the underlying mechanism for these differences. The nitrate removal efficiencies (NREs) in P-BF were greater than those in V-BF due to the synergistic effect of influent organic and pyrite, as evidenced by comparable TOC consumption and Fe²⁺/SO₄^2- production. The NREs in P-BF were gradually lower than in V-BF as a result of bacterial cell-iron encrustation observed in TEM images, which would deteriorate microbial activity. However, the phosphorus removal efficiencies (PREs) in P-BF remained consistently higher than in V-BF, resulting from chemical phosphorus removal which was confirmed that P, Fe and O elements dominated on the pyrite surface after use by SEM-EDS. The dominant denitrifying bacteria differed significantly, autotrophic and heterotrophic denitrifying microorganisms coexisted in P-BF. The relative abundances of the narG coding gene in P-BF were higher than that in V-BF, which was consistent with the total relative abundances of identified denitrifying bacteria. Besides, the mechanism of simultaneous nitrogen and phosphorus removal in the pyrite-involved mixotrophic denitrification process has been deduced. This work has significant implications for the practical application of a pyrite-involved mixotrophic denitrification process for low C/N wastewater treatment.

Pyrite-Based Autotrophic Denitrifying Microorganisms Derived from Paddy Soils: Effects of Organic Co-Substrate Addition

The presence of organic co-substrate in groundwater and soils is inevitable, and much remains to be learned about the roles of organic co-substrates during pyrite-based denitrification. Herein, an organic co-substrate (acetate) was added to a pyrite-based denitrification system, and the impact of the organic co-substrate on the performance and bacterial community of pyrite-based denitrification processes was evaluated. The addition of organic co-substrate at concentrations higher than 48 mg L^-1 inhibited pyrite-based autotrophic denitrification, as no sulfate was produced in treatments with high organic co-substrate addition. In contrast, both competition and promotion effects on pyrite-based autotrophic denitrification occurred with organic co-substrate addition at concentrations of 24 and 48 mg L^-1. The subsequent validation experiments suggested that competition had a greater influence than promotion when organic co-substrate was added, even at a low concentration. Thiobacillus, a common chemolithoautotrophic sulfur-oxidizing denitrifier, dominated the system with a relative abundance of 13.04% when pyrite served as the sole electron donor. With the addition of organic co-substrate, Pseudomonas became the dominant genus, with 60.82%, 61.34%, 70.37%, 73.44%, and 35.46% abundance at organic matter concentrations of 24, 48, 120, 240, and 480 mg L^-1, respectively. These findings provide an important theoretical basis for the cultivation of pyrite-based autotrophic denitrifying microorganisms for nitrate removal in soils and groundwater.

Effect of hydraulic retention time on performance of autotrophic, heterotrophic, and split-mixotrophic denitrification systems supported by polycaprolactone/pyrite: Difference and potential explanation

Biological denitrification is still the most important pathway to purifying nitrate-containing wastewater. In this study, pyrite (FeS₂ ) and polycaprolactone (PCL) were used as electron donors to construct sole or combined denitrification systems, that is, pyrite-based autotrophic denitrification (PAD) system, PCL-supported heterotrophic denitrification (PHD) system, and split-mixotrophic denitrification system (combined PAD + PHD), all of which were operated under five different hydraulic retention times (HRTs) for 150 days. The results showed that the removal rates (RE) of nitrate (NO₃ ^- -N) and inorganic phosphorus (PO₄ ^3- -P) by PAD were 91% and 94%, respectively, but the effluent sulfate (SO₄ ^2- ) concentration was as high as 168.2 mg/L; the removal rate of NO₃ ^- -N by PHD was higher than 99%, but the PO₄ ^3- -P could not be removed ideally; the removal rates of NO₃ ^- -N and PO₄ ^3- -P by PAD + PHD were higher than 95% and 99%, respectively, and the effluent SO₄ ^2- concentration was only 7.2 mg/L. Through the analysis of the surface scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the two kinds of media before and after use, it was found that the coupled mode of PAD + PHD was more favorable for biofilm formation than the sole PAD or PHD process, and the microorganisms in the PAD + PHD mode made more full use of electron donors. Moreover, the biomass of the PAD + PHD mode was lower than that of the PAD or PHD process, but the denitrification efficiency of the coupled mode was more efficient, indicating that the functional microorganisms in the PAD + PHD mode might have a certain synergistic effect. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Removal rates of NO₃ -, PO₄ ³ -, and SO₄ ² - by PAD were 91%, 94%, and -233%, respectively. Removal rate of NO₃ - by PHD exceeded 99%, but PO₄ ³ - could not be removed ideally. Removal rates of NO₃ -, PO₄ ³ -, and SO₄ ² - by PAD + PHD were 95%, 99%, and 86%, respectively. The coupled mode was more favorable for biofilm formation than the sole PAD or PHD. The coupled mode had lower biomass but got more excellent denitrification efficiency.