Cellular complexity in brain organoids: Current progress and unsolved issues

Midbrain organoids for Parkinson's disease (PD) - A powerful tool to understand the disease pathogenesis

Brain Organiods (BOs) are a promising technique for researching disease progression in the human brain. These organoids, which are produced from human induced pluripotent stem cells (HiPSCs), can construct themselves into structured frameworks. In the context of Parkinson's disease (PD), recent advancements have been made in the development of Midbrain organoids (MBOs) models that consider key pathophysiological mechanisms such as alpha-synuclein (α-Syn), Lewy bodies, dopamine loss, and microglia activation. However, there are limitations to the current use of BOs in disease modelling and drug discovery, such as the lack of vascularization, long-term differentiation, and absence of glial cells. To address these limitations, researchers have proposed the use of spinning bioreactors to improve oxygen and nutrient perfusion. Modelling PD utilising modern experimental in vitro models is a valuable tool for studying disease mechanisms and elucidating previously unknown features of PD. In this paper, we exclusively review the unique methods available for cultivating MBOs using a pumping system that mimics the circulatory system. This mechanism may aid in delivering the required amount of oxygen and nutrients to all areas of the organoids, preventing cell death, and allowing for long-term culture and using co-culturing techniques for developing glial cell in BOs. Furthermore, we emphasise some of the significant discoveries about the BOs and the potential challenges of using BOs will be discussed.

The application of brain organoid for drug discovery in mitochondrial diseases

Mitochondrial diseases are difficult to treat due to the complexity and multifaceted nature of mitochondrial dysfunction. Brain organoids are three-dimensional (3D) structures derived from human pluripotent stem cells designed to mimic brain-like development and function. Brain organoids have received a lot of attention in recent years as powerful tools for modeling human diseases, brain development, and drug screening. Screening compounds for mitochondrial diseases using brain organoids could provide a more physiologically relevant platform for drug discovery. Brain organoids offer the possibility of personalized medicine because they can be derived from patient-specific cells, allowing testing of drugs tailored to specific genetic mutations. In this article, we highlight how brain organoids offer a promising avenue for screening compounds for mitochondrial diseases and address the challenges and limitations associated with their use. We hope this review will provide new insights into the further progress of brain organoids for mitochondrial screening studies.

Challenges in developing therapies in fragile X syndrome: how the FXLEARN trial can guide research

Fragile X syndrome (FXS), the most common inherited cause of intellectual disability and the single-gene cause of autism, is caused by decreased expression of the fragile X messenger ribonucleoprotein protein (FMRP), a ribosomal-associated RNA-binding protein involved in translational repression. Extensive preclinical work in several FXS animal models supported the therapeutic potential of decreasing metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) signaling to correct translation of proteins related to synaptic plasticity; however, multiple clinical trials failed to show conclusive evidence of efficacy. In this issue of the JCI, Berry-Kravis and colleagues conducted the FXLEARN clinical trial to address experimental design concerns from previous trials. Unfortunately, despite treatment of young children with combined pharmacological and learning interventions for a prolonged period, no efficacy of blocking mGluR activity was observed. Future systematic evaluation of potential therapeutic approaches should evaluate consistency between human and animal pathophysiological mechanisms, utilize innovative clinical trial design from FXLEARN, and incorporate translatable biomarkers.

Shaping the Neurovascular Unit Exploiting Human Brain Organoids

Brain organoids, three-dimensional cell structures derived from pluripotent stem cells, closely mimic key aspects of the human brain in vitro, providing a powerful tool for studying neurodevelopment and disease. The neuroectodermal induction protocol employed for brain organoid generation primarily gives rise to the neural cellular component but lacks the vital vascular system, which is crucial for the brain functions by regulating differentiation, migration, and circuit formation, as well as delivering oxygen and nutrients. Many neurological diseases are caused by dysfunctions of cerebral microcirculation, making vascularization of human brain organoids an important tool for pathogenetic and translational research. Experimentally, the creation of vascularized brain organoids has primarily focused on the fusion of vascular and brain organoids, on organoid transplantation in vivo, and on the use of microfluidic devices to replicate the intricate microenvironment of the human brain in vitro. This review summarizes these efforts and highlights the importance of studying the neurovascular unit in a forward-looking perspective of leveraging their use for understanding and treating neurological disorders.

