SERS-ELISA using silica-encapsulated Au core-satellite nanotags for sensitive detection of SARS-CoV-2

Engineering an Ionic Aggregation-Induced Luminescence-Labeled Fluorescence Lateral Flow Immunoassay for C-Reactive Protein in Human Plasma

The surge of lateral flow immunoassays (LFAs) stimulates researchers to explore the novel vibrant aggregation-induced emission luminogen (AIEgen)-doped nanoparticles to improve the accuracy and reliability of LFAs. However, the loading amount of AIEgens currently used for the LFA in microspheres is limited due to their symmetrical large conjugated skeleton structure, which significantly reduces the fluorescence brightness of the signal reporter in the LFA. Herein, an ionic AIEgens with a donor-acceptor type was developed as the signal reporter of the LFA for C-reactive protein (CRP). Ionic AIEgens are unable to enter the hydrophobic cavity of polystyrene nanoparticles (PS) because of their low hydrophobic nature. By altering ionic AIEgens with extended alkyl chains, it is possible to increase their hydrophobicity, thereby potentially increasing the loading capacity within PS. Notably, the fluorescent nanoparticles (denoted as AIETPANPs) formed by embedding (E)-4-(4-(diphenylamino)styryl)-1-octadecylpyridin-1-ium iodide (TPA) in PS showed orange-red fluorescence emission and have high fluorescence quantum yield. Anti-CRP antibody (mAb1) could be effectively conjugated to the surface of AIETPANPs by an amino-carboxyl reaction, resulting in AIETPANPs-mAb1. The AIETPANPs-mAb1 exhibited a fluorescence emission at 613 nm, a point detectable by the naked eye with minimal background interference. The entire analysis was accomplished in just 10 min, achieving a limit of detection of 4.06 ng/mL for CRP. The AIETPANPs-mAb1-based LFA demonstrates excellent stability and specificity and fully meets the requirements for clinical diagnosis.

A smartphone-based enhanced colorimetric immunoassay for the detection of Trichinella spiralis infection

Trichinellosis is a serious foodborne and zoonotic parasitic disease caused by Trichinella family. At present, the main on-site detection method for Trichinella spiralis (T. spiralis) infection is the lateral flow assay (LFA). Other diagnostic techniques for this parasite cannot be applied to on-site testing due to their reliance on special instruments. Here, we established an ELISA smartphone-based method for detecting anti-T. spiralis antibodies in pig serum. The use of horseradish peroxidase-labeled goat anti-pig IgG-modified gold nanoparticle (AuNPs@HRP-IgG) effectively increased the sensitivity of the method. The entire reaction was carried out at room temperature without the need for special instruments. A low-cost and portable device for imaging and processing experimental data was also developed. Validation analysis revealed that the specificity of the test was 98.89 %, while its sensitivity was 100.00 %. T. spiralis antibodies could be detected in pig serum beginning at 25 dpi after infection with the muscle larvae. This visual immunosensor facilitates on-site detection of T. spiralis, especially in regions lacking specialized laboratory equipment.

Plasmonic nanoparticle sensors: current progress, challenges, and future prospects

Plasmonic nanoparticles (NPs) have played a significant role in the evolution of modern nanoscience and nanotechnology in terms of colloidal synthesis, general understanding of nanocrystal growth mechanisms, and their impact in a wide range of applications. They exhibit strong visible colors due to localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) that depends on their size, shape, composition, and the surrounding dielectric environment. Under resonant excitation, the LSPR of plasmonic NPs leads to a strong field enhancement near their surfaces and thus enhances various light-matter interactions. These unique optical properties of plasmonic NPs have been used to design chemical and biological sensors. Over the last few decades, colloidal plasmonic NPs have been greatly exploited in sensing applications through LSPR shifts (colorimetry), surface-enhanced Raman scattering, surface-enhanced fluorescence, and chiroptical activity. Although colloidal plasmonic NPs have emerged at the forefront of nanobiosensors, there are still several important challenges to be addressed for the realization of plasmonic NP-based sensor kits for routine use in daily life. In this comprehensive review, researchers of different disciplines (colloidal and analytical chemistry, biology, physics, and medicine) have joined together to summarize the past, present, and future of plasmonic NP-based sensors in terms of different sensing platforms, understanding of the sensing mechanisms, different chemical and biological analytes, and the expected future technologies. This review is expected to guide the researchers currently working in this field and inspire future generations of scientists to join this compelling research field and its branches.

Exploring Plasmonic Standalone Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering Nanoprobes for Multifaceted Applications in Biomedical, Food, and Environmental Fields

Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) is an innovative spectroscopic technique that amplifies the Raman signals of molecules adsorbed on rough metal surfaces, making it pivotal for single-molecule detection in complex biological and environmental matrices. This review aims to elucidate the design strategies and recent advancements in the application of standalone SERS nanoprobes, with a special focus on quantifiable SERS tags. We conducted a comprehensive analysis of the recent literature, focusing on the development of SERS nanoprobes that employ novel nanostructuring techniques to enhance signal reliability and quantification. Standalone SERS nanoprobes exhibit significant enhancements in sensitivity and specificity due to optimized hot spot generation and improved reporter molecule interactions. Recent innovations include the development of nanogap and core-satellite structures that enhance electromagnetic fields, which are crucial for SERS applications. Standalone SERS nanoprobes, particularly those utilizing indirect detection mechanisms, represent a significant advancement in the field. They hold potential for wide-ranging applications, from disease diagnostics to environmental monitoring, owing to their enhanced sensitivity and ability to operate under complex sample conditions.

Plasmonic Nanotrenches with 1 nm Nanogaps for Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering-Based Screening of His-Tagged Proteins

This study represents a highly sensitive and selective approach to protein screening using surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) facilitated by octahedral Au nanotrenches (OANTs). OANTs are a novel class of nanoparticles characterized by narrow, trench-like excavations indented into the eight facets of a Au octahedron. This unique configuration maximizes electromagnetic near-field focusing as the gap distance decreases to ∼1 nm. Owing to geometrical characteristics of the OANTs, near-field focusing can be maximized through the confinement and reflectance of light trapped within the trenches. We used Ni ions and molecular linkers to confer selective binding affinity for His-tagged proteins on the surfaces of the OANTs for SERS-based protein screening. Remarkably, SERS-based protein screening with the surface-modified OANTs yielded outstanding screening capabilities: 100% sensitivity and 100% selectivity in distinguishing His-tagged human serum albumin (HSA) from native HSA. This highlights the significantly enhanced protein screening capabilities achieved through the synergistic combination of SERS and the OANTs.

iSERS: from nanotag design to protein assays and ex vivo imaging

Proteins are an eminently important class of ubiquitous biomacromolecules with diverse biological functions, and numerous techniques for their detection, quantification, and localisation have been developed. Many of these methods exploit the selectivity arising from molecular recognition of proteins/antigens by immunoglobulins. The combination of surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) with such "immuno"-techniques to immuno-SERS (iSERS) is the central topic of this review, which is focused on colloidal SERS nanotags, i.e., molecularly functionalised noble metal nanoparticles conjugated to antibodies, for their use in protein assays and ex vivo imaging. After contrasting the fundamental differences between label-free SERS and iSERS, including a balanced description of the advantages and drawbacks of the latter, we describe the usual workflow of iSERS experiments. Milestones in the development of the iSERS technology are summarised from a historical perspective. By highlighting selected examples from the literature, we illustrate the conceptual progress that has been achieved in the fields of iSERS-based protein assays and ex vivo imaging. Finally, we attempt to predict what is necessary to fully exploit the transformative potential of the iSERS technology by stimulating the transition from research in academic labs into applications for the benefit of our society.

Plasmonic Annular Nanotrenches with 1 nm Nanogaps for Detection of SARS-CoV-2 Using SERS-Based Immunoassay

This study represents the synthesis of a novel class of nanoparticles denoted as annular Au nanotrenches (AANTs). AANTs are engineered to possess embedded, narrow circular nanogaps with dimensions of approximately 1 nm, facilitating near-field focusing for detection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) via a surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS)-based immunoassay. Notably, AANTs exhibited an exceedingly low limit of detection (LOD) of 1 fg/mL for SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoproteins, surpassing the commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) by 6 orders of magnitude (1 ng/mL from ELISA). To assess the real-world applicability, a study was conducted on 50 clinical samples using an SERS-based immunoassay with AANTs. The results revealed a sensitivity of 96% and a selectivity of 100%, demonstrating the significantly enhanced sensing capabilities of the proposed approach in comparison to ELISA and commercial lateral flow assay kits.