Modeling Liver Development and Disease in a Dish

Historically, biological research has relied primarily on animal models. While this led to the understanding of numerous human biological processes, inherent species-specific differences make it difficult to answer certain liver-related developmental and disease-specific questions. The advent of 3D organoid models that are either derived from pluripotent stem cells or generated from healthy or diseased tissue-derived stem cells have made it possible to recapitulate the biological aspects of human organs. Organoid technology has been instrumental in understanding the disease mechanism and complements animal models. This review underscores the advances in organoid technology and specifically how liver organoids are used to better understand human-specific biological processes in development and disease. We also discuss advances made in the application of organoid models in drug screening and personalized medicine.

Advances and Applications of Brain Organoids

Understanding the fundamental processes of human brain development and diseases is of great importance for our health. However, existing research models such as non-human primate and mouse models remain limited due to their developmental discrepancies compared with humans. Over the past years, an emerging model, the "brain organoid" integrated from human pluripotent stem cells, has been developed to mimic developmental processes of the human brain and disease-associated phenotypes to some extent, making it possible to better understand the complex structures and functions of the human brain. In this review, we summarize recent advances in brain organoid technologies and their applications in brain development and diseases, including neurodevelopmental, neurodegenerative, psychiatric diseases, and brain tumors. Finally, we also discuss current limitations and the potential of brain organoids.

Human 3D brain organoids: steering the demolecularization of brain and neurological diseases

Understanding of human brain development, dysfunction and neurological diseases has remained limited and challenging due to inability to recapitulate human brain-specific features in animal models. Though the anatomy and physiology of the human brain has been understood in a remarkable way using post-mortem, pathological samples of human and animal models, however, modeling of human brain development and neurological diseases remains a challenge owing to distinct complexity of human brain. In this perspective, three-dimensional (3D) brain organoids have shown a beam of light. Tremendous growth in stem cell technologies has permitted the differentiation of pluripotent stem cells under 3D culture conditions into brain organoids, which recapitulate the unique features of human brain in many ways and also offer the detailed investigation of brain development, dysfunction and neurological diseases. Their translational value has also emerged and will benefit the society once the protocols for the upscaling of brain organoids are in place. Here, we summarize new advancements in methods for generation of more complex brain organoids including vascularized and mixed lineage tissue from PSCs. How synthetic biomaterials and microfluidic technology is boosting brain organoid development, has also been highlighted. We discuss the applications of brain organoids in studying preterm birth associated brain dysfunction; viral infections mediated neuroinflammation, neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative diseases. We also highlight the translational value of brain organoids and current challenges that the field is experiencing.

Generating human neural diversity with a multiplexed morphogen screen in organoids

Morphogens choreograph the generation of remarkable cellular diversity in the developing nervous system. Differentiation of stem cells toward particular neural cell fates in vitro often relies upon combinatorial modulation of these signaling pathways. However, the lack of a systematic approach to understand morphogen-directed differentiation has precluded the generation of many neural cell populations, and knowledge of the general principles of regional specification remain in-complete. Here, we developed an arrayed screen of 14 morphogen modulators in human neural organoids cultured for over 70 days. Leveraging advances in multiplexed RNA sequencing technology and annotated single cell references of the human fetal brain we discovered that this screening approach generated considerable regional and cell type diversity across the neural axis. By deconvoluting morphogen-cell type relationships, we extracted design principles of brain region specification, including critical morphogen timing windows and combinatorics yielding an array of neurons with distinct neuro-transmitter identities. Tuning GABAergic neural subtype diversity unexpectedly led to the derivation of primate-specific interneurons. Taken together, this serves as a platform towards an in vitro morphogen atlas of human neural cell differentiation that will bring insights into human development, evolution, and disease.

An in vivo neuroimmune organoid model to study human microglia phenotypes

Microglia are specialized brain-resident macrophages that play crucial roles in brain development, homeostasis, and disease. However, until now, the ability to model interactions between the human brain environment and microglia has been severely limited. To overcome these limitations, we developed an in vivo xenotransplantation approach that allows us to study functionally mature human microglia (hMGs) that operate within a physiologically relevant, vascularized immunocompetent human brain organoid (iHBO) model. Our data show that organoid-resident hMGs gain human-specific transcriptomic signatures that closely resemble their in vivo counterparts. In vivo two-photon imaging reveals that hMGs actively engage in surveilling the human brain environment, react to local injuries, and respond to systemic inflammatory cues. Finally, we demonstrate that the transplanted iHBOs developed here offer the unprecedented opportunity to study functional human microglia phenotypes in health and disease and provide experimental evidence for a brain-environment-induced immune response in a patient-specific model of autism with macrocephaly.

Transplantation Strategies to Enhance Maturity and Cellular Complexity in Brain Organoids

Human brain organoids are 3-dimensional cell aggregates that are generated from pluripotent stem cells and recapitulate features of the early developing human brain. Brain organoids mainly consist of cells from the neural lineage, such as neural progenitor cells, neurons, and astrocytes. However, current brain organoid systems lack functional vasculature as well as other non-neuronal cells that are indispensable for oxygen and nutrient supply to the organoids, causing cell stress and formation of a necrotic center. Attempts to utilize intracerebral transplantation approaches have demonstrated successful vascularization of brain organoids and robust neurodifferentiation. In this review, we summarize recent progress and discuss ethical considerations in the field of brain organoid transplantation.

Current progress of cerebral organoids for modeling Alzheimer's disease origins and mechanisms

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive, neurodegenerative disease that has emerged as a leading risk factor for dementia associated with increasing age. Two-dimensional (2D) cell culture and animal models, which have been used to analyze AD pathology and search for effective treatments for decades, have significantly contributed to our understanding of the mechanism of AD. Despite their successes, 2D and animal models can only capture a fraction of AD mechanisms due to their inability to recapitulate human brain-specific tissue structure, function, and cellular diversity. Recently, the emergence of three-dimensional (3D) cerebral organoids using tissue engineering and induced pluripotent stem cell technology has paved the way to develop models that resemble features of human brain tissue more accurately in comparison to prior models. In this review, we focus on summarizing key research strategies for engineering in vitro 3D human brain-specific models, major discoveries from using AD cerebral organoids, and its future perspectives.

Direct Cell Reprogramming and Phenotypic Conversion: An Analysis of Experimental Attempts to Transform Astrocytes into Neurons in Adult Animals

Central nervous system (CNS) repair after injury or disease remains an unresolved problem in neurobiology research and an unmet medical need. Directly reprogramming or converting astrocytes to neurons (AtN) in adult animals has been investigated as a potential strategy to facilitate brain and spinal cord recovery and advance fundamental biology. Conceptually, AtN strategies rely on forced expression or repression of lineage-specific transcription factors to make endogenous astrocytes become "induced neurons" (iNs), presumably without re-entering any pluripotent or multipotent states. The AtN-derived cells have been reported to manifest certain neuronal functions in vivo. However, this approach has raised many new questions and alternative explanations regarding the biological features of the end products (e.g., iNs versus neuron-like cells, neural functional changes, etc.), developmental biology underpinnings, and neurobiological essentials. For this paper per se, we proposed to draw an unconventional distinction between direct cell conversion and direct cell reprogramming, relative to somatic nuclear transfer, based on the experimental methods utilized to initiate the transformation process, aiming to promote a more in-depth mechanistic exploration. Moreover, we have summarized the current tactics employed for AtN induction, comparisons between the bench endeavors concerning outcome tangibility, and discussion of the issues of published AtN protocols. Lastly, the urgency to clearly define/devise the theoretical frameworks, cell biological bases, and bench specifics to experimentally validate primary data of AtN studies was highlighted.

Message in a Scaffold: Natural Biomaterials for Three-Dimensional (3D) Bioprinting of Human Brain Organoids

Brain organoids are invaluable tools for pathophysiological studies or drug screening, but there are still challenges to overcome in making them more reproducible and relevant. Recent advances in three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting of human neural organoids is an emerging approach that may overcome the limitations of self-organized organoids. It requires the development of optimal hydrogels, and a wealth of research has improved our knowledge about biomaterials both in terms of their intrinsic properties and their relevance on 3D culture of brain cells and tissue. Although biomaterials are rarely biologically neutral, few articles have reviewed their roles on neural cells. We here review the current knowledge on unmodified biomaterials amenable to support 3D bioprinting of neural organoids with a particular interest in their impact on cell homeostasis. Alginate is a particularly suitable bioink base for cell encapsulation. Gelatine is a valuable helper agent for 3D bioprinting due to its viscosity. Collagen, fibrin, hyaluronic acid and laminin provide biological support to adhesion, motility, differentiation or synaptogenesis and optimize the 3D culture of neural cells. Optimization of specialized hydrogels to direct differentiation of stem cells together with an increased resolution in phenotype analysis will further extend the spectrum of possible bioprinted brain disease models.