Exclusive Core-Janus Satellite Assembly Based on Au-Ag Janus Self-Aligned Distributions with Abundant Hotspots for Ultrasensitive Detection of CA19-9

The development of surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) probes with high sensitivity and stability is imminent to improve the accuracy of cancer diagnosis. Here, an exclusive core-Janus satellite (CJS) assembly was constructed by a hierarchical assembly strategy in which the Au-Ag Janus satellite is vertically self-aligned on the core surface. In the process, a silica shell template was ingeniously employed to asymmetrically mask the presatellites for the in situ formation of the Janus structure, and a series of Janus satellites with different morphologies were developed by regulating the encapsulated area of the presatellites. The ordered-oriented arrangement of Au-Ag Janus and unique heterojunction morphology permit CJS assemblies, featuring two types of plasmonic nanogaps, including intrananocrevices for individual Janus and internanogaps between neighboring Janus, thereby multiplying the "hotspots" compared to conventional core-monotonous satellites, which contributes to superior SERS activity. As anticipated, the enhancement factor of CJS assemblies was as high as 3.8 × 108. Moreover, it is intriguing that the directional distribution and head physically immobilized by Janus provided uniform and stable SERS signals. The SERS probe based on the CJS assembly for the detection of carbohydrate antigen 19-9 resulted in an ultrahigh sensitivity with a limit of detection of 3.7 × 10-5 IU·mL-1, which is nearly 10 times lower than other SERS probes, and a wide detection range of 3 × 10-5 to 1 × 104 IU·mL-1. The CJS assembly with excellent SERS performance is promising to advance further development of the early diagnosis of pancreatic cancer.

On-chip screening of SARS-CoV-2 cDNA by LAMP-integrated rotational diffusometry

The unprecedented pandemic has raised the demand for prompt, precise, and large-scale virus detection techniques to control the transmission of contagious illnesses. In this study, a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) based on-chip platform was developed to address this challenge using rotational diffusometry and functionalized Janus particles. A recombinant plasmid containing a cDNA sequence of the SARS-CoV-2 non-structural protein 2 (nsp2) gene was employed here as a proof-of-concept for COVID-19 detection. Specifically, designed primers and the functionalized Janus particles were simultaneously loaded on a microfluidic chip to perform the LAMP reaction on a hot plate. The optimal Janus particle concentrations for diffusometric analysis were thoroughly validated, and the performance of the on-chip LAMP reaction was assessed using thermal image analysis. Utilization of the highly sensitive rotational diffusometry achieved a limit of detection of 1 pg/μL in just 10 min with a sample volume of 20 μL. Our method delivered a tenfold higher sensitivity than the conventional method by utilizing only half of its usual required time. Overall, this study proposes a potential nucleic acid (NA) amplification device to aid the rapid diagnosis of various diseases by modifying the primers for different target genes.

Combinatorial Approach to Find Nanoparticle Assemblies with Maximum Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering

Plasmonic nanoparticles exhibit unique properties that distinguish them from other nanomaterials, including vibrant visible colors, the generation of local electric fields, the production of hot charge carriers, and localized heat emission. These properties are particularly enhanced in the narrow nanogaps formed between nanostructures. Therefore, creating nanogaps in a controlled fashion is the key to achieving a fundamental understanding of plasmonic phenomena originating from the nanogaps and developing advanced nanomaterials with enhanced performance for diverse applications. One of the most effective approaches to creating nanogaps is to assemble individual nanoparticles into a clustered structure. In this study, we present a fast, facile, and highly efficient method for preparing core@satellite (CS) nanoassembly structures using gold nanoparticles of various shapes and sizes, including nanospheres, nanocubes (AuNCs), nanorods, and nanotriangular prisms. The sequential assembly of these building blocks on glass substrates allows us to obtain CS nanostructures with a 100% yield within 4 h. Using 9 different building blocks, we successfully produce 16 distinct CS nanoassemblies and systematically investigate the combinations to search for the highest Raman enhancement. We find that the surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) intensity of AuNC@AuNC CS nanoassemblies is 2 orders of magnitude larger than that of other CS nanoassemblies. Theoretical analyses reveal that the intensity and distribution of the electric field induced in the nanogaps by plasmon excitation, as well as the number of molecules in the interfacial region, collectively contribute to the unprecedentedly large SERS enhancement observed for AuNC@AuNC. This study not only presents a novel assembly method that can be extended to produce many other nanoassemblies but also identifies a highly promising SERS material for sensing and diagnostics through a systematic search process.