Silk scaffolding drives self-assembly of functional and mature human brain organoids

Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) are intrinsically able to self-organize into cerebral organoids that mimic features of developing human brain tissue. These three-dimensional structures provide a unique opportunity to generate cytoarchitecture and cell-cell interactions reminiscent of human brain complexity in a dish. However, current in vitro brain organoid methodologies often result in intra-organoid variability, limiting their use in recapitulating later developmental stages as well as in disease modeling and drug discovery. In addition, cell stress and hypoxia resulting from long-term culture lead to incomplete maturation and cell death within the inner core. Here, we used a recombinant silk microfiber network as a scaffold to drive hPSCs to self-arrange into engineered cerebral organoids. Silk scaffolding promoted neuroectoderm formation and reduced heterogeneity of cellular organization within individual organoids. Bulk and single cell transcriptomics confirmed that silk cerebral organoids display more homogeneous and functionally mature neuronal properties than organoids grown in the absence of silk scaffold. Furthermore, oxygen sensing analysis showed that silk scaffolds create more favorable growth and differentiation conditions by facilitating the delivery of oxygen and nutrients. The silk scaffolding strategy appears to reduce intra-organoid variability and enhances self-organization into functionally mature human brain organoids.

Human organoids: New strategies and methods for analyzing human development and disease

For decades, insight into fundamental principles of human biology and disease has been obtained primarily by experiments in animal models. While this has allowed researchers to understand many human biological processes in great detail, some developmental and disease mechanisms have proven difficult to study due to inherent species differences. The advent of organoid technology more than 10 years ago has established laboratory-grown organ tissues as an additional model system to recapitulate human-specific aspects of biology. The use of human 3D organoids, as well as other advances in single-cell technologies, has revealed unprecedented insights into human biology and disease mechanisms, especially those that distinguish humans from other species. This review highlights novel advances in organoid biology with a focus on how organoid technology has generated a better understanding of human-specific processes in development and disease.

Generation of vascularized brain organoids to study neurovascular interactions

Brain organoids have been used to recapitulate the processes of brain development and related diseases. However, the lack of vasculatures, which regulate neurogenesis and brain disorders, limits the utility of brain organoids. In this study, we induced vessel and brain organoids, respectively, and then fused two types of organoids together to obtain vascularized brain organoids. The fused brain organoids were engrafted with robust vascular network-like structures and exhibited increased number of neural progenitors, in line with the possibility that vessels regulate neural development. Fusion organoids also contained functional blood–brain barrier-like structures, as well as microglial cells, a specific population of immune cells in the brain. The incorporated microglia responded actively to immune stimuli to the fused brain organoids and showed ability of engulfing synapses. Thus, the fusion organoids established in this study allow modeling interactions between the neuronal and non-neuronal components in vitro, particularly the vasculature and microglia niche.

Understanding how the organs form and how their cells behave is essential to finding the causes and treatment for developmental disorders, as well as understanding certain diseases. However, studying most organs in live animals or humans is technically difficult, expensive and invasive. To address this issue, scientists have developed models called ‘organoids’ that recapitulate the development of organs using stem cells in the lab. These models are easier to study and manipulate than the live organs.

Brain organoids have been used to recapitulate brain formation as well as developmental, degenerative and psychiatric brain conditions such as microcephaly, autism and Alzheimer’s disease. However, these brain organoids lack the vasculature (the network of blood vessels) that supplies a live brain with nutrients and regulates its development, and which has important roles in brain disorders. Partly due to this lack of blood vessels, brain organoids also do not develop a blood brain barrier, the structure that prevents certain contents of the blood, including pathogens, toxins and even certain drugs from entering the brain. These characteristics limit the utility of existing brain organoids.

To overcome these limitations, Sun, Ju et al. developed brain organoids and blood vessel organoids independently, and then fused them together to obtain vascularized brain organoids. These fusion organoids developed a robust network of blood vessels that was well integrated with the brain cells, and produced more neural cell precursors than brain organoids that had not been fused. This result is consistent with the idea that blood vessels can regulate brain development.

Analyzing the fusion organoids revealed that they contain structures similar to the blood-brain barrier, as well as microglial cells (immune cells specific to the brain). When exposed to lipopolysaccharide – a component of the cell wall of certain bacteria – these cells responded by initiating an immune response in the fusion organoids. Notably, the microglial cells were also able to engulf connections between brain cells, a process necessary for the brain to develop the correct structures and work normally.

Sun, Ju et al. have developed a new organoid system that will be of broad interest to researchers studying interactions between the brain and the circulatory system. The development of brain-blood-barrier-like structures in the fusion organoids could also facilitate the development of drugs that can cross this barrier, making it easier to treat certain conditions that affect the brain. Refining this model to allow the fusion organoids to grow for longer times in the lab, and adding blood flow to the system will be the next steps to establish this system.

Engineered Neutral Phosphorous Dendrimers Protect Mouse Cortical Neurons and Brain Organoids from Excitotoxic Death

Nanoparticles are playing an increasing role in biomedical applications. Excitotoxicity plays a significant role in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s or Parkinson’s disease. Glutamate ionotropic receptors, mainly those activated by N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), play a key role in excitotoxic death by increasing intraneuronal calcium levels; triggering mitochondrial potential collapse; increasing free radicals; activating caspases 3, 9, and 12; and inducing endoplasmic reticulum stress. Neutral phosphorous dendrimers, acting intracellularly, have neuroprotective actions by interfering with NMDA-mediated excitotoxic mechanisms in rat cortical neurons. In addition, phosphorous dendrimers can access neurons inside human brain organoids, complex tridimensional structures that replicate a significant number of properties of the human brain, to interfere with NMDA-induced mechanisms of neuronal death. Phosphorous dendrimers are one of the few nanoparticles able to gain access to the inside of neurons, both in primary cultures and in brain organoids, and to exert pharmacological actions by themselves.

Single-cell transcriptomics captures features of human midbrain development and dopamine neuron diversity in brain organoids

Three-dimensional brain organoids have emerged as a valuable model system for studies of human brain development and pathology. Here we establish a midbrain organoid culture system to study the developmental trajectory from pluripotent stem cells to mature dopamine neurons. Using single cell RNA sequencing, we identify the presence of three molecularly distinct subtypes of human dopamine neurons with high similarity to those in developing and adult human midbrain. However, despite significant advancements in the field, the use of brain organoids can be limited by issues of reproducibility and incomplete maturation which was also observed in this study. We therefore designed bioengineered ventral midbrain organoids supported by recombinant spider-silk microfibers functionalized with full-length human laminin. We show that silk organoids reproduce key molecular aspects of dopamine neurogenesis and reduce inter-organoid variability in terms of cell type composition and dopamine neuron formation.

WWOX-Related Neurodevelopmental Disorders: Models and Future Perspectives

The WW domain-containing oxidoreductase (WWOX) gene was originally discovered as a putative tumor suppressor spanning the common fragile site FRA16D, but as time has progressed the extent of its pleiotropic function has become apparent. At present, WWOX is a major source of interest in the context of neurological disorders, and more specifically developmental and epileptic encephalopathies (DEEs). This review article aims to introduce the many model systems used through the years to study its function and roles in neuropathies. Similarities and fundamental differences between rodent and human models are discussed. Finally, future perspectives and promising research avenues are suggested.

Unraveling Human Brain Development and Evolution Using Organoid Models

Brain organoids are proving to be physiologically relevant models for studying human brain development in terms of temporal transcriptional signature recapitulation, dynamic cytoarchitectural development, and functional electrophysiological maturation. Several studies have employed brain organoid technologies to elucidate human-specific processes of brain development, gene expression, and cellular maturation by comparing human-derived brain organoids to those of non-human primates (NHPs). Brain organoids have been established from a variety of NHP pluripotent stem cell (PSC) lines and many protocols are now available for generating brain organoids capable of reproducibly representing specific brain region identities. Innumerous combinations of brain region specific organoids derived from different human and NHP PSCs, with CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing techniques and strategies to promote advanced stages of maturation, will successfully establish complex brain model systems for the accurate representation and elucidation of human brain development. Identified human-specific processes of brain development are likely vulnerable to dysregulation and could result in the identification of therapeutic targets or disease prevention strategies. Here, we discuss the potential of brain organoids to successfully model human-specific processes of brain development and explore current strategies for pinpointing these differences.