Analysis and experimental assessment of an optimized SERS substrate used to detect thiabendazole in apples with high sensitivity

Pesticides that linger in the environment and ecosystems for an extended period can cause severe and dangerous health problems in humans. To detect pesticides in foods, the development of high-sensitivity and quick screening technologies was required. This research investigated the performance of Au@Ag NPs with varying thicknesses of the silver shell for detecting trace quantities of thiabendazole (TBZ) in apples using surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS). The Au@Ag NPs were synthesized by coating 32 nm gold seeds with different thicknesses of silver shell ranging from 2.4 to 8.7 nm, achieved by adjusting the incorporation of AgNO3 and ascorbic acid. The optimized Au@Ag NPs with a 7.3 nm silver shell demonstrated outstanding SERS activity, high sensitivity, and a detection limit of 0.05 μg/mL for TBZ. The R2 values, representing the goodness of fit, were found to be 0.990 and 0.986 for standard and real TBZ samples, respectively, indicating a strong correlation between the measured signal and the TBZ concentration. The recovery analysis showed a reliable and accurate detection capability (96 to 105%), suggesting good reliability and accuracy of the SERS-based detection using the optimal Au@Ag NPs. Overall, this research highlights the potential of SERS with optimal Au@Ag NPs for rapid and effective monitoring of pesticides in the food industry.

Core-Satellite Nanoassemblies as SPR/SERS Dual-Mode Plasmonic Sensors for Sensitively Detecting Ractopamine in Complex Media

Highly sensitive and reliable detection of β-adrenergic agonists is especially necessary due to the illegal abuse of growth-promoting feed additives. Here, we develop a novel surface plasmon resonance/surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SPR/SERS) dual-mode plasmonic sensor based on core-satellite nanoassemblies for the highly sensitive and reliable detection of ractopamine (RAC). The addition of RAC results in the decomposition of core-satellite nanoassemblies and consequently changes the Rayleigh scattering color of dark-field microscopy (DFM) images and the Raman scattering intensity of SERS spectra. The excellent sensitivity, specificity, and uniformity of this strategy were confirmed by detecting RAC in various complex media in the farm-to-table chain, and the limit of detection (LOD) was 0.03 ng/mL in an aqueous solution. In particular, the convenient access to livestock sewage not only ensures animal welfare but also provides great convenience for the market regulation of β-agonists. The success of our on-site strategy only with a portable Raman device promises great application prospects for β-agonist detection.

Mode-Selective Plasmon Coupling between Au Nanorods and Au Nanospheres

Plasmons play a central role in the properties of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). Plasmons in a AuNP are influenced by neighboring ones, resulting in hybridized bonding dipole modes and red-shifted resonance peaks in the extinction spectra. Previous studies have mainly focused on plasmon coupling among spherical AuNPs (AuNSs). Here, we explore plasmonic interactions between AuNSs and anisotropic gold nanorods (AuNRs), which have longitudinal (LO) and transverse (TR) plasmon modes. We successfully assemble AuNSs around AuNRs ("AuNR@AuNS"), observing shifts in both the LO and TR modes in the extinction spectra due to directional coupling. Selectively binding AuNSs to the ends of AuNRs ("AuNR═AuNS") leads to predominant plasmon coupling along the LO direction. Our simulation studies reveal that exclusive LO or TR coupling occurs only when AuNSs attach to the center of either the end or the side of AuNRs. This study provides a valuable guideline for selectively exciting plasmons in desired nanogaps when multiple nanogaps are present.