The emerging role of chromatin remodelers in neurodevelopmental disorders: a developmental perspective

Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs), including intellectual disability (ID) and autism spectrum disorders (ASD), are a large group of disorders in which early insults during brain development result in a wide and heterogeneous spectrum of clinical diagnoses. Mutations in genes coding for chromatin remodelers are overrepresented in NDD cohorts, pointing towards epigenetics as a convergent pathogenic pathway between these disorders. In this review we detail the role of NDD-associated chromatin remodelers during the developmental continuum of progenitor expansion, differentiation, cell-type specification, migration and maturation. We discuss how defects in chromatin remodelling during these early developmental time points compound over time and result in impaired brain circuit establishment. In particular, we focus on their role in the three largest cell populations: glutamatergic neurons, GABAergic neurons, and glia cells. An in-depth understanding of the spatiotemporal role of chromatin remodelers during neurodevelopment can contribute to the identification of molecular targets for treatment strategies.

Dynamic properties of mitochondria during human corticogenesis

Mitochondria are signaling hubs responsible for the generation of energy through oxidative phosphorylation, the production of key metabolites that serve the bioenergetic and biosynthetic needs of the cell, calcium (Ca2+) buffering and the initiation/execution of apoptosis. The ability of mitochondria to coordinate this myriad of functions is achieved through the exquisite regulation of fundamental dynamic properties, including remodeling of the mitochondrial network via fission and fusion, motility and mitophagy. In this Review, we summarize the current understanding of the mechanisms by which these dynamic properties of the mitochondria support mitochondrial function, review their impact on human cortical development and highlight areas in need of further research.

Human ALS/FTD brain organoid slice cultures display distinct early astrocyte and targetable neuronal pathology

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis overlapping with frontotemporal dementia (ALS/FTD) is a fatal and currently untreatable disease characterized by rapid cognitive decline and paralysis. Elucidating initial cellular pathologies is central to therapeutic target development, but obtaining samples from presymptomatic patients is not feasible. Here, we report the development of a cerebral organoid slice model derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) that recapitulates mature cortical architecture and displays early molecular pathology of C9ORF72 ALS/FTD. Using a combination of single-cell RNA sequencing and biological assays, we reveal distinct transcriptional, proteostasis and DNA repair disturbances in astroglia and neurons. We show that astroglia display increased levels of the autophagy signaling protein P62 and that deep layer neurons accumulate dipeptide repeat protein poly(GA), DNA damage and undergo nuclear pyknosis that could be pharmacologically rescued by GSK2606414. Thus, patient-specific iPSC-derived cortical organoid slice cultures are a reproducible translational platform to investigate preclinical ALS/FTD mechanisms as well as novel therapeutic approaches.

Experimental Models for the Study of Central Nervous System Infection by SARS-CoV-2

INTRODUCTION

The response to the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus epidemic requires increased research efforts to expand our knowledge of the disease. Questions related to infection rates and mechanisms, the possibility of reinfection, and potential therapeutic approaches require us not only to use the experimental models previously employed for the SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV coronaviruses but also to generate new models to respond to urgent questions.

DEVELOPMENT

We reviewed the different experimental models used in the study of central nervous system (CNS) involvement in COVID-19 both in different cell lines that have enabled identification of the virus' action mechanisms and in animal models (mice, rats, hamsters, ferrets, and primates) inoculated with the virus. Specifically, we reviewed models used to assess the presence and effects of SARS-CoV-2 on the CNS, including neural cell lines, animal models such as mouse hepatitis virus CoV (especially the 59 strain), and the use of brain organoids.

CONCLUSION

Given the clear need to increase our understanding of SARS-CoV-2, as well as its potential effects on the CNS, we must endeavor to obtain new information with cellular or animal models, with an appropriate resemblance between models and human patients.