A strategy to enhance SERS detection sensitivity through the use of SiO2 beads in a 1536-well plate

The development of rapid and accurate assays is crucial to prevent the rapid spread of highly contagious respiratory infections such as coronavirus (COVID-19). Here, we developed a surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS)-enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method that allows for the screening of multiple patient samples with high sensitivity on a 1536-well plate. As the well number on the ELISA well plate increases from 96 to 1536, the throughput of the assay increases but the sensitivity decreases due to the low number of biomarkers and the increase in non-specific binding species. To address this problem, silica (SiO2) beads were used to increase the surface-to-volume ratio and the loading density of biomarkers, thereby enhancing sensitivity. Using a three-dimensional gold nanoparticle (AuNP)@SiO2 SERS assay platform on a 1536-well plate, an immunoassay for the nucleocapsid protein biomarker of SARS-CoV-2 was performed and the limit of detection (LoD) decreased from 273 to 7.83 PFU/mL compared to using a two-dimensional assay platform with AuNPs. The proposed AuNPs@SiO2 SERS immunoassay (SERS-IA) platform is expected to dramatically decrease the false-negative diagnostic rate of the currently used lateral flow assay (LFA) or ELISA by enabling the positive diagnosis of patients with low virus concentrations.

Highly Uniform Self-Assembly of Gold Nanoparticles by Butanol-Induced Dehydration and Its SERS Applications in SARS-CoV-2 Detection

We report the development of a reproducible and highly sensitive surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) substrate using a butanol-induced self-assembly of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and its application as a rapid diagnostic platform for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The butanol-induced self-assembly process was used to generate a uniform assembly of AuNPs, with multiple hotspots, to achieve high reproducibility. When an aqueous droplet containing AuNPs and target DNAs was dropped onto a butanol droplet, butanol-induced dehydration occurred, enriching the target DNAs around the AuNPs and increasing the loading density of the DNAs on the AuNP surface. The SERS substrate was evaluated by using Raman spectroscopy, which showed strong electromagnetic enhancement of the Raman signals. The substrate was then tested for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 using SERS, and a very low limit of detection (LoD) of 3.1 × 10-15 M was obtained. This provides sufficient sensitivity for the SARS-CoV-2 screening assay, and the diagnostic time is significantly reduced as no thermocycling steps are required. This study demonstrates a method for the butanol-induced self-assembly of AuNPs and its application as a highly sensitive and reproducible SERS substrate for the rapid detection of SARS-CoV-2. The results suggest the potential of this approach for developing rapid diagnostic platforms for other biomolecules and infectious diseases.

Updates on the Biofunctionalization of Gold Nanoparticles for the Rapid and Sensitive Multiplatform Diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 Virus and Its Proteins: From Computational Models to Validation in Human Samples

Since the outbreak of the pandemic respiratory virus SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19), academic communities and governments/private companies have used several detection techniques based on gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). In this emergency context, colloidal AuNPs are highly valuable easy-to-synthesize biocompatible materials that can be used for different functionalization strategies and rapid viral immunodiagnosis. In this review, the latest multidisciplinary developments in the bioconjugation of AuNPs for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 virus and its proteins in (spiked) real samples are discussed for the first time, with reference to the optimal parameters provided by three approaches: one theoretical, via computational prediction, and two experimental, using dry and wet chemistry based on single/multistep protocols. Overall, to achieve high specificity and low detection limits for the target viral biomolecules, optimal running buffers for bioreagent dilutions and nanostructure washes should be validated before conducting optical, electrochemical, and acoustic biosensing investigations. Indeed, there is plenty of room for improvement in using gold nanomaterials as stable platforms for ultrasensitive and simultaneous "in vitro" detection by the untrained public of the whole SARS-CoV-2 virus, its proteins, and specific developed IgA/IgM/IgG antibodies (Ab) in bodily fluids. Hence, the lateral flow assay (LFA) approach is a quick and judicious solution to combating the pandemic. In this context, the author classifies LFAs according to four generations to guide readers in the future development of multifunctional biosensing platforms. Undoubtedly, the LFA kit market will continue to improve, adapting researchers' multidetection platforms for smartphones with easy-to-analyze results, and establishing user-friendly tools for more effective preventive and medical treatments.